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I  EPITOME 

OP 

ancie:n^t,  medieval,  akd 
modee:n^  history 

■St.  Michaers  Oollegb 
Scholastic^  Libvary 

GAEL  PLOETZ 

TRANSLATED  AND  EKIiABGED  BT 

WILLIAM   H.   TILLINGHAST 
WITH  ADDITIONS  COVERING  RECENT  EVENTS 


BOSTON,  NEW  YORK  AND  CHICAGO 
HOUGHTON,  MIFFLIN  AND  COMPANY 
m)t  Ritcr?itJe  pxm,  Camt>citi0e 


COPYRIGHT   1883  AND   1905  BY  WILLIAM   HOPKINS  TILLINGHAST 


ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


TWENTY   FIFTH   IMPRESSION 


PREFACE   TO   THE   REVISED   EDITION. 


In  the  present  edition  the  record  of  events  is  brought  down  from 
the  close  of  1882,  where  it  ceased  in  the  original  publication  (1884), 
to  the  close  of  1903.  This  continuation  is  mainly  the  work  of  Mr. 
David  M.  Matteson,  to  whom  the  editor  is  likewise  indebted  for  the 
general  supervision  of  the  new  issue.  The  genealogical  tables  have 
been  brought  down  to  date,  and  cross  references  inserted  to  connect 
the  appendix  with  the  sections  of  the  earlier  work.  The  index  to  the 
new  material  is  at  the  end  of  the  original  one. 

The  editor  heartily  thanks  those  readers  who  have  notified  him  of 
errors  in  the  book.  All  discovered  errors  have  now  been  corrected, 
and  it  is  hoped  that  any  which  have  escaped  detection  will  be  made 
known  by  whoever  may  find  them. 

June,  1905. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 


t*^^  Sections  marked  with  an  *  have  been  added  by  the  translator ;  those  marked  with 
a  t  have  been  considerably  enlarged  or  changed  by  the  translator. 

PAGB 

Introduction.  ix. 

t  Divisions  of  universal  history 1 

I.  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

A.  EASTERN  PEOPLES. 
HAMfric. 

1-  Egyptians •••2 

Semitic. 

2.  Jews  (Hebrews,  Israelites)       ....               .       .  7 

3.  Babylonians  and  Assyrians 12 

4.  Fhcenicians  and  Carthaginians 16 

5.  Ijydians.    *  Phrygians 20 

Aryan. 

t  6.  Indians 22 

7.  Bactrians,  Medes,  Persians      .......  24 

Turanian. 

*  8.  Parthiano 29 

*  9.  Chinese 30 

*  10.  Japanese 32 

B.  WESTERN  PEOPLES. 
Aryans. 

*  1.  Celts 34 

a.  CJontinental  Celts.    Gauls 34 

b.  Celts  of  the  British  Isles 36 

Britain 36 

Ireland 38 

2.  Grecian  history 39 

Geographical  survej'^  of  ancient  Greece 39 

*  Religion  of  the  Greeks 41 

First  Period  (x— 1104).    Mythical  Period          ....  43 
Second  Period  (1104-500).    To  the  beginning  of  the  Persian 

Wars 47 

Third  Period  (500-338).    To  the  battle  of  Chgeronea          .        .  56 
Fourth  Period  (338-146).    Graeco  -  Macedonian    or  Hellenistic 

Period 73 


iv  Table  of  Contents. 

PAOB 

3.  Boxnan  history    . 81 

Geographical  survey  of  ancient  Italy   ...        .        .        .  81 

*  Religion  of  the  ancient  Romans 84 

Ethnographical  sketch  of  Italy 85 

First  Period  (x— 510).     Mythical  epoch  of  the  kings         .        .  87 

Second  Period  (510-264).    To  the  beginning  of  the  Punic  Wars  .  93 

Third  Period  (264-146).  Epoch  of  the  Punic  Wars  .  .  109 
Fourth  Period  (146-31).  Epoch  of  the  Civil  Wars  .  .  .123 
Fifth  Period  (31  b.  C.-476  a.  d.).    The  Roman  emperors  to  the 

fall  of  the  Western  Empire 147 

*  4.  Teutons 162 

*  5.  Slavs  and  liithuanians 16S 

n.   MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

FIRST  PERIOD.    (375-843.) 

1.  Migrations  of  the  Northern  Tribes 170 

*  2.  Teutonic  kingdoms  in  Britain  (449-828)         ....  17© 

3.  The  Franks  under  the  Merovingians         .....'  l&l 

4.  Mohammed  and  the  Caliphate 182 

5.  The  Franks  under  the  Carolingians 183 

*  6.  New  Persian  empire  of  the  Sassanidae 187 

SECOND  PERIOD.    (843-1096.) 

1.  Italy  and  Germany  (Carolingian,  Saxon,  Franconian  or  Salian em- 
perors)        19$ 

t  2.  France  (Carolingians  and  early  Capetians) 201 

t  3.  England  (West  Saxon  kings) 203 

*  4.  The  North.    Denmark 207 

Sweden,  Norway 208 

5.  Spanish  Peninsula 209 

6.  The  East.    Eastern   Empire 21  (» 

*  India  . 210 

*  China 211 

*  Japan 212 

THIRD  PERIOD.    (1096-1270.) 

1.  Crusades 213 

2.  Germany  and  Italy 218 

t  3.  France 226 

t  4.  England 229 

*  5.  The  North.    Denmark 235 

Sweden 237 

Norway       ........>  238 

6.  Spanish  Peninsula 240 

7.  The  Bast.    Eastern  Empire.    The  Mongols 240 

»  India.    ♦  China 241 

«  Japan 242 


Table  of  Contents,  v 

PAGB 

FOURTH  PERIOD.    (1270-1492.) 

1.  Germany  to  Maximilian  1 244 

Origin  of  the  Swiss  Confederacy 245 

Leagues  of  the  cities 249 

t  2.  Prance  to  Charles  Vm 254 

3.  Italy 262 

t  4.  England  to  Henry  VH 263 

5.  Spanish  Peninsula 275 

6.  The  North  and  East.     Scandinavia.    Russia        .        .        .        .276 

Poland,  Prussia,  Hungary     .        .        .  277 

Turks,  Mongols,  Eastern  Empire  )  __„ 

*  China.    *  Japan                             )  '        '  ^'^ 

m.   MODERN   HISTORY. 

FIRST  PERIOD.    (1492-1648.) 

1.  Inventions,  discoveries,  and  colonies 279 

*  2.  America.    Discovery 280 

a.  English  colonies  :  South  Virginia 291 

Plymouth  Company       ....  293 

b.  Dutch  colonies 298 

c.  Swedish  colonies .  298 

d.  New  France  and  the  Arctic  region 299 

3.  Germany  to  the  Thirty  Years*  War.    Beformation    .        .  306 

4.  Thirty  Years*  War 308 

1.  Bohemian  Period,  1618-1623 308 

2.  Danish            "      1625-1629 310 

3.  Swedish          '*      1630-1635 311 

4.  French            "      1635-1648 314 

t  5.  Prance 318 

6.  Italy 326 

7.  Spanish  Peninsula  and  the  Netherlands       ....  328 

t  The  Netherlands 328 

»  8.  England  and  Scotland 333 

9.  The  North  and  East 351 

Sweden,  Denmark  and  Norway,  Poland,  Russia      .        ,        .  352 

Turks.    *  India 353 

»  China 354 

*  Japan            355 

SECOND  PERIOD.    (1648-1789.) 

A.  THE  SECOND  HALF  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

*  1.  America.    British,  Dutch,  and  Swedish  colonies          .        .        .  357 

French  settlements  and  discoveries          ....  363 

t  2.  Prance  under  Louis  XIV 365 

3.  Germany  under  Leopold  1 371 

4.  The  North  and  East.    Sweden 373 

Denmark,  Poland,  Russia  ....  374 


vi  TaUe  of  Contents. 

PAGS 

*  5.  England .  375 

*  6.  India 389 

*  7.  China •        .  390 

B.   THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY  TO  THE  FRENCH   REVOLUTION. 

1.  The 'War  of  the  Spanish  Succession 390 

2.  The  Northern  War 394 

3.  Germany  to  the  Revolution  of  1789 397 

4.  The  Worth.    Denmark  (Norway),  Sweden 409 

Russia,  Poland 410 

5.  Spain  and  Portugal 414 

6.  Italy.     Savoy,  Genoa,  Venice 415 

(Tuscan}',  Papal  States)  Two  Sicilies         ....  416 

*  7.  America.    British  colonies 417 

War  of  Independence 426 

*  8.  Great  Britain 433 

*  9.  The  East.    India 442 

The  British  in  India 443 

China 444 

Japan 445 

t  10.  France  to  the  Be  volution  Of  1789           445 

THIRD  PERIOD.    (1789-1815.) 

First  French  Bevolution  and  Napoleonic  Wars  .       .       .  447 

Causes  of  the  Revolution 448 

Constituent  assembly 449 

Legislative  assembly 451 

War  of  the  First  Coalition.    National  Convention    .        .        .  452 

Directory 457 

War  of  the  Second  Coalition 460 

The  Consulate 461 

First  French  Empire 465 

War  of  the  Third  Coalition 467 

(Fourth)  War  with  Prussia  and  Russia 468 

Peninsula  War 471 

(Fifth)  War  with  Austria 471 

(Sixth)  War  with  Russia 474 

The  War  of  Liberation 475 

Congress  of  Vienna 482 

The  Hundred  Days  (War  of  1815^ 483 

FOURTH  PERIOD.    (1815— x.) 
1.  Inventiona.  Steam  Engines.   Steam  Navigation.  Railroads.   Tele- 
graph   485 

I     2.  Continental  Europe 487 

War  of  Grecian  Independence      ..*....  488 

Revolution  in  Belgium 489 

Revolution  in  Poland 490 

Bevolt  of  Mehemet  All 491 


Table  of  Contents.  vii 

PAGE 

Civil  war  in  Switzerland 492 

Confusion  in  Germany;  attempts  at  union     ....  492 

Revolt  of  the  Hungarians 494 

Crimean  War 499 

Kingdom  of  Italy 503 

War  of  Austria  and  Prussia  with  Denmark     ....  505 

Austro-Prussian  War 507 

Austro-Italian  War 510 

North  German  Confederation      .......  511 

Franco-German  War 513 

German  Empire 519 

Turco-Russian  War 522 

Congress  of  Berlin 524 

t  3.  Prance  (1815-1882) 526 

July  Revolution  of  1830 529 

February  Revolution  of  1848.    Second  Republic    ...  530 

Second  Empire '     .        .  531 

Third  Republic 532 

*  4.  Great  Britain  1(1783-1882) 535 

The  British  in  India  (1785-1836) 541 

Great  Britain  (1837-1882) 542 

The  British  in  India  (1836-1882) 546 

*  5.  The  United  States  of  America  1(1789-1883)        .        .        .        .547 

War  of  1812 551 

War  with  Mexico 554 

The  Civil  War 557 

*  6.  China  (1796-1882) 560 

*  7.  Japan  (1787-1882) 562 

Restoration  of  the  Mikado 563 

APPENDIX.     (1883-x.) 

*  8.  Great  Britain  2  (1883— x)    ........  565 

South  African  War     .        .        .        ,        .    "     .        ,        .        .  570 

«  9.  Continental  Europe  2  (1883— x)         ......  573 

Armenian  Massacres 579 

Creton  Revolt  and  Turco-Greek  War 581 

Dreyfus  Affair 582 

*  10.  United  States  2  (1883— x) 586 

Spanish  War 590 

Philippine  Insurrection 592 

»  11.  Asia 2  (1883-x) 594 

Chinese-Japanese  War 595 

Boxer  Rising 597 

Russo-Japanese  Crisis 599 

*  Index 601 

1  Contributed  by  Edward  Channing,  Ph.  D. 
•  Contributed  in  part  by  D.  M.  Matteson. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Prof.  Dr.  Carl  Ploetz,  well  known  in  Germany  as  a  veteran 
teacher,  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  educational  works  having  a  high 
reputation,  among  which  none  has  better  approved  its  usefulness  than 
the  "  Epitome  of  Universal  History."  ^  ^e  admitted  excellence  of 
the  book  renders  an  apology  for  its  translation  unnecessary,  but  an 
extract  from  the  author's  preface  respecting  the  nature  and  purpose 
of  the  work  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

"The  present  'Epitome,'  which  now  appears  in  a  seventh  edition,  enlarged 
and  improved,  is  intended,  in  the  first  place,  for  use  by  the  upper  classes  in 
higher  educational  institutions,  as  a  guide  or  handbook  m  the  historical  class- 
room. The  handy  arrangement  of  the  book  and  the  elaborate  index  are  in- 
tended to  adapt  it  for  private  use,  and  to  facilitate  rapid  acquisition  of  informa- 
tion concerning  historical  matters  which  have,  for  the  moment,  escaped  the 
memory. 

"  I  have  endeavored  to  give  everywhere  the  assured  results  of  recent  histor- 
ical investigation,  adding,  as  far  as  possible,  references  to  my  authorities. 

"  The  exposition  of  ancient  history  is  based  upon  the  works  of  Duncker, 
Curtius,  Mommsen,  and  Peter. 

"Mediaeval  history,  which  was  treated  somewhat  too  briefly  in  the  earlier 
editions,  has  been  made  proportionately  full  since  the  fourth,  and  has  been, 
moreover,  enlarged,  as  has  modern  history,  by  the  addition  of  a  number  of 
genealogical  tables. 

"In  modem  history  the  treaties  of  peace  have  been  brought  into  especial 
prominence,  and  the  principal  conditions  of  the  great  treaties,  through  which 
alone  one  can  get  an  insight  into  the  historical  formation  of  the  present  system 
of  European  states,  have  been  stated  with  all  possible  accuracy. 

"  Recent  history  has  been  brought  down  to  the  present  day.  The  purpose 
and  the  compass  of  the  book  alike  permitted  nothing  more  than  a  compressed 
narrative  of  facts,  as  far  as  possible,  free  from  the  expression  of  personal  opin- 
ion. This  limitation  of  itself  excludes  the  possibility  of  offending,  whether  in  a 
religious  or  a  political  sense. 

"  All  are  probably  now  agreed  that  it  is  unadvisable  for  scholars  to  write  out 
the  lecture  of  the  instructor  in  full,  which,  however,  should  not  prevent  them 
from  taking  notes  here  and  there.  No  one  denies  the  necessity  of  a  guide  as  a 
basis  for  instruction ;  but  widely  differing  ideas  prevail  concerning  the  arrange- 
ment and  extent  of  such  a  work. 

"  The  author  of  this  'Epitome,'  who  was  for  a  number  of  years  historical  in- 
structor of  the  first  and  second  classes  in  the  French  Gymnasium  at  Berlin, 
holds  the  opinion  that  even  the  best  handbook  can  in  no  way  take  the  place  of 
an  animated  lecture,  and  that  any  guide  which  gives  a  connected  narrative  in 

1  Auszug  aus  der  alten,  mittleren  und  neueren  Geschichte  von  Elarl  Ploetz. 
Siebente  verbesserte  und  stark  vermehrte  Auflage,  Berlin.  A.  G.  Ploetz,  1880. 
The  preparation  of  this  edition  was  confided  to  Prof.  Dr.  O.  Meltzer,  author  of 
Geschichte  der  Karthager,  i.  1880. 


X  Introdtiction. 

some  detail  necessarily  detracts  from  the  value  of  the  teacher's  lecture,  if  in  th« 
hands  of  the  pupils  in  the  class-room. 

"  I  am  persuaded  that  such  a  work  should  place  before  the  pupil  facts  only,  in 
the  wider  sense  of  the  word,  and  these  grouped  in  the  most  comprehensive  man- 
ner. The  task  of  animating  these  facts  by  oral  exposition  ought  to  be  left  to 
the  instructor." 

The  translator  has  enlarged  the  book  in  no  small  degree,  with  the 
hope  of  increasing  its  general  usefulness,  and  of  giving  it  especial 
value  in  this  country. 

Under  ancient  history  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  bring  the 
ethnographical  relations  of  the  early  peoples  into  prominence  ;  but 
believing  that  the  uncertainty  of  our  knowledge  in  this  respect  can 
hardly  be  dwelt  upon  too  strongly,  the  translator  has  tried  to  speak 
guardedly.  Even  the  Indo-European  family  is  far  from  being  satis- 
factorily understood;  the  details  of  the  relationship  of  its  constituent 
groups  are  not  clear  ;  the  theory  of  a  primitive  Asiatic  home  and  a 
wave-like  series  of  westward  migrations  is  but  one,  though  perhaps  the 
best,  among  many  speculations.  Recent  text-books  have  delighted  us 
with  minutely  ramified  tables  of  Indo-European  relationships,  show- 
ing, with  close  approximation,  when  each  group  left  the  parent  stock, 
each  tribe  the  common  group  ;  this,  though  harmless  as  speculation, 
is  dangerous  if  taken  for  knowledge.^ 

The  speculations  in  regard  to  the  early  inhabitants  of  the  British 
Isles  should  be  received  with  like  caution.  Their  provisional  accept- 
ance, however,  is  so  useful  as  to  justify  their  insertion. 

The  mythical  history  of  England,  Ireland,  and  Scandinavia  has 
been  deemed  worthy  to  stand  beside  that  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The 
undoubted  historical  value  of  many  of  these  traditions  and  the  part 
which  they  play  in  general  literature  will  explain  the  presence  of 
even  the  distinctly  fabulous  tales.  The  distinction  between  myth,  a 
theoretical  explanation  of  myths,  and  tolerably  trustworthy  history 
has  been  kept  constantly  in  view. 

The  history  of  certain  countries,  as  China,  Japan,  Parthia  and  Per- 
sia imder  the  Sassanidae,  which  the  stricter  limits  of  the  German 
work  had  caused  the  author  to  omit,  has  been  added  ;  in  the  cases  of 
India,  the  Scandinavian  monarchies  before  1387,  and  France,  the 
meagre  account  in  the  original  has  undergone  considerable  amplifica- 
tion. 

The  greatest  changes,  however,  will  be  found  in  the  history  of  Eng- 

1  "We  must  content  ourselves,  for  the  present,  with  the  recognition  of  a 
fundamental  primitive  community  of  Indo-European  languages,  and  refrain 
from  dividing  these  languages  into  groups  (except  in  the  case  of  the  Indo-Ira- 
nian  tongues).  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  unity  of  the  Greeks  and  Italians,  so 
often  taken  for  granted.  "  It  cannot  be  said  that  this  unity  did  not  once  exist, 
but  neither  can  it  be  asserted  that  its  existence  is  demonstrable.  Whether  or 
not  the  future  Avill  succeed  in  reaching  more  certain  results  remains  to  be  seen  ; 
until  such  results  are  reached  historians  will  do  well  to  refrain  from  making  use 
of  such  groups  of  languages  and  of  tribes  as  the  Graeco-Italian  and  the  Slavo-Ger- 
man."  (B.  Delbriick,  Einleitung  in  dns  Sprachstudium^  Leipzig,  Breitkopf 
&  Hartel,  1880.)  Not  all  philologists  will  agree  upon  this  point, — upon  what 
point  do  all  philologists  agree  ?  — and  the  archaeologists  have  something  to  say 
upon  the  matter;  the  words  just  quoted  are,  nevertheless,  worthy  of  coneid- 
eration. 


Introduction.  xi 

land  and  in  that  of  America,  which  have  been  rewritten  from  the 
beginning  with  a  fulhiess  of  detail  proportional  to  that  observed  by 
the  original  in  the  history  of  Germany. 

In  the  additions  notlung  more  than  a  compilation  from  reliable, 
but  easily  accessible,  sources  has  been  attempted.  A  few  notes  have 
been  inserted  and  a  few  dates  and  facts  interpolated  in  the  text  of  the 
original,  but  these  changes  have  been  duly  attributed  to  the  transla- 
tor, either  directly  or  by  the  use  of  brackets,  where  they  seemed  of 
sufficient  importance. 

Absolute  accuracy  cannot  be  looked  for  in  a  work  dealing  with  so 
vast  a  number  of  dates  and  covering  so  wide  a  range  in  time  ;  the 
translator,  however,  in  the  sections  for  which  he  is  responsible,  has 
endeavored  to  verify  each  date  by  reference  to  independent  authori- 
ties. He  will  be  grateful  to  all  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  inform 
him  of  errors  that  have  escaped  his  notice.  That  the  proportion  ob- 
served in  the  space  allotted  to  different  countries  and  epochs  is  open 
to  criticism,  the  translator  is  well  aware  ;  the  fault  is  due  in  part  to 
the  plan  adopted  by  him  of  sending  the  earlier  portions  of  the  book 
to  press  before  the  later  were  finished,  in  the  vain  hope  of  hastening 
its  completion. 

Except  in  the  case  of  the  Austro-Prussian  and  Franco-Prussian 
wars,  where  much  of  the  minute  descriptive  detail  has  been  omitted, 
no  attempt  has  been  made  to  condense  the  original. 

Various  circumstances  have  delayed  the  appearance  of  the  book 
much  beyond  the  time  for  which  it  was  announced  ;  that  it  is  at  last 
ready  is  due  to  the  kindness  of  Dr.  Edward  C  banning,  of  Harvard 
College,  who  took  upon  himself  the  preparation  of  those  sections 
which  contain  the  history  of  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  from 
1784  to  1883,  and  that  of  the  United  States  from  1789  to  1883.  The 
thanks  of  the  translator  are  also  due  to  Professor  H.  W.  Torrey,  of 
Harvard  College,  for  the  loan  of  material  of  which  free  use  has  been 
made  for  English  history  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries, 
and  for  French  history  in  the  nineteenth  century  ;  and  to  Mr.  Justin 
Winsor,  Librarian  of  the  University,  for  the  free  use  of  books. 

To  Dr.  R.  H.  Labberton  and  to  Messrs.  E.  Claxton  &  Co.  of  Phila- 
delphia, the  translator  is  indebted  for  courteous  permission  to  use 
certain  genealogical  tables  in  Dr.  Labberton's  exceedingly  useful 
«  Outlines  of  History."  i 

The  distinguishing  feature  of  the  "  Epitome  "  is  the  arrangement 
whereby  a  brief  connected  narrative  is  accompanied  by  a  clear,  well- 
graduated  chronology  which  emphasizes  the  sequence  of  events  with- 
out breaking  up  the  story  or  fatiguing  the  mind.  An  attempt  has 
been  made,  by  the  use  of  italics  and  two  sizes  of  black  type,  to  mark 
and  distinguish  events  according  to  their  relative  importance,  and 
also  to  relieve  the  page  ;  while,  with  the  latter  object  in  view,  the 
use  of  capitals  has  been  as  far  as  possible  dispensed  with,  although 
the  manner  of  printing  the  book  has  prevented  consistency  in  this 

1  Labbertcn,  R.  H.,  Outlines  of  History,  with  original  tables,  chronological, 
genealogical,  and  literarv.  Thirteenth  edition.  Philadelphia,  E.  Claxton  & 
Co.,  1883.  Text  and  Historical  Atlas.  The  tables  used  are  IL,  III.,  XVI., 
which  appear  on  pages  265,  256,  332,  of  the  present  work. 


xii  Introduction. 

respect.  Especial  care  has  been  devoted  to  the  index,  which  has  been 
made  very  full,  in  order  that  the  book  might  serve  as  a  historical 
dictionary,  as  well  as  a  chronology. 


UNIVERSAL  HISTORY. 


A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  ITS  PRINCIPAL  DIVISIONS. 

X  B.  c.  —  375  A.  D.  I.  Ancient  history,  from  the  begin- 
ning of  historical  information  to  the  commence- 
ment of  the  migrations  of  the  Teutonic  tribes. 

375  — 1492.     II.  Mediaeval  history,  from  the  commence- 
ment of  the  migrations  of  the  Teutonic  tribes  to 
the  discovery  of  America. 
1492  —  X.     Ill-  Modern  history,  from  the  discovery  of 
America  to  the  present  time. 


Ancient  history,  treated  ethnographically,  falls  into  two  great  divi- 
sions : 

A.  Eastern  peoples :  Egyptians  (Hamitic) ;  Jews,  Babylonians,  As- 

syrians, Phcenicians,  Lydians  (Semitic) ;  Hindus,  Bac- 
trians,  Medes,  Persians  (Aryan) ;  Parthians,  Chinese, 
Japanese  (Turanian?). 

B.  "Western  Peoples:  Celts,  Britons,  Greeks,  Romans,  Teutons 

(Aryan). 

Mediaeval  history  can  be  divided  into  four  chronological  periods: 
375-843.     1.  From  the  commencement  of  the  migrations  of  the 
Teutonic  Tribes  to  the  Treaty  of  Verdun. 
843-1096.     2.  From  the  Treaty  of  Verdun  to  the  beginning  of  the 

Crusades. 
1096-1270.     3.  The  epoch  of  the  Crusades. 

1270-1492.    4.  From  the  end  of  the  Crusades  to  the  discovery  of 
America. 

Modem  history  can  also  be  divided  into  four  periods: 

1492-1648.     1.  From  the  discovery  of  America  to  the  Peace  of 

Westphalia. 
1648-1789.     2.  From  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  the  outbreak  of 

the  first  French  Revolution. 
1789-1815.     3.  From  the  outbreak  of  the  first  French  Revolution 

to  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 
1815-x.  4.  From  the  Congress  of  Vienna  to  the  present  time. 

1 


Ancient  History.  b.  c. 


I.    ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


A.    EASTERN  PEOPLES. 

§  1.    EGYPTIANS.    Hamites. 

Geography :  Egypt  ^  (Kem,  i.  e.  "  black  earth  "  in  old  Egyptian) 
is  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  which  extends  between  two  chains  of  low 
hiils  for  550  miles,  with  a  breadth,  above  the  Delta,  of  but  a  few  miles. 
It  is  divided  into  Upper  Egypt  (Philce,  Elephantine,  Thebes  or  Dios- 
polis,  called  by  Homer  iKar6fjL-Tv\os,  the  "  hundred  gated,"  a  designa- 
tion which  must  refer  to  the  entrances  of  temples  and  palaces,  since 
the  city  had  neither  walls  nor  gates)  and  Lo-wer  Egypt  (Memphis; 
in  the  Delta,  Tanis,  Bubastis,  Naucrdtis,  Sais ;  west  of  the  Delta, 
Canopus,  now  Aboukir;  on  the  east,  Pelusium;  the  latter  cities  stand- 
ing on  what  were,  in  ancient  times,  the  largest  mouths  of  the  Nile). 
These  divisions  were  originally,  in  all  probability,  independent  coun- 
tries. They  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  separate  principali- 
ties which  became  numerous  at  a  later  time.  This  division  was  com- 
memorated in  the  royal  title  of  the  kings  of  the  united  countries, 
"  lords  of  the  upper  and  lower  country,"  "  lords  of  the  two 
crow^ns." 

Religion :  Worship  of  personified  forces  of  Nature  and  symbolical 
animal  worship.  In  Memphis  especial  reverence  paid  to  Ptah,  the 
highest  of  the  gods,  the  first  creator  ;  in  his  temple  stood  the  sacred 
bull  Apis  (Egypt.  Api),  also  closely  connected  with  Osiris.  Ra,^  wor- 
shipped particularly  in  On  or  Heliopolis,  represented  the  transmitting 
and  preserving  power  of  the  godhead  embodied  in  the  sun.  Khem, 
was  the  god  of  generation  and  growth.  Reverence  was  also  paid  to 
the  goddess  Ne'ith,  whose  worship  at  Sais  was  considered  by  the  Greeks 
to  be  identical  with  that  of  Athena,  to  the  goddess  Bast  or  Pacht  (at 
Bubastis),  and  to  the  goddess  of  Buto,  on  one  of  the  mouths  of  the 
Nile. 

At  Thebes,  cult  of  Ammon  (Amun),  the  god  of  heaven,  later  united 
with  Ra  to  form  a  single  divinity.  In  Upper  Egypt  worship  was  paid 
to  Mentu,  the  rising  sun;  Turn  or  Atmu,  the  setting  sun;  Chnum  or 
Kneph,  god  of  the  overflow,  always  represented  with  a  ram's  head  and 
double  horns,  and  later  becoming  miited  with  Ammon  to  form  one 
divinity;  and  to  the  goddess  Mut  (i.  e.  "mother").  The  educated 
classes  recognized  the  various  gods  as  personified  attributes  of  the 
one  Divinity. 

1  See  Kiepert,  Atlas  Antiquus,  Tab.  III. 

2  According;  to  Rosellini  and  Lopsius  the  title  of  Pharaoh  is  derived  from 
this  name,  and  means  Son  of  the  Sun.  Ebers  and  Brugsch  derive  it  from 
Pe-ra(o),  the  "  great  house."     (Compare  "  Sublime  Porte.") 


B.  C.  Egyptians.  3 

Myth  of  OsHris,  the  creative  force  in  Nature,  who  was  killed  and 
thrown  into  the  sea  by  Set  (Typhon),  the  destructive  force  in  Nature 
(especially  drought) ;  sought  after  by  his  sorrowing  consort  Isis  (the 
earth),  he  was  avenged  by  their  son  Horos,  who  slew  Set;  restored  to 
life,  Osiris  thenceforward  ruled  in  the  lower  world  (decay  and  resur- 
rection of  the  creative  force  in  nature;  immortality  of  the  soul).  Con- 
joined with  Horos,  the  goddess  Hathor,  considered  by  the  Greeks  to  be 
the  same  as  Aphrodite. 

Highly  developed  moral  code. 

Civilization :  Fertility  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile  maintained  by  the 
regular  overflow  of  the  Nile,  beginning  at  the  end  of  July  and  last- 
ing four  months. 

Hieroglyphics,  very  early  in  conjunction  with  the  hieratic,  and  after- 
wards the  demotic,  characters  (syllabic  and  phonetic  signs),  which 
represented  the  language  of  daily  life,  the  dialect  of  the  common 
people. 

Embalming  of  the  dead.     (Mummies.) 

Avoidance  of  intercourse  with  foreign  peoples  and  adoption  of 
foreign  customs.  Strict  regulation  of  the  entire  life  by  religious 
prescriptions. 

Castes :  Priests,  warriors,  agricultural  laborers,  artisans,  shepherds. 
These  castes,  however,  were  in  no  wise  absolutely  separated  from  one 
another. 

Form  of  Government:  Despotic  monarchy,  with  divine  attributes, 
also  in  possession  of  the  highest  spiritual  power.  Strong  influence  of 
the  priests,  especially  after  the  fourteenth  century,  but  they  never 
controlled  the  supreme  power.^ 

The  Pyramids  are  gigantic  sepulchres  of  the  kings.  Over  thirty 
still  exist.2  The  largest,  at  Gizeh,  was  originally  480  feet  high,  and 
still  measures  450  feet.  The  Obelisks  —  of  which  one  is  now  at 
Paris,  several  in  Rome,  one  in  London,  and  one  in  New  York  —  are 
cut  from  single  blocks  of  stone  (monoliths),  and  were  offerings  to 
the  sun-god  Ra;  the  Sphinxes  were  symbols  of  the  sun-god. 

Chronology:  The  Egyptians  filled  the  space  before  Mena,  the 
first  of  the  liistoric  line  of  kings,  by  the  assumption  of  three  dynas- 
ties of  gods,  demi-gods,  and  "the  mysterious  manes."  The  list  of 
kings  after  Mena  was  given  at  length  by  the  priest  Manetho  (about 
250  B.  c),  in  his  history  of  Egypt.  He  arranged  them  in  thirty  dy- 
nasties, a  division  which  is  still  used.  To  reconcile  the  names  and 
dates  given  by  Manetho  with  the  records  upon  the  monuments  is  a 
difficult  matter,  owing  in  part  to  the  fact  that  several  of  the  dynasties 
of  Manetho  probably  reigned  contemporaneously  in  different  parts 
of  Egypt,  that  it  was  the  custom  for  a  king  to  associate  his  son  with 
himself  during  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  and  that  the  son  after- 
wards reckoned  his  reign  from  the  date  of  such  association.  Hence 
the  systems  of  chronology,  drawn  up  by  Egyptologists,  vary  greatly. 
There  are,  in  general,  two  schools:  (1.)  The  long  chronology,  advo- 
cated on  the  continent,  wherein  the  dates  assigned  to  Mena  vary  from 

1  See  Duncker,  History  of  Antiquity,  I.  180. 

2  Lepsius  saw  traces  and  remains  of  sixty-seven  pyramids;  Brugsch  of 
Biore  than  seventy. 


4  Ancient  History.  b.  Oo 

5702  (Boeckh)  to  3623  (Bunsen).  (2.)  The  short  chronology,  advo- 
cated in  England,  wherein  the  dates  assigned  to  Mena  vary  between 
2700  and  2440.  In  the  following  pages  the  chronology  of  Lepsius 
is  followed,  with  the  exception  of  the  date  assigned  to  Mena,  wliich 
Lepsius  gives  as  3892  b.  c.  These  dates  should  be  compared  with  the 
lists  given  by  Brugsch  ^  and  by  Rawlinson.^     Before 

3000.  The  old  empire  of  the  Egyptians,  in  the  lower  val- 
ley of  the  Nile,  founded  according  to  Egyptian  tradition 
by  Mena^  (Menes).     Capital :  Memphis. 

2800-2700  (?).     The  kings  Khufu,  Khafra,  Menkaura  (according 

to  Herodotus,  Cheops,  Chephren,  Mykerinos),  the  builders  of 

the  largest  pyramids.      IVth  dynasty  (Memphis)  called  the 

"  Pyramid  dynasty." 

About  2400.    Removal  of  the  centre  of  government  of  the  empire  to 

Thebes. 

Of  the  princes  of  this  line  the  following  deserve  mention:  Amenem- 

hat  I.  (2380-2371),  who  seems  to  have  extended  the  power  of  Egypt 

up  the  Nile  and  over  a  part  of  Nubia  ;  Usurtasen  I.  (2371-2325)  who 

continued  the  conquests  of  his  predecessor,  and  erected  obelisks;  Ame- 

nemhat  II.;  Usurtasen  II.;  Usurtasen  III.;  Amenemhat  III.  (2221- 

2179)  constructed  lake  Meri-  (i.  e.  "lake  of  inundations  "),  a  large 

reservoir  for  regidating  the  water  supply  of  the  Nile,  and  built  S.  of 

this  lake  the  so-called  Labyrinth,  a  large  palace  for  ceremonial  acts 

and  sacrifices.     These  six  monarchs  belong  to  the  Xllth  dynasty  (of 

Thebes). 

About  2100.  Egypt  conquered  by  the  Hy  ksos,  or  Shepherd  Kings. 
The  Hyksos  (derived  from  Hyk,  king,  and  Schasu,  shepherds, 
contracted  into  Sos)  were  wandermg  tribes  of  Semitic  descent. 
About  1800.  Thebes  revolted  against  the  rule  of  the  Hyksos.  Native 
rulers  maintained  themselves  in  Upper  Egypt.  After  a  long 
contest  the  Shepherd  kings  were  driven  out  of  Egypt  com- 
pletely under  King  Aahmes  (Amosis),  of  Thebes  (1684-1659).^ 
Their  epoch  covers  the  Xlllth  to  XVIIth  dynasties. 

1670  —  525.  The  new  empire  (capital  at  first  Thebes), 
under  Thutmes  III.  (Thutmosis,  1591-1565 ;  XVIIIth 
dynasty)  increased  rapidly  in  power  and  extent. 

1524^1488.  Under  Thutmes  and  his  successors,  especially  Amen- 
hotep  III.  (Amenophis),  successful  expeditions  against  the 
Syrians   (Ruthen)   and  against  the  Ethiopians   in  the   south. 

1  History  of  Egypt.    Appendix.     See  also  I.  37,  and  xxxii.  note  1. 

2  History  of  Egypt,  or  Manual  of  History,  p.  61,  and  foil. 

3  The  royal  nomenclature  of  the  Egyptians  is  as  picturesquely  varied  as  their 
chronology.  I  have  given  first  some  form  of  the  true  Egyptian  name,  as  found 
on  the  monuments,  generally  that  adopted  by  Brugsch,  and  have  followed  it  by 
the  more  common  name,  as  given  by  Manetho,  Herodotus,  or  the  Jewish  Scrip- 
tures, in  parentheses.     [Trans.] 

4  Called  bvlhe  Greeks  Mcsris  (Moipos,  Herod.  I.  101),  and  erroneously  inter- 
preted as  a  roj'al  name. 

5  Duncker,  History  of  Antiquity,  I.  130,  and  foil. 


B.  c.  Egyptians.  .1 

Erection  of  magnificent  palaces  and  temples  at  Thebes. 
(Ruins  near  the  present  villages  of  Camac^  LuxoTy  and  Medi- 
net-Abu;  near  the  latter  two  sitting  colossi,  statues  of  Amen- 
hotepy  one  of  which  the  Greeks  called  the  musical  Statue  of 
Memnon.) 
1438-1388.  Similar  success  in  war  fell  to  the  lot  of  Seti  1.  (Sethos). 
Expeditions  to  Ethiopia,  Arabia,  and  to  the  Euphrates.  Tem- 
ple of  Ammon  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  opposite  Thebes. 
His  son, 

1388-1322.  Ramessu  II.,  the  Great  (Sestic-Ea,  Ramses), 
was  victorious  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign,  but  could 
not  long  maintain  his  supremacy  over  Syria  (XlXth  dy- 
nasty). 

In  spite  of  this  a  peculiar  tradition  transformed  him  into  that  mili- 
tary hero  whom  the  Greeks  knew  as  Sesostris  (Herodotus,  II.  102- 
110),  or  Sesoosis  (Diod.  Sic.  I.  53-58),  and  to  whom  they  ascribed 
fabulous  expeditions  to  Thrace  and  India.  This  tradition  seems  to 
have  had  its  origin  in  the  bombastic  expressions  common  to  the  royal 
inscriptions  of  the  Egjrptians,  and  in  poetic  exaltations  of  his  earlier 
victories.  In  the  Greek  account  we  have  besides  a  confusion  of  recol- 
lections of  the  glorious  deeds  of  Thutmes  and  Amenholep,  of  Seti  and 
Ramessu  III. 

During  his  long  reign  he  covered  Egypt  with  magnificent  buildings. 
Splendid  palace  known  as  "  the  House  of  Ramses,"  south  of  Camac; 
temple  of  Ammon,  400  miles  above  Syene.  Commencement  of  a  canal 
between  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Nile.  Ramessu  II.  was  probably  the 
oppressor  of  the  Hebrews.  Under  his  successor, 
1322-1302.  Mineptah,  i.  e.  "  beloved  of  Ptah,"  occurred  the  exo- 
dus of  the  Hebrews  from  Egypt  (see  page  8).^ 

1269-1244.     Ramessu  III.  {Rhampsinitus,  XXth  dynasty). 

Successful  resistance  ofPered  to  the  Libyan  and  Semitic  tribes; 

expeditions  as  far  as  Phoenicia  and  Syria.     (Story  of  the  theft 

from  the  treasury,  Herodotus,  II.  121.) 
1244-1091.     Decay  of  the  empire  under  the  later  kings  of  the  name 

of  Ramses. 
1091.     A  new  dynasty  (XXI.)  came  to  the  throne  with  King  Hirhor 

(Smendes).    The  seat  of  their  power  was  Tanis,  m  the  Delta, 

whence  they  are  called  Tanites. 

Loss  of  supremacy  over  Ethiopia,  where  the  kingdom  of  Na- 

pata  or  Meroe  was  founded. 
961-9W).     Shashang  I.  (Sesonchis,  ShisaJc),  from  Bubastis,  founded  a 

new  dynasty  (XXII.)  .^     He  undertook  (949)  a  successful  ex- 
pedition against  Judcea.    Jerusalem  conquered  and  plundered. 

1  It  may  have  occurred  under  his  successor  of  the  same  name ;  the  date  of 
whose  reign,  as  well  as  the  reigns  of  the  kings  immediately  preceding,  would 
have  to  be  placed  several  decades  earlier,  in  agreement  with  Duncker  and 
Maspero. 

2  The  opinion  of  Brugsch,  History  of  Egypt,  II.  198,  that  an  Assyrian  con- 
quest of  Egypt  occurred  at  this  time,  and  that  Shashang  I.  was  the  son  of  the 
conqueror,  Nirarod,  king  of  Assyria,  has  not  found  favor  among  Egyptologists. 
[Tkans.] 


6  Ancient  History.  B.  c. 

730.  The  Ethiopians,  under  Shabak  (Sabako),  conquered  Egypt, 
which  they  governed  for  fifty-eight  years  under  three  succes- 
sive kings.     (XXVth  dynasty.) 

672.  An  expedition  of  the  Assyrians,  under  Esarhaddou  (p.  15), 
against  Egypt.  The  king  of  the  Assyrians  and  his  son,  Asshur- 
banipal  (^Sardanapalus),  put  an  end  to  the  rule  of  the  Ethi- 
opians (under  Taharak  or  Tirhakah,  the  second  successor  of 
Shabak),  and  entrusted  the  government  of  Egypt  to  twenty 
governors,  most  of  whom  were  natives. 

653.     One  of  these  governors,  Psamethik,  in  alliance  witk 
Gyges,  king  of  Lydia,  with  the  help  of  Carians,  Phoeni- 
cians, and  lonians,  made  himself  independent  of  Assyria, 
and  sole  ruler  of  Egypt  (XXVIth  dynasty,  of  Sdis). 
The  tale  of  the  twelve  native  princes  (the  Dodecarchy  of  Herod- 
otus and   Diodorus),  according  to  which  Psammeticus  defeated  his 
eleven  co-regents  at  Momemphis,  is  not  historical.    The  number,  12,  is 
derived  from  the  twelve  courts  of  columns  in  the  Labyrinth,  which, 
according  to  Herodotus  and  Diodorus,  was  built  by  the  twelve  princes, 
whereas  this  gigantic  building  had  already  been  standing  1500  years 
(p.  4). 

653-610.  Psamethik  I.,  king  of  Egypt,  from  the  mouths 
of  the  Nile  to  Elephantine,  above  which  place  the  Ethio- 
pians held  the  supremacy.     (XXVIth  dynasty.) 

New  capital,  Sals,  in  the  Delta,  where  Psamethik  built  a  magnifi- 
cent palace.  Egypt  opened  to  foreigners,  who  were  favored  in  the 
army  and  settled  at  various  points.  Caste  of  Interpreters.  Greek 
factory  at  Naucrdtis.  Dissatisfaction  among  the  military  caste ;  emi- 
grations upward  along  the  Nile  to  Ethiopia. 

Psamethik  carried  on  wars  in  Syria,  Phoenicia,  and  Palestine ;  they 
were  probably  undertaken  in  the  first  instance  to  strengthen  his 
frontier  against  a  new  attack  by  the  Assyrians,  which  he  dreaded. 
These  wars  led  to  no  lastmg  conquests.     The  son  of  Psamethik, 

610-595.  Neku  (Necho),  revived  the  plan  of  Ramses  to  unite 
the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea  by  a  canal,  but  did  not  succeed  in 
carrying  it  out.  By  his  orders  Africa  was  circumnavigated  by 
Phoenician  seamen.  He  undertook  expeditions  to  Syria  where 
he  was  at  first  successful,  and  defeated  the  king  of  Judah  in  the 
battle  of  Megiddo  (609),  but  was  afterwards  defeated  by  the 
Babylonians  in  the 

605.  Battle  of  Carchemish.  Loss  of  all  his  conquests  in  Asia. 
Neku's  son, 

595-589.  Psamethik  II.  Expedition  against  Ethiopia  without  suc- 
cess.    His  son, 

589-570.  Hophra  (Apries),  fought  without  lasting  success  against 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  sent  help  to  the  tribes  of  Libya  against 
Cyrene.  His  defeated  army  revolted,  and  he  was  defeated 
at  the  head  of  Ionian  and  Carian  mercenaries,  captured  and 
strangled. 


B.  c.  Jews.  7 

570-526.  Aahmes  (Amasis),  an  Egyptian  of  low  origin,  ascended 
the  throne.  Encouragement  of  foreigners,  especially  of  the 
Greeks,  carried  still  farther;  numerous  Grecian  temples  erected 
in  Naucrdtis.  Friendship  with  Cyrene  and  Polycrates  of  Samos. 
Magnificent  buildings,  especially  in  Sals.     The  son  of  Amasis, 

525.  Psamethik  III.,  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Peiusium 
by  Cambyses.     Egypt  a  Persian  province. 

§  2.    JEWS  (HEBREWS,  ISRAELITES).    Semitic. 

Geography.  The  land  of  the  Jews  is  bounded  N.  by  Codo-Syria; 
W.  by  Phoenicia,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  land  of  the  Philistines; 
S.  by  Arabia  PetrcBa;  E.  by  the  Arabian  Desert. 

The  name  Canaan,^  i.  e.  "  low  land,"  was  originally  applied  to  the 
region  along  the  coast,  but  was  at  an  early  date  extended  to  the  inland 
country. 

The  names  Canaanite  and  Phoenician  have  properly  the  same  mean- 
ing; the  first  was  the  Semitic,  the  second  the  Grecian  name  for  the 
inhabitants  of  the  whole  land  before  the  Jewish  conquest. 

Palestine  was  originally  the  name  of  the  southern  coast-land,  which 
was  so  called  after  the  Semitic  tribe  of  the  Philistines  {Pelishtim) 
which  had  possession  of  it,  but  was  transferred  by  Egyptians  and 
Greeks  to  the  land  occupied  by  the  Jews.  In  the  Bible  the  country- 
is  called  "  the  promised  land,"  i.  e.  the  land  promised  by  Jehovah  to 
the  children  of  Israel. 

The  river  Jordan^  which  rises  in  the  mountain  range  of  Antilebanon 
and  empties  into  the  Dead  Sea  (Sodom,  Gomorrah),  runs  through  the 
middle  of  the  country.  After  the  Jewish  conquest  the  country  was 
divided  into  the  twelve  provinces  of  the  twelve  tribes ;  after  the  death 
of  Solomon  into  the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel;  at  the  time  of 
Christ  into  four  districts:  1.  Judsea  (Jerusalem,  Hebr.  Jerushala'im; 
Greek  'Upo<T6\vfxa,  with  the  fortress  of  Zion  and  the  Temple  on  Mt. 
Moriah;  Bethlehem,  Jericho,  Joppa,  now  Jaffa,  on  the  coast) ;  2.  Sama- 
ria {Samaria,  Sichem);  3.  Galilaea  (Nazareth,  Capernaum  on  the  sea 
of  Tiberias  or  Genezareth,  Cana) ;  east  from  Jordan  4.  Peraea. 

In  the  country  of  the  Philistines,  the  coast  region  between  Pales- 
tine and  Egypt:  Ashdod,  Ascalon,  Gaza,  Ekron,  Gath. 

Chronology .2  As  is  the  case  with  the  earliest  history  of  all  na^ 
tions,  the  chronology  of  Jewish  history  is  uncertain.  There  is  a  long 
and  a  short  system,  but  here  the  short  system  found  favor  on  the  con- 
tinent, while  the  long  system  prevails  in  England. 

2000  (?)•  Abraham  (Ahram),  Patriarch  of  the  Hebrews 
(i.  e.  "those  from  the  other  side,"  because  they  immi- 
grated from  Ur  in  Babylonia),  Israelites,  or  Jews. 

According  to  the  traditions  of  the  Hebrews,  Abraham  had  two  sons: 
Ishmael  by  Hagar,  the  ancestor  of  the  Ishmaelites  (Arabians) ;  and 
Isacic,  by  his  lawful  wife  Sarah.    The  son  of  Isaac  by  Rebekah,  Jacob 

1  Cf.  Kiepert,  Atlas  antiquus,  Tab.  III. 

2  Cf .  Duncker,  History  of  Antiquity,  II.  112,  note. 


S  Ancient  History.  B.  c. 

or  Israel,  the  true  tribal  ancestor  of  the  Hebrews.  Jacob's  twelve 
sons  :  by  Leah  —  Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi,  Judah,  Issachar,  Zebulonj  hy 
Rachel — Joseph,  Benjamin;  by  Bilhah — Dan,  Naphtali;  by  Zilpah  — 
Gad,  Asher. 

1550  (?)•  Joseph.  The  tribe  of  the  Hebrews  migrated  to 
Egypt.  They  settled  in  the  land  of  Goshen,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Pelusian  mouth  of  the  Nile.  It  is  claimed  that 
the  master  of  Joseph  was  Apepi,  the  last  of  the  Shepherd  kings 
of  Egypt  (see  p.  4,  where  the  chronology  does  not  agree 
with  the  theory,  which,  however,  is  no  objection,  as  it  could  be 
easily  made  to  conform.) 

1320  (?)-^  Moses  conducted  the  Hebrews  out  of  Egypt. 
Ten  comniandinents  at  Mt.  Sinai.  The  laws  of 
Moses. 

About  1250.  The  Israelites  (Joshua)  after  a  long  nomadic  life  in  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai  and  on  the  east  of  Jordan  conquered  the 
Promised  Land,  but  without  entirely  subjugating  the  former 
inhabitants. 

Theocracy,  i.  e.  the  nation  was  under  the  immediate  guidance  of 
Jehovah.  The  office  of  the  high  priest  was  hereditary  in  the  family 
of  Aaron,  the  brother  of  Moses.  The  Tabernacle,  a  portable  temple 
or  holy  tent.  The  Ark  of  the  Covenant.  To  the  family  of  Levi  (son  of 
Jacob-Israel)  was  given  the  exclusive  care  and  service  of  the  taber- 
nacle and  all  things  used  in  the  religious  ceremonial. 

The  other  twelve  tribes  (named  from  ten  sons  of  Jacob  (see  above) 
and  two  sons  of  Joseph,  Ephraim  and  Manasseh)  settled  in  separate 
districts,  which  were  more  or  less  cut  off  from  one  another  by  remnants 
of  the  former  inhabitants,  and  formed  an  exceedingly  loose  union  of 
twelve  small  states  under  tribal  chiefs,  which  was  at  times  hard 
pressed  by  neighboring  tribes. 

Judges  (Shof etim) :  men  raised  up  by  Jehovah  in  times  of  need, 
especially  military  leaders  in  the  wars  against  the  Canaanite  tribes: 
Amorites  (of  whom  the  Jebusites  were  a  part),  Amxilekites,  Hittites, 
Hivites,  and  against  the  Philistines,  Midianites,  Ammonites,  Moabites. 
Judges  :  Ehud ;  the  heroine  Deborah  ;  Gideon,  conqueror  of  the  Mid- 
ianites; Jephthah,  conqueror  of  the  Ammonites;  Samson,  the  terror 
of  the  Philistines. 

1070.  The  Philistines  subjugated  the  whole  country  this  side  Jor- 
dan. 

At  the  demand  of  the  people,  Samuel,  the  last  "Judge  in  Israel,*' 
anointed  a  brave  man  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin, 

1055  (?).     Saul,  as  king  of  the  Jews. 

Victory  of  Saul  over  the  Moabites,  Philistines,  Edomites,  and  Am^ilek- 
xtes.  Samuel,  being  at  variance  with  Saul,  anointed  David,  from  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  as  king,  at  the  command  of  Jehovah.  David  fled  to 
the  Philistines  from  the  persecution  of  Saul.  Saul  defeated  by  the 
Philistines,  put  an  end  to  his  life  (1033  ?).     For  seven  years  David 

1  English  scholars  place  the  Exodus  at  1652  or  1491. 


n.  G.  Jews.  9 

was  recognized  as  king  by  the  tribe  of  Judah  only,  the  other  tribes 
under  the  influence  of  the  captain,  Abner,  adhering  to  Saul's  son,  Ish- 
bosheth.  After  the  murder  of  Abner  and  Jsh-bosheth,  all  the  tribes 
acknowledged  David  as  king  in  the  assembly  at  Hebron. 

1025  (?)•  David.  Kingdom  of  the  Jews  at  the  highest  point 
of  its  power.  David  wrested  Jerusalem  from  the  Jebusites,  and 
made  it  his  residence.  He  restrained  the  Philistines  within 
their  own  borders.  His  sway  extended  from  the  N.E.  end  of 
the  Red  Sea  to  Damascus.  Erection  of  a  royal  palace  at  Zion. 
Ark  of  the  Covenant  placed  in  Jerusalem.  Organization  of 
the  army.  Religious  poetry  of  the  Hebrews  at  the  height  of 
its  development.  The  Psalms.  Revolt  and  death  of  Absalom 
(^Ahithophel).  David  passed  over  his  son  Adonijah,  by  Hag- 
githf  and  other  sons,  and  appointed  his  son  by  Bathsheba  his 
successor. 

993  (?)•  Solomon.  Erection  of  the  Temple  of  Jehovah  and 
a  new  palace  in  Jerusalem,  with  the  aid  of  workmen  from 
Tyre.  Magnificent  court.  Standing  army.  Extensive  com- 
merce. Defection  of  Damascus.  Foundation  of  Tadmor  in 
an  oasis  of  the  Syrian  desert.  At  the  close  of  Solomon's  reign, 
toleration  of  foreign  idolatry  in  Jerusalem.  After  the  death 
of  Solomon, 

953  (?)j     Division  of  the  kingdom  of  tihe  Jews.* 

The  tribe  of  Judah,  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  which  had  become  united 
with  Judah,  and  a  part  of  Benjamin  with  the  Levites,  remained  true  to 
Rehoboam  the  son  of  Solomon,  and  formed  the  Kingdom  cf  Judah 
(capital,  Jerusalem);  the  other  tribes,  under  Jeroboam,  formed  the 
Kingdom  of  Israel  farther  north  (capital  at  first  Sichem,  still  later 
Samaria  and  Jezreel).  These  two  kingdoms  were  frequently  at  war 
with  one  another. 

EZingdom  of  IsraeL 

After  the  death  of  the  energetic  Jeroboam  (953-927),  his  son  Na- 
dab  was  murdered  by  the  captain  Baasha,  who  ascended  the  throne 
(925).  His  son  and  successor  Elah  was  slain  by  Zimri;  Tibni  and 
Omri  disputed  the  throne,  but  Omri  prevailed  in  the  end  (899).  The 
son  of  Omri,  Ahab,  married  Jezebel,  princess  of  Tyre,  whereby  the 
practice  of  PhoBnician  idolatry  (^Baal  and  Astarte)  was  extended  in 
Israel. 

Contest  of  the  Prophets  {Elijah,  Elisha,  etc.)  -with  the  idola- 
trous monarchy.  Israel  and  Judah  united  for  a  short  time.  Ahab's 
son  Ahaziah  (853-851).  The  captain  Jehu,  anointed  king  by  Elisha, 
slew  the  brother  of  Ahaziah,  Joram  (851-843),  and  put  to  death 
Jezebel  and  seventy  sons  and  grandsons  of  Ahab.  Jehu  (843-815) 
destroyed  the  temple  of  Baal  and  put  to  death  the  priests  of  that  god. 
Decline  of  Israel's  power,  which  was  only  temporarily  revived  by  the 

1  About  the  chronology,  cf.  Doncker,  II.  234,  not*.  The  long  system 
fiCives  975  b.  c. 


10  Ancient  History,  B.  C. 

fourth  king  of  the  line  of  Jehu,  Jeroboam  II.  (790-749).  After  the 
fall  of  the  house  of  Jehu,  the  kingdom  of  Israel  became  tributary  to 
the  Assyrians.  Tiglath-Pileser  conquered  the  northeastern  part  of 
the  kingdom.  Hoshea,  the  last  king  of  Israel  (734),  tried  to  free  his 
country  from  the  Assyrian  yoke,  but  was  defeated  and  captured  by 
Shalmaneser  IV.    After  a  three  years'  siege, 

722/  Samaria  was  captured  by  Sargon,  king  of  the  Assyr- 
ians, the  Kingdom  of  Israel  was  destroyed,  and  a 
part  of  the  people  carried  away  and  settled  in  Assyria 
and  Media. 

Kingdom  of  Judah. 

In  the  reign  of  Rehoboam  the  country  was  overrun  by  the  Egyptians 
under  the  Pharaoh  Shashang  (Shishak). 

Sack  of  Jerusalem  (949).  Rehoboam's  grandson  Asa  (929-873) 
abolished  idolatry,  which  was  prohibited  by  the  law.  He  was  compelled 
to  buy  assistance  from  the  king  of  Damascus  against  Baasha  of  Israel. 
Energetic  reign  of  his  son  Jehoshaphat  (873-848).  In  the  hope  of  put* 
ting  an  end  to  the  war  with  the  Kingdom  of  Israel,  Jehoshaphat  mar- 
ried his  son  Jehoram  (848-844)  to  Athaliah,  the  daughter  of  Ahab  of 
Israel  and  Jezebel.  After  the  son  of  Athaliah,  Ahaziah,  was  murdered 
while  on  a  visit  to  the  king  of  Israel,  together  with  the  whole  royal 
family  of  the  Kingdom  of  Israel  as  above  described  (p.  9),  Athaliah 
(843-837)  seized  the  supreme  power  in  Jerusalem,  put  to  death  her 
own  grandchildren  in  order  to  destroy  the  tribe  of  David,  Joash  alone 
being  miraculously  rescued  and  brought  up  in  the  Temple  of  Jehovah, 
and  introduced  the  worship  of  Baal  in  Jerusalem.  Athaliah  was  over- 
thrown and  put  to  death  by  the  high  priest  Jehoiada,  and  the  young 
Joash  raised  to  the  throne.     The  worship  of  Baal  was  abolished. 

Joa.^h  (837-797)  was  obliged  to  purchase  the  retreat  of  the  army 
from  Damascus  which  was  besieging  Jerusalem.  Murder  of  Joash. 
Under  his  son  Amaziah  (797-792)  Jerusalem  was  captured  by  the 
Israelites;  the  Temple  and  palace  plundered.  Amaziah  was  murdered; 
but  his  son  Uzziah  (Azariah,  792-740)  successfully  resisted  the  mur- 
derers and  raised  the  kingdom  again  to  a  position  of  power  and  au- 
thority.    The  Prophet  Isaiah. 

Under  the  successors  of  Amaziah,  the  Kingdom  of  Judah,  hard 
pressed  by  the  Kingdom  of  Israel  and  by  Damascus,  became  tributary 
to  the  Assyrians.  King  Hezekiah  (728-^97)  again  abolished  idolatry, 
refused  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Assyrians,  and  allied  himself  with  the 
Egyptians.  The  Assyrians  under  Sennacherib  besieged  Jerusalem  in 
vain,  but  carried  off  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  open  country  into 
captivity.  Hezekiah^s  son  Manasseh  (697-642)  transformed  the  Tem- 
ple of  Jehovah  into  a  temple  of  Astarte,  and  sacrificed  to  Baal  and 
Moloch  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  prophets  ;  he  submitted  again 
to  the  Assyrians,  was  carried  captive  to  Babylon,  but  in  the  end  re- 

1  In  the  date  722,  the  Hebrew  chronology  agrees  with  that  of  the  Assyrian 
monuments.  ^Cf.  Schrader,  Die  Keilinschriften  u.  das  alte  Testament,  187^ 
1882,  and  Menant,  Annates  des  Rois  d'Assyrie.  1874. 


B.  c.-A.  D.  Jews,  11 

stored  to  his  throne.  Under  his  grandson  Josidh  (640-609),  the  coun- 
try was  ravaged  by  Scythians. 

Religious  reaction  against  idolatry  (Jeremiah).  Reformation  of 
the  worship  of  Jehovah,  according  to  the  book  of  the  law  of  Moses 
which  was  rediscovered  in  the  Temple  (622).  King  Josidh  fell  in  the 
battle  of  Megiddo  (609)  against  the  Egyptian  king  Necho  {Neku). 

The  Kingdom  of  Judah  subject  to  the  Egyptians,  and,  after  the  de- 
feat of  Necho  at  Carchemish  (605),  to  the  Babylonians.  Jehoiakim  en- 
deavored to  revolt,  but  was  put  to  death.  His  son,  Jehoiachin,  was 
carried  into  captivity  with  many  of  his  subjects  by  the  Babylonians 
(597),  An  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  last  king,  Zedekiah,  to  regain 
independence  was  unsuccessful  in  spite  of  Egyptian  assistance.  Jeru- 
salem was  besieged  (588-586) ;  an  Egyptian  army  advancing  to  its 
relief  was  defeated  and  compelled  to  retreat. 

586.  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  captured  Jerusa- 
lem. Destruction  of  the  city  and  burning  of  the  Temple. 
Many  of  the  Jews  were  slain ;  those  who  were  left  were 
carried  into  the  Babylonian  captivity.  (The  prophet 
Ezekiel.) 

537.  The  Jews  sent  back  to  Palestine  by  Cyrus,  Rebuilding  of  the 
Temple  (Zerubbabel),  which  was  not  completed,  however,  un- 
til the  time  of  Darius  I.  (516),  The  Jews  subject  at  first  to 
the  Persians  (538-332),  then  to  Alexander  the  Great  (332-323), 
afterwards  to  the  Ptolemies  (323-198),  finally  to  the  Seleu- 
cid  kings  of  Syria  (198-167). 

167-130.  Emancipation  of  the  Jews  by  the  Maccabees,  or 
Asmonseans,  after  a  struggle  lasting  nearly  fourteen 
years.  Leaders:  the  priest  Mattathias,  and  his  five 
sons,  especially  Judas  Maccabaeus. 

A  great-grandson  of  Mattathias,  Aristobulus,  assumed  the  title  of 
king  (105).  Under  his  successors,  strife  between  the  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees. 

63.     Pompeim,  called  in  to  help  the  Pharisees,  made  the  Jews  tribu- 
tary to  the  Romans. 
40.     Herod  (the  Great),  son  of  the  Idumsean  Antipater,  recognized  by 
the  Roman  Senate  as  dependent  king  ofJudcea. 

Birth  of  Christ  (four  years  before  the  beginning  of  our 
era?). 

6  A.  D.  After  a  short  reign  of  the  three  sons  of  Herod,  Judaea  be- 
came a  part  of  the  Roman  Province  of  Syria.  (Two  Te- 
trarchies,  however,  remained  independent:  Galilcea,  until  32 
A.  D.;  Percea,  until  33  A.  d.) 

41-44.  Judsea  again  a  dependent  kingdom  under  Herod  Agrippa  /., 
a  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great;  then  a  Roman  province  again. 
Agrippa  II.  was  made  king  over  a  small  portion  in  dependence 
on  Rome. 

66.     Revolt  of  the  Jews  against  the  Roman  supremacy,  ending  in  the 


12  Ancient  History.  b.  o. 

70.     Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus. 

A  large  part  of  the  Jews  assembled  in  Jerusalem  for  the  observance 
of  the  passover  perished  by  starvation  and  the  Roman  sword  ;  many 
thousands  were  taken  captive  to  Rome.     (The  historian  Josephns.) 
132-135.     Another  uprisal  of  the  ^ews,  under  Hadrian,  on  account 
of  the  foundation  of  the  colony,  jEiia  Capitolina,  on  the  site  of 
Jerusalem,  wherem  more  than  half  a  million  perished.     Dis- 
persal of  a  great  part  of  the  survivors;  nevertheless  a  consid- 
erable number  remained  in  Palestine. 

§3.    BABYLONIANS  AND  ASSYRIANS.    Semitic. 

Geography :  Babylonia,^  called  by  the  Hebrews  Shinar,  is  the 
country  lying  between  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  and  stretching  from 
the  point  where  these  rivers  approach  one  another,  about  350  miles 
from  their  mouth,  to  where  they  empty  into  the  Persian  Gulf  by  sev- 
eral arms,  as  Pasitigris  (now  Shatt-el-Arab).  In  the  neighborhood  of 
the  present  viQage  of  Hillah  stood  Babylon  (in  the  Babylonian  form, 
Babilu,  called  by  the  Hebrews  Babel,  i.  e.  gates  or  dwelling  of  the 
god  Bel),  a  huge  rectangular  city,  situated,  since  the  time  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, on  both  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  about  thirty-four  miles  in 
circumference  (Clitarchus;  Herodotus  gives  about  forty-five  miles), 
and  surrounded  by  two  brick  walls  of  imusual  thickness  and  height. 
The  city  was  large  enough  to  afford  a  refuge  to  a  great  number  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country  during  incursions  of  nomadic  tribes,  and 
contained  fields  of  considerable  extent,  woods,  and  gardens.  In  Baby- 
lon: (a.)  The  temple  of  Bel  (Tower  of  Babel),  a  huge  square  build- 
ing of  brick,  consisting  of  eight  diminishing  stories  rising  in  pyramidal 
form.  It  is  said  to  have  been  originally  600  feet  high.^  (p.)  Two 
Palaces,  the  one  on  the  east  side  of  the  Euphrates  having  the  Hanging 
Gardens,  the  construction  of  which  is  wrongly  ascribed  to  Semiramis, 
and  which  were  terraced  pleasure  grounds. 

Assyria  (Asshur)  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  highlands  of  Arme- 
nia, on  the  E.  by  the  plateau  of  Iran,  on  the  S.  by  the  Didla,  a  branch 
of  the  Tigris,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Tigris  itself.  The  smaller  region 
called  Assyria  by  the  Greeks  lay  within  this  territory,  between  the 
Tigris  and  its  branch,  the  Great  Zab,  which  flows  into  the  Tigris  below 
the  present  Mosul.  On  the  Tigris  stood  Nineveh  (Ninua,  "the 
Palace,"  v  NTj/os)  surrounded  with  huge  walls.  The  ruins  lie  opposite 
the  present  M6sul.  Oldest  residence  of  the  kings,  Asshur;  afterwards 
founded,  Calah;  foimded  by  Sargon,  Dur-Sarrukin  (Khorsahad). 

Religion  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians.  The  religion  of  the 
Semitic  peoples,  with  the  exception  of  the  Hebrews,  was  a  worship  of 
nature,  wherein  divinity  was  conceived  as  the  personified  force  of  na- 

1  See  Eiepert,  Atlas  Anttquus,  Tab.  II. 

2  According  to  Oppert  (Exped.  Sclent,  en  Mesopotamle)  the  temple  of  Bel  is 
to  be  sought  in  the  ruins  of  Burs-N'nnrud  (on  the  site  of  old  Borsippa).  Raw- 
iinson  (  The  Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  East)  disputes  this,  because  Borsippa 
was  a  separate  village  lying  outside  the  walls  of  the  capital  until  the  reign  o* 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  finds  the  Tower  of  Babel  in  a  great  quadrangular  ruin^ 
tailed  Bahil,  by  the  Arabs,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Euphrates  in  Babylon. 


B.  C.  Babylonians  and  Assyrians.  13 

ture  in  human  form,  male  diadi  female.  Among  the  gods  of  the  Baby- 
lonians the  oldest  was  El,  among  those  of  the  Assyrians,  ^ss^wr.  The 
third,  Bel  (Baal),  the  "  Lord  of  all,"  appeared  as  the  creative,  but 
also  the  destructive  force  in  Nature.  The  goddess  Belit  or  Baaltis 
(in  Herodotus  Mylitta),  the  queen  and  mother  of  the  gods,  is  the 
fruitful  and  reproductive  principle,  the  goddess  of  love,  fertility,  and 
birth.  Her  opposite  is  Istar,  the  goddess  of  war  and  destruction. 
Confused  with  Belit  is  the  goddess  who  brings  alternately  life  and 
blessing,  death  and  destruction  (like  the  Ashera-Astarte  of  the  Phce- 
nicians  and  Carthaginians).  In  Babylon  there  was  a  complicated  sys- 
tem of  star- worship. 

The  Chaldeans,  or  caste  of  priests,  in  Babylon,  possessed  some 
astronomical  and  astrological  skill.  This  name  was  properly  that  of 
the  Semitic  population  of  Babylonia,  but  western  writers  applied  it 
chiefly  to  the  priests. 

Civilization.  An  exact  system  of  weights  and  measures,  which 
was  used  far  outside  the  borders  of  Babylonia.  Cuneiform  writing, 
a  system  of  characters  formed  by  the  gradual  abbreviation  of  hiero- 
glyphics. Magnificent  structures  of  brick.  System  of  canals  for  the 
irrigation  of  the  country,  and  for  the  regulation  of  the  yearly  overflow 
of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  Important  manufacturing  industries 
and  extensive  commerce. 

Chronology.  An  astronomical  system  and  a  mythical  history 
closely  resembling  the  Biblical  account  of  the  creation  and  deluge 
(epic  of  Izdhuber).  The  inscriptions  give  many  names  ;  but  few 
dates  are  satisfactorily  established  before  900  b.  c. 

4000-731.  Old  Babylonian  (so-called  Chuldcean)  Em- 
pire. 

4000-3000.  Civilization,  originating,  perhaps,  in  a  non-Semitic  people 
(Sumir  and  Accadf),  was  adopted,  with  the  cuneiform  writing^ 

by  a  Semitic  people,  who  came,  probably,  from  the  S.     Independent, 

hostile  cities:   Ur,  Erech,  Larsam;  Agade  (Accad  ?),  Babylon.     Sar- 

gon,  3800,  reached  the  Mediterranean,  Hammurabi  united  Babylonia.^ 

2300-2076.  Supremacy  of  Elam  {Elymais,  Susiana),  a  non-Semitic 
kingdom  E.  of  Babylonia  (the  second  dynasty  of  Berosus  ^). 
Kudumanchundi ;  Chedorlaomer  (Gen.  xiv.). 

About  2000.     Babylonia,  after  300  years,  again  independent. 

About  1900.  Assyria  settled  by  emigrants  from  Babylonia  (Nimr- 
rod?). 

1525-1257.     Cassite  kings  of  Babylonia  (the  Arabians  of  Berosus). 

1500-710.  Constant  wars  with  Assyria.  Final  subjugation  of 
Babylonia  after  the  revolts  of  MeroHach-Baladan. 

1  Delitzsch  (1884);  Smith  (1877)  gave  1700  and  1750. 

2  Berosus,  at  the  time  of  Alexander,  compiled  from  Babylonian  records  a 
history  in  which  he  mentioned  the  following  dynasties  (dates  from  Delitzsch). 
Ante-diluvian,  ten  kings,  432,000  years.  Post-diluvian:  I.  Eighty-six  kings, 
33,091  years.  II.  Eight  Median  tyrants,  224  years  (2300-2076).  III.  Eleven 
kings.  IV.  Forty-nine  Chaldcean  kings,  458  years  (1983-1525).  V.  Nine  Ara- 
bian kings,  245  years  (1525-1257).    V'l.  Forty-five  kings,  526  years  (1257-731). 


14  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

1900-608  (605).     Assyrian  Empire  (p.  12). 

Colonized,  probably,  from  Babylonia  (Gen.  x.),  Assyria  grad- 
ually grew  into  a  powerful  rival  of  the  mother-state.  The  chronol- 
ogy falls  into  five  periods.*  I.  1900-1500.  II.  1500-1300.  Wars 
with  Babylonia,  ending  in  Babylonian  overlordship.  III.  1220-930. 
Assyria  again  independent.  IV.  930-626  (?).  Brilliant  epoch. 
V.  626  (?)-608  (605).   Fall  of  the  empire. 

1900-930.    Of  the  first  three  periods  little  is  known.    Tiglath-Adar  /., 
about  1310,  conquered  Babylonia,  but  Assyria  was  soon  subju- 
gated.    Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  1115-1105,  conquered  from  Bagdad  and 
Babylon  to  the  Mediterranean. 

930-626  (?).     Brilliant  epoch  of  Assyrian  history.     The  inscrip- 
tions become  frequent,  full,  and  exact.     It  was  a  time  of  ex- 
pansion, conquest,  and  great  activity  in  architecture,  sculpture,  and 
literature.     Among  the  kings  may  be  mentioned  : 
886-858.     Asshur-natzir-pal.2     (Sardanapalus).     Military  expedi- 
tions  to  Zagros,  Armenia,  Babylonia,  Syria.     Erection  of  a 
palace  at  Calah.     His  son, 
858-823.     Shalmaneser  II.,  fought  with  Ahdb  in  Syria  and  subju- 
gated Jehu. 
810^781.     Ramannirari  captured  Damascus  and  made  Samaria  and 
Philistia  tributary.     His  wife  Sammuramit  {Semiramis). 
A  tradition  of  later  growth  reported  by  the  Greeks  {Diodorus  on 
the  authority  of  Ctesias)  comiects  the  establishment  of  the  Assyrian 
supremacy  over  almost  the  whole  of  western  Asia,  the  building  of 
Nineveh  and  Babylon,  wdth  the  names  of  the  king  Ninus  and  his  con- 
sort Semiramis.     Both  Ninus  (son  of  the  god  Bel)  and  Semiramis 
(daughter  of  the  goddess  Mylitta)  are  mythical  creations,  into  whose 
reigns  tradition  has  condensed  the  deeds  of  a  long  series  of  warlike 
rulers,  so  that  no  achievements  were  left  for  their  successors,  and  these 
from  Ninyas  down  appear  as  effeminate  weaklings.    Ninus  is  unknown 
to  the  Assyrian  monuments,  and  Semiramis  first  appears  in  the  ninth 
century.     On  the  other  hand  we  know  that  a  goddess  answering  to 
Istar-Belit  was  worshipped  in  Syria  under  the  name  of  Semiramis. 

Medo-Persian  bards  seem  to  have  changed  the  divinities  Bel  and 
Istar-Belit  into  heroes,  and  have  formed  the  names  Ninus  and  Ninyas 
from  the  name  of  the  city  Ninua  (Nineveh).^ 

745-727.      Tiglath-Pileser  II.  (identical  with  the  king  Pul  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible)  (see  p.  13)  made  Babylonia,  which  was  at 
that  time  divided  into  several  states,  western  Iran,  Armenia^ 
Syria,  Phoenicia,  Judah  and  Israel,  subject  to  Assyria. 
727-722.     Shalmaneser  .IV.  suppressed  the  revolt  of  the  Phoenician 

cities  and  the  Kingdom  of  Israel. 
722-705.     Sargon  (Sarrukin}  conquered  Samaria  and  destroyed  the 
Kmgdom  of  Israel  (see  p.  10).     He  received  tribute  from 
Arabia,  Egypt,  and  Cyprus,  suppressed  revolts  in  Armenia, 
Media,  and  Babylonia,  and  united  the  latter  with  Assyria  (710) 

1  Delitzsch. 

2  Formerly  called  Asshur-idanni-jml.  Rawlinson,  Five  Great  Monarchies, 
II.  246,  note' 10. 

3  Duncker,  11.  17.  Sehrader,  Die  Keilinschriften,  etc.  'NLenant,  Annates, 
ttc.    Lenormant,  Letlres  Assyriolocjiquts.    Smitti.  Assyrian  Discoveries. 


B.  C.  Babylonians  and  Assyrians.  15 

Residence:  Dur-Sarrukin,  now  Khorsahad,  not  far  from  Nine- 
veh.    His  son, 

705-681.  Sennacherib  (Sin-akhi-irib)  retained  his  hold  upon  Baby- 
lonia in  spite  of  repeated  insurrections,  but  was  unsuccessful  in 
his  wars  with  Egypt  and  Judah,  and  lost  the  supremacy  over 
Syria.  Fleet  m  the  Persian  Gulf.  Foundation  of  Tarsus.  His 
son, 

681-668.  Esarhaddon  (Asshur-akh-iddin)  suppressed  a  new  revolt 
of  the  Babylonians,  reconquered  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Cyprus,  Ju- 
dah, and  a  part  of  Arabia,  and  in  672  conquered  Egypt  from 
the  Ethiopians,  entrusting  the  government  to  20  governors, 
most  of  whom  were  natives  (see  p.  6). 
Assyria  at  the  height  of  her  power.     One  of  his  sons  was  made 

viceroy  of  Babylonia,  the  other, 

668-626.  Asshur-bani-pal  (Sardanapalns),  defended  Egypt,  at 
first  with  success,  against  the  kings  of  Ethiopia  and  native  in- 
surrections, but  lost  it  in  653  by  the  revolt  of  Psammeticus 
(see  p.  6).  On  the  other  hand  he  strengthened  the  Assyrian 
power  in  Syria,  Arabia,  Cilicia,  as  well  as  in  Babylonia,  where 
his  brother  had  revolted,  conquered  the  Kingdom  of  Elam,  and 
received  tribute  from  Lydia.  Erection  of  magnificent  palaces. 
Foundation  of  a  library  at  Nineveh.  Highest  development  of 
Assyrian  art.     About 

640  (650).  Revolt  of  the  Medes.  Of  the  Medes  little  is  known 
untU  they  were  attacked  by  the  Assyrians  about  830  b.  c. 
About  710  their  resistance  was  broken  and  their  country  was 
soon  subjected  tc  Assyria,  and  so  continued  until  about  640. 
Phraortes  (Fravartis),  son  of  Dejoces  (Dahydvkd)^  a  petty 
chief  among  the  Medes,  revolted  but  fell  in  battle. 

633.  His  son  Cyaxares  (Uvakhshatara)  continued  the  struggle, 
which  was,  however,  soon  interrupted  by  the 

632.  Irruption  of  Scythian  tribes  which  had  wandered 
about  western  Asia,  plundering  as  they  went,  as  far  as  the  bor- 
ders of  Egypt,  for  28  years  it  is  said,  though  8  is  the  more  prob- 
able number.  After  Cyaxares  had  rid  the  country  of  them,  he 
made  another  attack  on  AssjTia,  which  had  been  much  weakened 
by  the  Scythians.  For  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  Assyr- 
ian kingdom,  Cyaxares  allied  himself  with  the  Chaldean  Nabo- 
polassar  (Nabu-habal-usur),  Assyrian  governor  of  Babylon 
since  625,  who  had  made  himself  independent.  Desperate 
struggle  with  the  Assyrian  king  Sarakos  (Asshur-ebil-ili)^ 
626-608  (625  ?),.son  of  Sardanapalus  V.     After  a  long  siege, 

608  (605  ?  1)  Nineveh  -was  taken  and  destroyed;  as  the  enemy 
broke  into  the  city,  Sarakos  set  fire  to  the  royal  palace  and 
perished  in  the  flames  with  his  wives  and  treasurer.  End  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Assyria.     Nahopolassar  united  with  Baby- 

1  The  date  is  doubtful.  Herodotus  implies  a  date  as  late  as  608-605.  Be- 
rosus  (as  reported  by  Abydenus  and  Polyhistor)  gives  625.  The  former  date 
is  advocated  by  Clinton  and  Duncker  {History  of  Antiq.,  III.  266-292), 
the  latter  by  Q-.  Rawlinson  (Five  Great  Monarchies,  II.  391,  note  5),  and 
Lenormant  [Lettres  Assyrioloyioues,  1  §  12,  esp.  pp.  84, 85).  Delitzsoh,  608 


16  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

Ionia  the  whole  of  northern  Mesopotamia  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Tigris,  the  rest  falling  to  the  share  of  Cyaxdres,^  who  had 
already  subjugated  Armenia  and  the  Iranian  portions  of  the 
kingdom  of  Assyria. 
The  Grecian  story  of  the  effeminate  Sardanapalus  (Ctesias  in  Dio- 
dorus,  II.)  is  the  counterpart  of  their  tales  about  the  masculine  Semi- 
rarrds.     According  to  this  story,  Sardanapalus,  on  the  fall  of  the  city, 
burns  liimself  upon  a  magnificent  bier,  400  feet  high,  which  burns  for 
15  days.     This  story  seems  to  be  an  application  of  the  myth  of  the 
god  who  burned  himself  and  rose  from  the  flames,  whom  the  Semitic 
peoples  associated  with  Istar  (Astarte),  and  whose  nature  they  con- 
founded with  hers.*^ 

608  (605)-538.  (New)  Empire  of  Babylon.  After  the 
Assyrian  conquest  of  Babylonia,  about  710  (see  p.  14),  the 
latter  country  continued  subject  to  Assyria,  with  intervals 
of  rebellion,  until  the  successful  combination  of  Nabopolas- 
sar  and  Cyaxdres  destroyed  the  power  of  Assyria.  Babylon 
then  took  the  lead  among  the  nations  of  the  East,  rivalled  by 
Media  alone. 

604-561.  Nebuchadnezzar  {Nabvrkudur-ussur),  son  of  Na- 
bopolassar,  during  the  reign  of  his  father  defeated  Necho,  king 
of  Egypt,  at  Carchemisch  on  the  Euphrates  (605),  conquered 
Syria,  destroyed  Jerusalem  (586),  and  subdued  Tyre  (585). 
Enlargement  and  adornment  of  Babylon  (on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Euphrates).  Construction  of  a  bridge  over  the  Euphrates, 
and  of  a  new  palace,  with  the  "  hanging  gardens  "  which  tradi- 
tion assigns  to  Semiramis.  Erection  of  the  Median  wall  from 
the  Euphrates  to  the  Tigris.  Magnificent  water  works.  The 
reservoir  at  Sippara  (Sepharvaim).  After  Nebuchadnezzar, 
rapid  decline  of  the  dynasty,  which  became  extinct  in  555. 

538.  Babylon  (last  king  Nabonetus,  or  Nahunahid,  reigning 
in  conjunction  with  his  son  Bel-shar-ussur,  the  Biblical 
Belshazzar)  taken  by  Cyrus.  Babylon  a  Persian  prov- 
ince. 

§  4.    PHCENiaANS  AND  CARTHAGINIANS.    Semitic. 
(Down  to  the  war  of  the  latter  with  the  Romans.) 

Geography .8  Phoenicia  (^oivIkti,  Phoenice)  is  the  Grecian  name  of 
Canaan  (see  p.  7),  and  was  derived  from  the  tribal  name 
^oti/il.  In  the  narrower  sense  the  name  denotes  the  strip  of 
coast,  5-14  miles  wide  and  150  miles  long,  which  lies  N.  of  the 
country  of  the  Philistines  and  the  Hebrews  and  W.  of  Mt.  Leb- 
anon. This  strip  was  inhabited  by  three  tribes  :  1.  Sidonians, 
i.  e.  "  fishers  "  (cities:  Sidon,  Zor,  called  by  the  Greeks  T'yros); 
2.  Arvadites  (city  :  Arvad,  in  Greek  Arados);  3.  Giblites 
(cities  :  Byblus  or  Gebal,  and  Berytos). 

Religion  of  the  PhcBnicians.     The  god  Baal  (Bel,  of  the  Babylo* 

1  For  the  Median  Empire,  see  p.  25. 

2  Duncker,  II.  chapter  i. ;  also  III.  265- 
8  Kiepert,  Atlas  Antiquus,  Tab.  III. 


B.  c.  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians.  17 

uians)  and  the  goddess  Ashera  {Baaltis,  Belit  of  the  Babylo- 
nians), the  divinities  of  life,  birth,  and  the  genial  forces  of  na- 
ture, were  opposed  to  the  god  Moloch  (i.  e.  "king,"  the 
Babylonian  J. rfar),  the  devouring  and  destroying,  and  yet  cleans- 
ing fire,  also  god  of  war,  and  the  maiden  goddess  Astarte. 
Human  sacrifices:  to  Moloch,  boys  and  youths  ;  to  Astarte, 
youths  and  maidens.  Afterwards  Baal  and  Moloch  were  con- 
fused into  one  divinity,  who,  under  the  name  of  Melkart  (i.  e. 
"  king  of  the  city  "  ),  became  the  guardian  divinity  of  Tyre.  In 
the  same  way  ^s/iera  and  Astarte  were  united  into  one  divinity, 
who  when  represented  as  a  grim  wandering  goddess  vanishing 
with  the  changing  light  of  the  moon  bears  the  name  Dido,  but 
when  represented  as  a  kind  and  gentle  divinity  newly  restored 
to  the  knowledge  of  mankind  that  of  Anna  (i.  e.  "  pleasant  "). 
The  Political  Constitution  of  the  Phoenician  cities  was  an  he- 
reditary monarchy,  but  the  royal  power  was  checked  by  the  existence 
of  two  senates. 

1300.     Period  of  Sidon's  greatest  power.     Favored  by  the  sit- 
uation of  their  country,  and  urged  by  an  energetic  industry 
which  led  to  the  invention  or  development  of  many  arts  and 
manufactures,  such  as  purple  dye,  weaving,  glass-making,  min- 
ing, work  in  metals,  and  architecture,  the  Phoenicians  estab- 
lished at  an  early  period,  certainly  not  later  than  1500,  a  car- 
rying trade  by  land  (to  Babylonia,  Arabia,  Assyria,  Armenia) 
as  well  as  by  sea,  which  time  only  made  more  extensive. 
In  close  connection  with  the  commerce  by  sea  was  the  foundation 
of  numerous  colonies.     Thus  in  Cyprus  were  founded  Citium,  Ama- 
thus,  Paphos,  the  centre  of  the  worship  of  Ashera,  whence  originated  the 
Grecian  worship  of  Aphrodite,  that  goddess  "  born  of  the  foam  of  the 
sea  "  (i.  e.  whose  cult  came  to  Greece  by  sea).     Other  colonies  were 
founded  in  Cicilia,  Rhodes,  Crete,  Cythera,  as  well  as  on  many  of  the 
islands  of  the  iEgsean  sea,  and  at  points  along  the  coast  of  Greece; 
further  west,  again,  colonies  were  planted  in  MeUte  or  Malta,  in  Sicily 
(on  the  southern  coast  Minoa,  Gr.  Heraklea,  on  the  northern  coast 
Soloeis  (sela  =  "  cliff  "),  Panormus  (Machanath  ?),  at  the  western  end 
of  the  island  Motye),  on  Sardinia  {Cardlis),  on  the  north  coast  of  Af- 
rica (two  cities  of  Leptis,  Hadrumetum,  Utica,  the  two  towns  of  Hip- 
o),  in  the  country  called  Tarsis  or  Tarshlsh,  i.  e.  southern  Spain, 
eyond  the    columns  of  Hercules   (Straits  of  Gibraltar),  Gadir  or 
Gades,  i.  e.  "  walls,"  "  fortress,"  now  Cadiz,  founded  about  1100. 

From  this  point  the  Phoenicians  extended  their  commercial  deal- 
ings still  further  to  the  western  coasts  of  Africa,  and  to  the  Islands 
of  Tin  (the  Cassiterides),  Britain,  ^  and  the  coasts  of  the  German 
Ocean,  where  they  bought  amber  which  the  native  tribes  obtained  by 
barter  from  the  Baltic, 

Mythical  representations  of  these  voyages  and  settlements  of  the 
Phoenicians  are  contained  in  a  series  of  well-known  Grecian  tales. 

1  English  antiquarians  of  the  present  day  consider  it  probable  that  the  Phoe- 
nicians never  set  foot  e'ther  in  the  Scillv  Isles  or  in  Britain,  but  received  what 
British  tin  they  did  obtain,  at  second  or  third  hand,   from  the  Celts  of  Gauj 
IVeneti?).     Tin  was  found  in  the  river  beds  of  western  Gaul.     [Tkans.  1 
2 


t 


18  Ancient  History.  B.  c. 

Story  of  the  rape  of  Europa  (i.  e.  "  the  grim  "),  daughter  of  PhoB» 
nix  (i.  e.  "  the  Phoenician  ")  from  Sidon  by  Zeus  in  the  form  of  a  bull 
(whereby  is  denoted  the  moon-goddess  Dido-Astarte,  who  flees  to- 
wards the  west).  Story  of  Minos,  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Europa,  the 
powerful  ruler  of  Crete;  his  wife  is  Pasiphae  (i.  e.  "  she  who  shines 
upon  all  ").  Story  of  the  Minotaur  (i.  e.  Bull  of  Minos,  another  con- 
ception of  Baal-Moloch),  shut  up  in  the  Labyrinth,  to  whom  Athens 
had  to  send  human  offerings.  Dcedalus,  builder  of  the  Labyrinth  in 
Crete,  is  the  personification  of  that  technical  dexterity  which  the  Hel- 
lenes acquired  from  the  Phoenicians. 

Cadmus,  too,  who  in  search  of  liis  sister  Europa  landed  in  Thera 
and  Thasos,  built  the  Cadmea  in  Bceotia,  and  invented  the  alphabet, 
is  the  mythical  representative  of  Phoenician  settlements  from  which 
the  written  alphabet  and  other  elements  of  eastern  civilization  were 
carried  to  the  Greeks. 

1100.  Tyre,  though  younger  than  Sidon,  attained  the  first 
rank  among  the  Phcenician  sea-board  towns. 

1001-967.     Tyre,  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity,  under  king 
Hiram,  the  contemporary  of  David  and  Solomon,  and  the  lat- 
ter's  friend.    Exploring  expedition  of  the  Tyrians,  accompanied 
by  the  servants  of  Solomon,  through  the  Red  Sea  to  the  coast 
of  India  {Ophir). 
Hiram  filled  in  the  space  between  the  island  upon  which  stood  the 
temple    of  Melkart,  and  New  Tyre  (which  was  also  situated  on  an 
island),  and  erected  bmldings  on  the  new  land.     He  also  narrowed 
the  strait  between  New  Tyre  and  Old  Tyre  on  the  main  land. 
917  (?).    Ethbaal  (Ithabalus),  high  priest  of  Astarte,  mvirdered  Piiales, 
the  last  descendant  of  Hiram,  and  made  himself  king. 
About  seventy  (?)  years  later,  according  to  a  Grecian  authority,  a 
grandson  of  this  Ethbaal  decreed  ia  his  will  that  his  minor  son  Pyg- 
malion and  his  daughter  Elissa  should  govern  Tyre  in  common  under 
the  guardianship  of  their  uncle,  the  high  priest  Sicharbaal,  who  was 
to  marry  Elissa.     The  democratic  party  deprived  Elissa  of  her  share 
in  the  government,  and  Pygmalion,  coming  of  age,  murdered  Sichar- 
baal.    In  consequence  of  this  internal  strife,  and  influenced  probably 
by  the  unfavorable  state  of  the  foreign  relations  (advance  of  the 
Assyrian  power  towards  the  Mediterranean,  see  p.  15),  a  large  part 
of  the  older  families  left  Tyre  with  Elissa.     On  an  excellent  site, 
on  the  north  coast  of  Africa,  they  founded  about 

850.^  Carthage  ^  (in  Punic,  Kathada,  i.  e.  "  the  new  city  "), 
between  Utica  in  the  W.  and  the  present  cape  Bon  in  the  E., 
not  far  from  the  present  Tunis.  Double  harbor.  Citadel 
Byrsa.  Later  the  foundress,  Elissa,  became  confused  with  the 
goddess,  Dido-Astarte,  the  protectress  of  the  colony.^ 

1  According  to  Timeeus,  814.  Concerning  the  chronology,  see  Duncker, 
II.  270. 

2  See  Kiepert,  Atlas  Antiquus,  Tab.  VIII. 

8  The  credibility  of  this  narrative  and  the  interpretations  put  upon  it,  both  as 
regards  the  chronology  and  the  facts,  are  contested  by  O.  Meltzer,  Gesch.  ct 


B.  c.  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians.  19 

Carthage,  so  far  as  it  comes  within  the  realm  of  history,  appears  to 
have  been  an  aristocratic  republic,  with  two  Sufetes^  or  judges,  fre- 
quently called  "kings,"  and  compared  with  the  Spartan  kings,  and 
two  senates,  a  large  and  small.  Only  upon  occasion  of  a  disagree- 
ment between  these  branches  of  the  government  were  the  people 
called  upon  to  give  their  opinion.  The  government  tended  constantly 
toward  the  oligarchical  form. 

850.  Decline  of  the  power  *of  the  Phoenician  cities,  especially  of 
Tyre,  which  was  distracted  by  civil  dissension. 
The  Phoenicians  fell  repeatedly  under  the  rule  of  the  Assyrians,  and, 
for  a  time,  under  that  of  the  Egyptians.  After  the  fall  of  the  Assyr- 
ian empire  (625,  606),  they  became  dependent  upon  the  Babylonians, 
Tyre  alone  maintaining  its  freedom   until  573. 

Favored  by  the  political  situation,  the  Greeks,  who  had  already 
(about  1000)  driven  the  Phoenicians  out  of  the  ^gean  Sea,  began  to 
extend  their  influence  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  and,  especially 
after  the  second  half  of  the  eighth  century,  along  the  coasts  and 
islands  of  the  western  Mediterranean,  and  in  Lower  Italy  and  Sicily 
(p.  51). 

Foundation  of  Cyrene  (p.  49)  and  Massalia  (about  600),  attempted 
settlements  upon  Corsica,  Sardinia,  and  the  shores  of  Spain.  In  short, 
the  Phoenician  power  was  threatened  with  destruction  throughout  the 
ontire  West. 

Brought  face  to  face  with  tliis  danger,  Carthage,  which  had  mean- 
time grown  considerably  stronger,  began  about  600  to  gather  the 
other  Phoenician  cities  under  its  control,  to  subjugate  the  country 
around  its  own  commercial  stations,  and  to  secure  its  possession  by 
the  establishment  of  new  colonies.  The  Carthaginians  annexed  to 
their  territory  the  African  coast  from  Hippo  in  the  W.  to  beyond 
Leptis  in  the  E.,  and  opposed  armed  resistance  to  the  advancing  power 
of  Cyrene.  In  the  peace  which  was  concluded,  the  altars  of  the  Phi^ 
Iceni,  E.  of  Leptis,  were  made  the  boundary.  The  Carthaginians 
subjugated  Southern  Spain  and  Sardinia,  and,  with  Etruscan  aid,  drove 
the  Phocceans  from  Corsica  (537  ?). 

586-573.     Tyre  successfully  endured  a  thirteen  years'  siege,  from 
the  land  side,  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  but  was  finally  forced  to 
acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  king  of  Babylon. 
538.     After  the  destruction  of  the  Babylonian  monarchy,  by 
Cyrus,  Phoenicia  became   subject  to  Persia.     The  Phoenician 
cities,  however,  retained  their  independence  and  their  native 
kings.      The  Phoenicians  henceforth  furnished  the  principal 
part  of  the  Persian  fleet.     An  expedition  for  the  conquest  of 
Carthage,  proposed  by  Cambyses,  king  of  Persia,  after  the  con- 
quest of  Egypt,  was  rendered  impossible  of  execution  by  the 
refusal  of  the  Phoenicians  to  fight  against  their  colony. 
During  the  Persian  supremacy,  Sidon  was  again  the  first  city  of 
Phoenicia.     The  Carthaginians,  favored  by  the  civil  dissensions  of  the 

Karthager,  Bd.  I.,  1879,  who  admits  the  truth  of  these  statements  onl}-:  that 
Carthage  was  a  Tyrian  colony,  and  was  certainly  founded  before  the  ei^th 
century. 


20  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

Greeks  in  Sicily,  and  by  the  Persian  war  with  Greece,  attacked  the 
Greek  colonies  in  Sicily  (being  secretly  in  alliance  with  Xerxes  ?) 

480.     War  of  the  Carthaginians,  in  alliance  with  Selinus, 
against  the  other  Greek  cities  in  Sicily. 

The  Carthaginian  army  under  Hamilcar  was  utterly  defeated  and 
scattered  at  Himera  by  the  tyrants  Gelon  of  Syracuse  (^.vpaKovaai)  and 
T heron  of  Agrigentum  ('AKpdyas). 

The  Carthaginians  purchased  peace  for  2000  talents,  thereby  sav- 
ing their  Sicilian  cities,  Panormus,  Soloeis,  Motye, 

409-339.     Repeated  wars  between  the  Carthaginians  and 
Greeks  in  Sicily. 

The  Carthaginians,  called  in  to  assist  Segesta  ("Ey  fo-ra)  against  Seli- 
nus, after  conquering  Selinus,  Himera,  Agrigentum,  and  Gela,  secured 
the  supremacy  over  the  western  half  of  Sicily,  a  position  which  they 
maintained  against  all  attempts  of  the  tyrant  Dionysius  I.  and  Timo- 
leon,  who  restored  republican  liberty  to  the  Grecian  cities,  to  dislodge 
them. 

332.     Capture  of  the  island  city.  New  Tyre,  by  Alexander  the 
Great  after  a  seven  months'  siege. 

PhoBnicia  became  a  part  of  the  great  Grseco-Macedonian 
monarchy,  and  later  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Seleucidae, 
and  for  a  time  of  that  of  the  Ptolemies. 

317-275.    New  wars  between  the  Carthaginians  and  Greeks 
in  Sicily. 

Agathocles,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  sought  to  bring  all  Sicily  under  his 
rule.  The  Carthaginians  despoiled  him  of  his  conquests  and  besieged 
Syracuse.  Agathocles  effected  a  landing  in  Africa  (310),  and  overran 
a  large  part  of  the  Carthaginian  territory,  while  the  Syracusans  re- 
pulsed and  annihilated  the  Carthaginian  army  under  the  walls  of  Syra- 
cuse. Agathocles  returned  to  Sicily;  his  army,  which  he  left  before 
Carthage,  was  destroyed.  In  the  peace  with  Syracuse  the  Cartha- 
ginians regained  their  former  possessions  in  Sicily  (306). 

After  the  death  of  Agathocles,  party  broils  in  Syracuse  favored  the 
advance  of  the  Carthaginian  power.  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus,  then  in 
Tarentum,  was  called  to  the  aid  of  the  Syracusans  (278).  He  was  at 
first  successful,  but  offending  most  of  the  Grecian  cities  by  his  sever- 
ity, they  took  sides  with  the  Carthaginians,  and  Pyrrhus  was  forced 
to  leave  Sicily.  On  the  voyage  back  to  Italy  he  was  defeated  by  a 
Carthaginian  fleet  (276). 

§  5.    LYDIANS  AND  PHRYGIANS. 

Lydians,     Semitic, 

Greography :  Lydia,  in  the  strict  sense,  or  Mseonia,  was  the  middle 
one  of  the  three  divisions  of  Asia  Minor  lying  on  the  ^Egsean  Sea,  the 
northern  being  Mysia,  the  southern  Caria.    Rivers:  Hermus,  Caystrus, 


B.  c.  Lydians  and  Phrygians.  21 

Pactolus  (golden-sand)  in  Lydia;  Mceander  in  Caria.  Capital  of*  Lydia: 
Sardes  at  the  base  of  the  Tmolus  range.  The  Lydians  belonged  to 
the  Semitic  race,  like  the  Cilidans,  and  probably  the  Carians,  whereas 
the  other  peoples  of  Asia  Minor  were  in  all  likelihood  Aryans. 

The  kingdom  of  Lydia  at  the  period  of  its  greatest  extent  reached 
to  the  Halys  river  (now  the  Kisil  Irmak),  and  included,  beside  the 
countries  mentioned  above,  Bitkynia  and  Paphlagonia  on  the  Pontus 
Euxinus  (Black  Sea),  and  the  inland  country  of  Phrygia. 

Religion :  Worship  of  the  sun-god  Sandon,  and  the  goddesses 
Bla  (Mylitta-Ashera)  and  Ma  (Astarte).  The  last  two  became  united 
ia  one  goddess,  under  the  name  "  the  great  mother  "  (Cyhele)^  who 
was  worshipped  in  Ephesus  as  Artemis  (Diana). 

Chronology :  Lydia  was  ruled  by  two  successive  mythical  dynas- 
ties, the  AttyadcB  from  Attys,  son  of  the  god  Manes  (prior  to  1229), 
and  the  SandonidcB,  who  traced  their  origin  to  the  god  Sandon  (1229- 
724).  The  Greeks  saw  in  this  latter  divinity  their  Heracles,  and 
called  this  dynasty,  therefore,  the  Heradidce.  The  last  king  of  this 
Ime,  Candaules,  was  murdered  (689  ^ )  by  his  favorite  Gyges  in  collu- 
sion with  the  king's  consort.     With  Gyges  the 

689  ^-M9  (?).  Dynasty  of  the  Mermnadae  came  to  the  throne. 
Under  these  sovereigns  the  Lydian  kingdom,  after  suffering 
severely  from  the  Cimmerians,  and  being  at  times  subject  to 
Assyria,  grew  in  power  and  extent.  Gyges  himself  extended 
his  sway  over  Mysia  and  to  the  Hellespont.  His  two  succes- 
sors conquered  Phrygia,  and  carried  on  an  unsuccessful  war 
with  the  Grecian  cities  on  the  sea  coast. 

Alyattes,  the  fourth  of  the  Mermnadm,  warred  with  Cyaxdres, 

king  of  Media,  with  success. 

610(?).  Indecisive  hsd,t\e  between  Alyattes  Sind  Cyaxares.  Eclipse 
of  the  sun  predicted  by  Thales  of  Miletus.  In  the  treaty 
of  peace  the  Halys  was  made  the  boundary  between  the 
Lydian  and  Median  kingdoms.  The  daughter  of  Alyattes  was 
given  in  marriage  to  Astyages,  son  of  Cyaxdres.  Alyattes  sub- 
dued Bitkynia  and  Paphlagonia  in  the  north,  Caria  in  the 
south,  took  Smyrna  and  Colophon,  but  failed  to  subdue  the  re- 
maining coast  towns.  A  vast  treasure  collected  in  the  royal 
palace  at  Sardes.  Magnificent*  buildings.  Ruins  of  royal 
tombs  north  of  Sardes. 

563-549  (?).  Croesus,  Son  of  Alyattes, 
captured  Ephesus,  and  afterwards  subdued  all  the  Grecian  cities 
of  the  coast,  Ionian,  ^olian,  and  Dorian,  with  the  exception  of 
Miletus,  with  which  he  formed  a  league.  Active  intercourse  with 
European  Greece.  Solon,  of  Athens,  visited  Sardes.  After  the 
deposition  of  his  brother-in-law  Astyages,  of  Media,  by  Cyrus  the 
Persian,  Croesus  attacked  the  Persian  empire.  Following  the  am- 
biguous advice  of  the  Delphic  oracle  he  crossed  the  Halys.  Inde- 
cisive battle  between  Croesus  and  Cyrus  at  Pteria.     Croesus  returned 

1  Eusebius,  699 ;  Herodotus,  719. 

2  Duncker,  Hist,  of  Antiq.,  III.  414,  note  2. 


22  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

irresolutely  to  Sardes,  whither  he  was  followed  by  Cyrus,  who  de- 
feated him  in  a  second  battle,  captured  SardeSy  and  took  Crcesus 
prisoner  (see  p.  26). 

549  (?).  Fall  of  the  kingdom  .of  Lydia,  which  was  united 
with  the  Persian  empire. 

Phrygians. 

760,  or  earlier,  an  independent  monarchy  was  formed  in  N".  W. 
Phrygia,  having  its  capital  at  Gordiceum.  Its  monarchs,  the 
dates  of  whose  reigns  are  uncertain,  bore  the  names  of  Gordias 
and  Midas  alternately.  A  Midas  contemporary  with  Alyat- 
tes  (about  600-570),  and  a  Gordias  with  Crcesus  (570-560). 
Phrygia  conquered  by  Lydia  about  560.     (Rawlinson.) 

§  6.     INDIANS.    Aryan. 

Geography :  India,  the  central  peninsula  of  the  three  which  pro- 
ject from  the  southern  coast  of  Asia  into  the  Indian  Ocean,  is  a  vast 
triangle,  having  a  base  and  a  height  of  about  1900  miles,  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  on  the  E.  by  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  on  the  W.  by  the  Grulf  of  Arabia.  It  falls  into  three  geo- 
graphical divisions  :  I.  The  region  of  the  Himalayas.  The  central 
range  forms  an  almost  impassable  barrier  between  India  and  the 
Mongol  tribes  of  central  Asia  (Mt.  Everest,  29,000  ft.).  On  the 
E.  this  region  is  separated  from  Burmah  by  the  lower  ranges  of 
the  Ndgd,  PatJcoi,  and  Yomas  (Aeng  Pass),  which  are  pierced  by 
the  Brahmaputra.  On  the  W.  the  Sufed  Koh,  Suldimdn,  and  the 
Hdlas  separate  India  from  Afghanistan  and  Baluchistan,  but  are 
pierced  by  the  Indus  River,  the  Khaibar  Pass  (3373  ft.),  and  the 
Boldn  Pass    (5800  ft.).     This  region  includes  Nepal  and  Kashmir. 

II.  The  fertile  valley  of  the  great  rivers,  which  receives  the 
drainage  of  the  northern  as  well  as  of  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Hima- 
layas. River  systems:  Indus,  Sutlej  (provinces  of  Punjab,  i.  e.  the 
five  streams,^  Sind);  Ganges  (provinces  of  Bengal,  Ovdh,  Rdjpu- 
tdna ;  cities  :  Calcutta,  Benares,  Delhi,  Allahabad)  ;  Bramaputra 
(province    of   Assam).     Deltas   of   the   Ganges   and   Brahmaputra. 

III.  The  Decoan,  or  southern  plateau,  separated  from  the  Ganges 
valley  by  the  Vindhya  mountains  (5000  ft.),  and  bordered  by  the 
East  Ghats  (1500  ft.)  and  West  Ghats  (3000  ft.).  Rivers:  Goddvari, 
Krishna,  Kdveri,  all  flowing  through  the  East  Ghats  into  the  Bay  of 
Bengal.     Provinces  :  Madras,  Bombay,  Mysore,  etc. 

Religion :  The  religion  of  the  early  Indians,  as  portrayed  in  the 
Vedic  hymns,  was  a  worship  of  Nature  :  Dyaush-pitar,  Father  of 
Heaven;  Varuna,  the  sky;  Indra,  the  rain- vapor;  Agni,  fire;  Maruts, 
gods  of  the  storm.  After  the  settlement  in  the  Ganges  valley,  this 
primitive  faith  underwent  a  change. 

History  :  The  Indians  (Hindus)  migrating  from  the  northwest, 
came  at  first  to  the  valley  of  the  Indus  and  tiie  Punjab,  and  thence 
slowly  pushed   their    settlements   down   the  valley  of  the   Ganges^ 

1  Indus,  Ihelum,  Chenaub,  Ravi,  Sutlej  (modern  names). 


B.  c.  Indians.  2»^ 

where  they  were  probably  established  as  early  as  1500  b.  c.  The 
native  tribes  whom  they  found  in  the  country  they  either  enslaved  or 
pushed  into  the  Himalayas  on  the  N.,  and  on  to  the  Deccan  in  the 
S.  (Dravidians).  At  a  later  date  the  Hindus  spread  along  the  coasts 
of  the  Deccan  and  reached  Ceylon. 

Foundation  of  numerous  despotic  kingdoms.  In  the  conquered 
district  strict  separation  of  the  Aryan  conquerors  from  the  subjugated 
aborigines.  Development  of  the  royal  power  and  of  the  priestly  in- 
fluence. Four  principal  castes:  Brahmans,  priests;  Kshattriyas, 
warriors;  Vaisyas,  agricultural  settlers.  These  three  were  of  pure 
Aryan  descent.  The  Stidras,  or  servile  caste,  were  of  aboriginal 
descent,  the  Ddsas,  "slaves."  Transformation  of  the  ancient  faith 
into  the  religion  of  Brahina:  Brahma,  the  creator;  Vishnu,  the  pre- 
server; Siva,  the  destroyer  and  restorer.  Spiritual  tyranny  of  the 
Brahmans,  accompanied  by  a  high  development  of  philosophy,  gram- 
mar, etc.,  by  the  Brahmans,  in  connection  with  the  explanation  of  the 
Vedas  ("revelations"),  or  services  for  the  various  religious  cere- 
monials :  Rig-  Veda,  the  simplest  form  ;  Sama-  Veda ;  Yayur-  Veda 
(black  and  white), -4 ^^arya-Fec?a.  To  these  were  in  time  attached 
prose  treatises  composed  by  the  priests  and  called  the  Brahmanas,  one 
being  attached  to  each  Veda.  A  second  series  of  additions  were  the 
Sutras  ("sacred  traditions").  Poetry,  the  epics:  Maha-bharata, 
Ramayana.  Regulation  of  the  entire  thought  and  life  in  accord- 
ance with  strict  prescriptions,  which  were  afterwards  (about  600  ?)  ■ 
gathered  together  into  the  book  of  the  laws  of  Manu,  being,  as  it 
was  claimed,  a  divine  revelation  to  him,  the  tribal  ancestor  of  the 
whole  race.  Complicated  system  of  rites  and  ceremonies.  Pre- 
scriptions concerning  cleanliness.  Terrors  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
second  birth. 

Magnificent  monuments  of  Indian  architecture,  especially  the 
Cliff  Temples,  which  were  excavated  in  the  rock,  both  upon  and  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  earth.     Later,  Pagodas. 

In  the  sixth  century,  appearance  of  the  reformer  Buddha,  i.  e. 
*'the  enlightened"  (623  to  543),  properly  Gautama,  afterwards  Sid- 
dhartha  (i.  e.  "  he  who  has  fulfilled  his  end  "),  son  of  prince  Sud- 
dhodana.  Buddhism,  called  after  its  founder,  was  originally  a 
philosophical  system,  without  creed  or  rites,  having  for  its  object  the 
attainment  of  moral  perfection.  Through  its  doctrine  of  the  essen- 
tial equality  of  all  men,  it  was  directly  opposed  to  Brahmanism. 

The  progress  of  Buddhism  produced,  along  with  certain  changes  in 
the  old  system,  a  strong  Brahinanistic  reaction.     The  war  of  the  re- 
ligions ended  with  the  expulsion  of  Buddhism  from  India.     It  main- 
tained itself  in  Kashmir  and  Ceylon  only,  but  the  loss  was  offset  by 
great  gains  in  central  and  eastern  Asia,  where  it  has  to-day  over 
300,000,000  devotees  in  Thibet,  China,  Japan,  etc. 
327.     Invasion  of  the  Punjab  by  Alexander  the  Great  (p.  75). 
317-291.     Formation  of  great  empires  of  short  duration  (empire  of 
Magadha,  under   Chandra-gupta  (Greek,  Sandra-kottos),  and 
his  grandson, 
263-226  (?).  Acoka,  the  friend  of  Buddhism.   After  the  reign  of  A90- 
ka  the  Punjab  fell  under  the  supremacy  of  tliG  Grjeco-Bactrian 


24  Ancient  History,  B.  c. 

empire  in  central  Asia,  and  thus  some  tincture  of  Greek  civ- 
ilization was  imparted  to  this  part  of  India.  The  Bactrian 
rulers  were  finally  expelled  by  Scythian  invaders,  several  dy- 
nasties of  whom  appear  to  have  reigned  in  the  Punjab  and 
along  the  Ganges.  Wars  of  the  native  prince  Vikramaditya 
against  the  Scythians  (57  B.C.  ?).  Kanishka,  Gr.  Kanerke,  was 
the  founder  of  the  last  dynasty  of  Scythian  kings,  who  were 
succeeded  by  an  unknown  people,  the  Guptas.  Another  branch 
of  the  Indo-Scythians  making  their  way  down  the  Indus  came 
into  conflict  with  the  Guptas,  and  with  a  general  league  of  the 
Hindus  of  the  south.     In  the 

78  A.  D.  (?)     Battle  of  Kahror  the  invaders  were  utterly  defeated 
and  are  henceforward  not  mentioned. 
Tlie  Guptas  reigned  in  Oudh  and  northern  India  untU  they  were 

overthrown  by  foreign  invaders  (Tatars  ?)  in  the  latter  half  of  the 

fifth  century  A.  d. 

§  7.    BACTRIANS,  MEDES,  PERSIANS.    Aryan. 

Geography:  The  Bactrians,  Medes,  and  Persians  inhabited  the 
plateau  of  Iran,^  between  the  Suldimdn  range  on  the  E.  and  the  val- 
ley of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  on  the  W.,  between  the  Caspian  Sea 
on  the  N.,  and  the  Erythrcean  Sea  (Indian  Ocean)  on  the  S.  On  the 
western  border  of  this  higliland:  Media  (Ecbatana,  Med.  Hangrna- 
tana,  i.  e.  "  place  of  assemblies  ") ;  on  the  southern  border  along  the 
Persian  Gulf,  Persis  (Pasargadce,  Persepolis),  Carmania;  on  the  Ery- 
thraean sea,  Gedrosia;  on  the  eastern  border,  Arachosia,  the  land  of  the 
Paropanisddce,  at  the  foot  of  the  Paropanisus  (Hindu  Koosh) ;  ^  on  the 
northern  border,  Baotria  or  Baotriana  (Baktra),  Parthia  and  Hyr- 
cania  on  the  Caspian  Sea;  in  the  centre,  ^na  and  Drangiana;  between 
the  Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes,  Sogdiana  (Maracanda). 

East  of  the  lower  course  of  the  Tigris,  in  the  lowlands:  Susiana 
(the  ancient  Elam)  with  Susa,  the  principal  residence  of  the  Persian 
kings.  Within  this  broad  plateau,  a  widely  accepted  theory  locates 
the  primeval  home  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo-European  or  Japhetic  race, 
from  which  in  prehistoric  times  successive  colonies  wandered  away  to 
the  south  and  west. 

About  1000  (?).  Zoroaster  (Zarathustra)  whose  doc- 
trine, a  spiritual  reform  of  the  old  Iranic  superstitions,  was 
contained  in  the  21  (?)  books  of  the  Avesta,  of  which  one 
only  has  come  down  to  us:  the  Vendidad,  i.  e.  "delivered 
against  the  Daeva,^  the  bad  spirits.  The  pith  of  the  doctrine  as 
set  forth  in  the  Avesta^  is  the  conception  of  a  continuous  war- 
fare of  the  good  spirits,  whose  leader  was  the  good  god  Ahura- 
mazda  or  Auramazda  (in  modern  Persian  Ormuzd),  and  the 
evil  spirits,  or  Daeva,  whose  leader  was  Angromainyu,  in  mod- 
ern Persian  Ahriman),  over  the  life  and  death,  welfare  or  in- 

1  Kiepert,  Atlas  Antiquus,  Tab.  II. 

2  Kiepert,  Manual  oj  Ancient  Gengi'aphy,  p.  39. 

3  Avesta  is  the  law  itself,  Zend  the  later  commentary  on  the  law;  hence  ZeTuJ. 
*vesta,  and  the  expressions  Zend-language,  Zend-people. 


B.  c.  Bactrians,  Medes,  Persians,  26 

jury,  of  man  and  his  soul  after  death.  In  this  new  doctrine 
Mithra  the  sun-god,  originally  the  highest  of  the  Iranian  gods, 
appeared  as  a  creature  of  the  creator  Ahuramazda,  but  never- 
theless the  equal  of  the  latter  in  dignity  and  divinity.  Worship 
of  fire,  whose  blaze  scared  away  the  evil  spirits  of  the  night  ; 
reverence  paid  to  water,  and  the  fertile  earth,  the  daughter  of 
Ahuramazda.  The  priests,  called  Aihrava  (from  athao,  fire), 
by  the  Bactrians,  and  Magians  (Maghush}  by  the  Medes, 
formed  a  distinct  hereditary  class  ;  an  institution  which  was 
copied  by  the  ancient  priestly  families  of  Persia,  after  the 
general  acceptance  in  that  country  of  the  reformed  faith, 
which  came  to  them  from  Bactria,  through  Media. 

About  1100.     Formation   of    a  powerful   Empire   in   Bac- 
tria, mythical  reminiscences  of  the  deeds  of  whose  kings 
are  perhaps  contained  in  the  Shahnameh  of  the  poet 
Firdusi  (about  1000  a.  d.). 
As  early  as  the  ninth  century,  the  Assyrians  undertook  expedi- 
tions against  the  plateau  of  Iran,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  eighth 
century,  the  western  portion  of  this  plateau,  Media,  and  Persia,  be- 
came permanently  subject  to  Assyria. 
640.     Revolt  of  the  Medes  from  the  Assyrians. 

640-558.    Median  Empire. 

The  first  prince  of  a  Median  dynasty  mentioned  was 

708-655.  Dejoces  (ArjioKrjs,  old  Pers.  Dahyaukd),  to  whom  is  as- 
cribed the  foundation  of  the  capital  Ecbatdna.  He  does  not 
appear,  however,  to  have  reigned  over  the  whole  of  Media,  or 
to  have  been  independent,  but  rather  to  have  continued  to  pay 
tribute  to  the  Assyrittus.     His  son, 

655-633.  Phraortes  {^paopry)^,  Pers.  Fravartis),  was  the  first 
who  united  the  whole  country  under  one  ruler  and  established 
the  independence  of  Media.  He  made  the  Persians  tributary, 
although  their  native  ruler  Achcemenes  (Hakhamanis),  who  was 
raised  to  the  throne  after  the  revolt  of  the  Persians  from  As- 
syria, retained  his  crown  under  Median  supremacy,  and  be- 
queathed it  to  his  descendants. 

After  Phraortes  had  fallen  fighting  against  the  Assyrians  (p. 
153  his  son, 

633-593.     Cyaxares  (Kva^dprjs,  Pers.    Uvahksathra)  succeeded  liim 

and  continued  the  war  with  Assyria  successfully.     Inroad  of 

the  Scythians.     After  their  departure  (about  626  ?  see  p.  15), 

-   Cyaxares  subjugated  Armenia.      War  with  Alyattes  king  of 

Lydia  (p.  21). 

606  (625  ?) .  Cyaxares,  in  alliance  with  Nabopolassar  of  Babylonia, 
captured  Nineveh  and  destroyed  the  Empire  of  Assyria 
(p.  15),  whose  territory  on  the  left  shore  of  the  Tigris  fell  to 
the  Medians.  He  also  conquered  eastern  Iran.  Media  at  the 
death  of  Cyaxares  was  the  most  powerful  monarchy  of  Asia. 
His  son, 

593-558.     Astyages  (^haTvayns),  last  king  of  the  Medes.     Cyrus,  of 


26  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

the  family  of  the  AchcBmenidcB  in  the  Persian  tribe  of  the  Pa- 
sargadce,  which  reigned  in  Persia  under  Median  supremacy, 
deposed   A  sty  ages.     The  supremacy  passed   (558)    from   the 
Medes  to  the  Persians. 
Herodotus  (I.  107,  etc.)  reports  a  tradition  of  the  Median  descend 
of  Cyrus  through  his  mother  Manddne,  daughter  of  Astydges,  which 
is  adorned  after  the  Oriental  manner,  with  the  dream  of  Astydges,  the 
interpretation  of  the  Magi,  the  exposure,  miraculous  rescue  and  rec- 
ognition of  the  boy   Cyrus,  the  cruel  punishment  of  Harpdgus,  his 
treachery,  etc.     This  story  is  evidently  an  invention  of  the  Medes, 
who  would  not  admit  that  they  were  conquered  by  a  stranger. 

According  to  Ctesias,  the  daughter  of  Astydges  was  named  Amy' 
tis,  and  was  the  wife  of  a  Mede,  Spitamas.  After  the  deposition  of 
Astydges  and  execution  of  Spitamas,  Cyrus  made  her  his  consort. 

558-330.     Persian  Empire  founded  by 

558-529,     Cyrus  (Kvpo?,  Pers.  Kurus). 

Cyrus  strengthened  the  Persian  power  over  those  peoples  of 
Iran  which  were  formerly  subject  to  the  Medes,  and  over  the 
Armenians  and  Cappadocians.     War  against  Crcesus  of  Lydia 
(p.  21).     After  the  indecisive  battle  of  Pteria  (554  ?),  Cyrus 
advanced  on  Sardes,  defeated  Croesus  in  a  second  battle  on  the 
Hermus,  stormed  Sardes,  captured  Croesus,  and  deprived  him 
of  his  kingdom,  but  otherwise  treated  him  as  a  friend  and  ad- 
viser (554).^ 
The  Grecian  story  told  by  Herodotus  (I.  86)  of  Cyrus'  intention  to 
burn  Crcesus,  who,  on  the  pyre,  calls  to   mind  his  interview  with 
Solon,    of    his   consequent   pardon   by    Cyrus,   and   the   miraculous 
quenching  of  the  flames  by  the  Delphic  Apollo,  who  had  formerly  re- 
ceived vaJaable  presents  from  Croesus,  betrays  a  purpose  of  bringing 
Grecian  wisdom  into  strong  relief  (proverb  of  Solon,  that  no  mqrtal 
is   to    be  called  fortunate   before   death),  and   of   vindicating  the 
Grecian  god.     It  is  inconsistent  with  the  command  of  the  Persian 
faith,  not  to  contaminate  the  sacred  fire.     Probably  Crcesus  wished 
to  appease  the  anger  of  the  gods  against  his  people  and  country, 
according  to  Semitic  usage,  by  burning  himself;  according  to  the 
Lydian  story,  the  sun-god  Sandon  does  not  accept  the  offering,  but 
puts  out  the  flames  with  rain. 

Cyrus  returned  to  Ecbatana.  A  revolt  of  the  Lydians  was  quickly 
repressed.  Mazdres  and  Harpdgus  made  the  Grecian  coast  cities 
tributary  to  the  Persians.  A  portion  of  the  Phocceans  migrated  to 
Corsica;  driven  thence  (see.  p.  19)  they  went  to  Elea  (Velia)  in 
southern  Italy.     Harpagus  conquered  Caria  and  Lycia, 

539-538.  War  of  Cyrus  against  the  Babylonians.  After 
a  siego  of  nearly  two  years  (diversion  of  the  Euphrates) 
Babylon  was  captured.  The  Babylonian  Empire  was  in- 
corporated -with  the  Persian ;  the  Phoenicians  and  Cilicians 

1  The  date  cf  the  fall  of  Sardes  is  disputed.  Duncker  (Book  viii.,  chap.  &), 
gives  n49. 


B.  c.  Bactrians,  3fedes,  Persians.  27 

retained  their  native  rulers  under  Persian  supremacy  ;  the 
Jews  were  sent  from  Babylon  back  to  Palestine  (p.  11). 
529.  Cyrus,  who  was  occupied  during  the  last  nine  years  of  his 
reign  with  wars  against  the  eastern  peoples,  fell  in  one  of  these 
expeditions.  The  story  of  his  death,  like  that  of  his  birth, 
has  been  poetically  adorned  and  variously  related.  According 
to  one  tradition,  probably  of  Median  origin  (Herodotus,  L 
202-214),  Cyrus  fell  in  battle  against  Tomyris,  the  queen  of 
the  Massagetce,  whose  son  he  had  overcome  by  deceit.  She 
thrust  the  dissevered  head  of  the  Persian  monarch  into  a  skin- 
bag  of  blood  that  he  might  "  drink  his  fill  of  blood."  Ac- 
cording to  Ctesias,  Cyrus  died,  on  the  fourth  day,  of  a  wound 
which  he  received  in  a  victory  over  the  Derhices.  The  son 
and  successor  of  Cyrus, 

529-522.      Cambyses   (Ka/x^vVi;?,    Pars.  Kambujiya),  con- 
quered Egypt  by  his  victory  at  Pelusium  (p.  7). 
625.^    Capture  of  Memphis.    Expedition  up  the  Nile  toward  Ethiopia; 
failure  of  provisions  in  the  desert  compelled  him  to  turn  back. 
The  tyrant  ot  Cyrene  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  Cam- 
byses, but  a  projected  attack  upon  Carthage  by  sea  was  pre- 
vented by  the  refusal  of  the  Phoenicians  to  lend  their  ship* 
(p.  19).    Destruction  of  the  army  corps  dispatched  against  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon  (Oasis  Sivah). 
Cambyses  slaughtered  the  bull  Apis  in  Memphis  ^  (?),  and  mani- 
fested in  all  ways  a  choleric  and  bloodthirsty  disposition.     On  the 
way  back  from  Egypt,  he  died  in  Syria,  either  from  an  accidental 
wound,  or  by  his  own  hand.     A  Magus  seized  the  sceptre  and  pro- 
claimed himself  the  brother  of  Cambyses, 

622.  Bardija  (Gr.  S/^epSis),  who  had  been  murdered  at  Cambyses' 
command.  After  a  short  reign  the  usurper  was  put  to  death 
by  the  princes  of  the  seven  Persian  tribes,  the  most  influential 
of  whom, 

521-485.  Darius  (Aapcto*;,  Pers.  Darayavus),  son  of  Hys- 
taspes  (Vista f pa),  was  made  king. 
Tlie  father  of  Darius,  Hystaspes,  was  the  head  of  the  younger  line 
of  the  Achcememdce  (the  elder  became  extinct  with  Cambyses  and 
Bardija)  and  the  rightful  heir  to  the  Persian  throne.  The  son,, 
Darius,  however,' was  recognized  by  the  other  princes  as  king.  Later 
his  accession  was  ratified  by  the  production  of  auguries.  (Anecdote 
of  the  neighing  horse  in  Herodotus,  III.  85.) 

Revolt  of  the  Babylonians.  The  city  of  Babylon  recaptured  only 
after  a  siege  of  more  than  20  months.  (Self-mutilation  of  Zopyrus, 
in  order  to  deceive  the  Babylonians.) 

518  (?).  Afterwards  Darius  suppressed  revolts  which  had  broken 
out  in  other  parts  of  the  empire  (in  Media,  Persia,  Parthia, 
etc.),  and  conquered  the  right  bank  of  the  Indus. 

1  According  to  Erugsch,  527. 

'•^  See  on  this  point  Brugsch,  I/ist.  of  Egypt,  II.  289  ff.,  who,  by  the 
genealogy  of  the  Api,  showed  the  improbability  of  the  story. 


28  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

513  (?).     Unsuccessful  expedition  of  Darius  against  the  Scythians 
with  a  land  force  of  700,000  men.     The  fleet  of  the  Greeks  of 
Asia  Minor  was  conducted  by  the  tyrants  of  the  Ionian  cities. 
Bridge  of  boats  across  the  Bosphorus.     Bridge  over  the  Ister 
(Danube).     After  an  aimless  advance,  lack  of  provisions  in- 
duced a  retreat  (Herodotus,  IV.  130  seq.).     Darius  rescued 
by  the  faithfulness  of  Histiceus  of  Miletus  (against  the  advice 
of  Miltiades  of  Athens,  tyrant   in  the   Chersonese).     Thracia 
made  subject  to  Persia.     Cyrene  conquered  by  a  force  sent 
from  Egypt. 
Susa,  in  Susiana,  since  the  time  of  Darius  the  principal  residence 
of   the    "  Great   King  "    (jSao-tAevs  tuv  ^aaiKiwv,  /xeyas  ^aaiXeis,     Pers. 
Khshayathiya-Khshayathiyanam,  whence  the  modern  Persian  Shahin- 
shah).     Echatdna  in  Media  was  the  summer  residence.     Erection  of 
a  new  royal  palace  at  Persepolis  in  Persis,  where  ruins  with  iuscrip- 
tions  and  sculptures  have  been  discovered,  as  well  as  at  Susa.     At 
Persepolis,  too,  the  tombs  of  the  kings. 

Divine  worship  paid  to  the  king,  the  satisfaction  of  whose  wants 
was  the  final  purpose  of  the  state.  Maintenance  of  a  costly  court, 
with  an  elaborate  ceremonial.  Construction  of  great  military  roads. 
Completion  of  the  canal  from  the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea,  which  Ramessu 
XL  had  begun  and  Neku  had  continued   (p.  5).     Establishment  of 

?ostal  stations,  of  course  only  for  the  carriage  of  royal  messages. 
)ivision  of  the  empire  into  20  (?)  satrapies,  each  under  a  satrap 
(Persian  Khshatra-patl,  i.  e.  "  lord  of  the  province "),  with  regal 
accommodation  in  palaces  surrounded  by  extensive  gardens  (Para- 
disicB).  Subject  cities  or  tribes,  and  indeed  whole  nations,  enjoyed 
their  own  laws  and  separate  administration,  under  native  though  de- 
pendent princes. 

500-494.  Revolt  of  the  Ionian  Greeks,  incited  by  His- 
ticeus of  Miletus,  who  had  been  accused  to  Darius  and  sum- 
moned to  Susa,  and  his  son-in-law  Aristagoras.  With  the 
assistance  of  Athens  and  Eretria,  Sardes  was  captured  and 
burned.  The  lonians,  defeated  by  the  Persian  army,  were 
abandoned  by  their  allies  from  Athens  and  Eretria;  their  fleet 
was  defeated  at  Lade,  opposite  Miletus.  The  lonians  were 
again  reduced  to  subjection,  and  the  Milesians,  by  command  of 
Darius,  were  settled  about  the  mouth  of  the  Tigris. 

493-490.  War  of  Darius  against  the  European  Greeks  (p.  56). 
Great  preparations  for  a  new  expedition  against  Greece.  Re- 
volt among  the  Egyptians. 

485.     Death  of  Darius.     He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

485-465.     Xerxes  I.   (E6>|7?s,  Pars.  Khshayarsha). 

480.  War  against  Greece  (p.  58).  Xerxes  and  his  eldest  son  mur- 
dered by  Artabanus,  captain  of  the  body-guard.  The  second 
son  of  Xerxes, 

465-424.  Artaxerxes  I.  (Pers.  Artachshatra),  called  MaKpSx^ip,  Lcyrv- 
gimdnus,  succeeded  to  the  throne. 

462-455.     Second  revolt  of  the  Egyptians  under  Indros,  assisted  by 


B.  C.  Bactrians,  Medes,  Persians,  29 

the  Athenians,  suppressed  by  the  satrap  Megabyzus  (Amyr- 
tceus  alone  maintained  himself  about  the  mouths  of  the  Nile). 
Wars  with  the  Greeks  (p.  63).  Beginning  of  the  internal  de- 
cay of  the  Persian  empire.  Revolts  of  the  satra.ps.  Merce- 
nary troops.     The  son  of  Artaxerxes, 

424.  Xerxes  II.,  after  ruling  one  month  and  a  half,  was  murdered, 
by  his  brother, 

Sogdianus,  who  after  six  and  a  half  months,  was  murdered 
by  his  brother  Ochus,  who  reigned  under  the  name 

424-405.  Darius  II.,  Nothus.  He  was  under  the  influence  of  his 
wife  Parysdtis.  Tliird  revolt  of  the  Egyptians,  who  maintained 
their  independence  for  sixty  years  (414-354). 

405-362.  Artaxerxes  II.,  Mnemon.  Revolt  of  his  brother,  the 
younger  Cyrus,  who,  assisted  by  Grecian  mercenaries,  attacked 
the  king  in  the  neighborhood  of  Babylon. 

401.  Cyrus  fell  in  the  battle  of  Cuuaxa  in  personal  combat  with  his 
brother. 

400.     Retreat  of  the  10,000  Greeks,  Xenophon  (Anabasis). 

362-338.  Artaxerxes  III.  Revolt  of  the  Phoenicians  and  Egyptians 
suppressed.  Artaxerxes  poisoned  by  his  favorite,  the  Egyp- 
tian Bagoas,  who  placed  on  the  throne  the  king's  youngest  son, 

338-336.  Arses,  whom  he  likewise  murdered,  in  order  to  put  a  great- 
grandson  of  Darius  Nothus  in  his  place. 

336-330.  Darius  HI.,  Codomannus.  Bagoas  executed  by  poison. 
War  with  Alexander  of  Macedonia  ;  Darius  murdered  by  the 
satrap  Bessus  while  fleeing,  after  the  battle  of  Gaugamela 
(331). 

330.  Destruction  of  the  Persian  Empire.  See  Grecian  history, 
4th  period,  p.  74, 

§  8.    PARTHIANS.i     Turanian  f^ 

Geography:  The  Parthian  empire  extended  from  the  Euphrates 
to  the  Indus,  from  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Araxes  to  the  Indian 
Ocean,  covermg  nearly  the  same  ground,  and  having  in  the  main  the 
same  divisions,  as  the  Persian  empire,  of  which  it  was,  indeed,  in  many 
ways  an  avowed  imitation.  Parthia  proper,  the  region  between  the 
Jaxartes,  and  the  desert  of  Iran,  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  province  of 
Aria,  was  a  satrapy  of  the  Persian  empire.  About 
250.    The  Parthians  revolted  under  the  lead  of  Arsaces,  the  chief  of 

a  tribe  of  the  Daha;  (Scythians).     The  revolt  succeeding, 
250(?)-247.     Arsaces  I.  was  raised  to  the  throne.     He  was   suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  Tiridates  as 
247-214.     Arsaces  H.,  who  firmly  established  the  independence  of 

Parthia.     His  son, 
214-196.     Arsaces  IH.,  successfully  resisted  Antiochus  the  Great. 
Arsaces  IV.  (Priapatius)  and  Arsaces  V.  (Phraates  I.)  accom- 
plished but  little  of  importance.     The  son  of  the  latter, 

1  Kawlinson. 

2  The  use  of  this  name  must  not  be  understood  as  implying  belief  in  the  racial 
unity  of  all  the  peoples  to  whom  it  is  applied.  It  denotes  merely  the  mass  of 
.Asiatics  who  belonged  neither  to  the  Semitic  nor  to  the  Aryan  family. 


30  Ancient  History.  b.  c.-a.  o, 

174-136.  Mithridates  I.,  founded  the  Empire  of  tlie  Par- 
thians,  extending  his  sway  over  Media,  Suslana,  PeV' 
sia,  Babylonia,  Bactria.  Subject  nations  were  permitted 
to  retain  their  native  kings  in  subjection  to  Parthia.  The 
Parthian  civilization  was  rude  and  of  a  low  order. 

136-127.  Phraates  II.  {Arsaces  VII.)  repressed  a  revolt  of  Baby' 
Ionia,  but  fell  fighting  against  the  Turanians.  The  incursions 
of  these  nomadic  tribes  became  more  frequent  under  Artabanus 
(Arsaces  VIII.),  127-124,  who  likewise  fell  m  battle  against 
them.  They  were,  however,  effectually  checked  by  Mith- 
ridates II.  {Arsaces  IX.),  124-^7,  who  also  extended  the 
power  of  Parthia  in  other  directions,  until  towards  the  close 
of  his  reign  he  was  defeated  by  Tigranes  of  Armenia.  Undei- 
Phraates  III.  {Arsaces  XII.),  69-60,  the  Parthians  first  be- 
came embroiled  with  Bome,  war  with  this  power  breaking  out 
in  54.  Under  Orodes  I.  {Arsaces  XIV.),  54-37,  Expedition 
of  Crassus  (p.  140).  Expedition  of  Antonius,  36,  against 
Phraates  IV.  {Arsaces  XV.).  From  37  b.  c.  to  107  a.  d. 
Parthia  was  ruled  by  a  series  of  ten  monarchs,  whose  reigns 
were  mostly  occupied  with  struggles  for  the  succession.  Vdo* 
geses  I.,  50-90  ;  Armenia  lost.     An  attempt  made  by 

107-121  A.  D.  Chosroes  {Arsaces  XXV.)  to  recover  Armenia 
brought  about  the  successful  Parthian  expedition  of  Trajan, 
whose  conquests  were,  however,  abandoned  as  soon  as  made. 
Vologeses  III.  {Arsaces  XXVII.),  149-192  A.  d.,  became  in- 
volv'tid  in  a  war  with  M.  Aurelius,  which  terminated  in  the 
complete  submission  of  the  Parthian.  His  successor,  Vologeses 
IV.,  192-213  A.  D.,  lost  northern  Assyria  to  Rome. 

215-226  A.  D.  Artabanus  III.  {Arsaces  XXX.),  last  king  of  Par- 
thia. In  his  reign  Parthia  suffered  severely  at  the  liands  of 
Caracalla,  but,  after  his  death  and  the  defeat  of  Macrinus,  had 
regained  its  former  power,  when  the  empire  was  brought  to 
an  end  by  the  success  of  an  insurrection  of  the  Persians  under 
Artaxerxes,  son  of  Sassan,  who  defeated  and  slew  the  Parthian 
monarch.  The  Tatar  empire  was  replaced  by  the  Aryan  king- 
dom of  the  Sassanidae,  or  the  New  Persian  Empire  (22fr- 
652  A.  D.  (p.  187). 

§  9.     CHINESE.     Turanian. 

Geography:  China  in  the  broad  sense,  or  the  Chinese  Empire, 
embracing  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  and  Tibet,  as  well  as  China  proper, 
is  bounded  N.  by  Asiatic  Russia,  E.  by  the  Sea  of  Japan,  the  Yellow 
Sea,  and  the  Sea  of  China,  S.  and  S.  W.  by  the  Sea  of  China,  Cochin 
China,  Burmah,  W.  by  Kashmir  and  East  Turkestan.  China  (land  of 
the  Seres  among  the  ancients,  Cathay  in  the  Middle  Age),  comprises 
less  than  half  of  the  Chinese  empire,  being  about  1474  miles  long  by 
1355  wide.  Vast  alluvial  plain  and  delta  in  the  N.  E.  Mountainous 
and  hilly  in  south.  Rivers :  H-wang-ho  (  Yellow  River) ;  Yang-tsze- 
Keang;  Se-keang.    Provinces:  1,  Chih-li  (or  Pe-chih-Vi),  with  Peking^ 


B.  c.  Chinese,  31 

the  capital  of  the  empire;  2,  Keang-soo^  the  most  populous  and  best 
watered  of  the  provinces,  with  the  cities,  Nan-king,  Shang-hai;  3,  Gan- 
hwuy;  4,  Keang-se;  5,  Che-keang,  with  the  city  Ning-po;  6,  FuJi-keen, 
comprising  the  island  of  Formosa  (  Taiwan) ;  7,  Hoo-pih;  8,  Hoo-nan; 
9,  Ho-nan;  10,  Shan-tung  with  the  Tai-shan  mountain;  11,  Skan-se; 
12,  Shen-se;  13,  Kan-suh;  14,  Sze-chuen;  15,  Kwang-tung,  with  the 
cities.  Canton,  Macao,  Hong-Kong  (properly  Hiang-kiang) ;  16,  Ktvang- 
se;  17,  Yun-nan;  18,  Kwei-chow;  19,  Shing-king. 

Religion:  Uncertainty  concerning  the  oldest  religion  of  the  Chi- 
nese. By  some  writers  it  is  considered  little  higher  than  fetichisn\ 
while  others  see  a  monotheistic  belief  in  the  worship  ^f  Ti.  Their 
religion  embraced  a  worship  of  ancestors,  of  deified  rulers,  and  of 
spirits  generally,  classed  in  antitheses  of  opposing  qualities  {gang  and 
yin),  heaven  and  earth,  male  and  female,  from  whose  interaction 
all  created  beings  sprang.  Ideas  of  future  life  indistinct,  no  system 
of  rewards  and  punishments.  System  of  offerings;  never  human  sac- 
rifices. In  the  fifth  century  B.  c.  appeared  the  philosopher  Con^ 
fucius  (ICung-foo-tsze,  551-478),  who  taught  no  new  theology,  and 
did  not  remodel  the  old  religion,  but  whose  ethical  code  and  personal 
influence  secured  for  him  an  enthusiastic  following.  It  was  a  revi- 
val, rather  than  a  reformation,  of  the  ancient  faith.  Enunciation  of 
the  Golden  Rule.^  Contemporary  with  Confucius  was  Lao-tsze,  the 
author  of  a  system  of  ethical  philosophy,  Taoism,  the  "  way  or  method 
of  living  which  men  should  cultivate  as  the  highest  and  purest  devel- 
opment of  their  nature"  (Legge).  At  a  later  time  there  grew  up  a 
system  of  gross  and  mystical  superstition,  which  took  the  name  of 
Taoism,  deified  Lao-tsze,  and  became  one  of  the  recognized  religions  of 
the  empire.  Buddhism  introduced  into  China  about  A.  d.  65,  where 
it  has  degenerated  into  a  low  superstition,  but  still  numbers  many  dev- 
otees and  has  deeply  affected  the  older  religions.  Begging  priests. 
Mohammedanism  has  also  its  adherents.  The  common  religion  of 
the  lower  classes  is  the  old  ancestor  and  spirit  worship,  complicated 
by  the  introduction  of  elements  from  all  the  sects  above  mentioned. 
No  state  religion;  toleration  of  all  faiths. 

Chronology.  The  Chinese  regard  themselves  as  aborigines.  For- 
eign scholars  derive  them  from  wandering  bands  of  Tatars,  or  from 
the  peoples  of  Tibet  and  Farther  India.  It  is  probable  that  the  first 
settlements  were  made  in  the  valley  of  the  Hwang-ho. 

The  Chinese  possess  an  intricate  system  of  chronology  which  ear- 
lier writers  trusted  almost  implicitly,  but  which  modern  scholars  have 
severely  criticised.  The  dates  assigned  before  800  b.  c.  are  probably 
wholly  untrustworthy.  Chinese  annalists  place  the  creation  between 
two  and  three  millions  of  years  before  Confucius,  and  divide  the  inter- 
vening space  into  ten  epochs.  In  the  eighth  of  these  are  placed  the  fa- 
mous emperors  Yew-chaou  She  ("  nest  builder  "),  Suy-jin  She,  the  dis- 
coverer of  fire,  Fuhi,  Chin-nung,  inventor  of  the  plough,  and  Yaou, 
who  first  drained  the  valley  of  Hwang-ho.  These  sovereigns  are  to  be 
regarded  as  largely  mvthical,  as  are  the  dynasties  of  Hia  (2205-1766) 
and  Shang  (1766-1123). 

1  liOgge,  Eelirjions  of  China,  137-139. 


82  Ancient  History.  b.  c.-A.  d 

1123-255.  Chow  Dynasty.  During  the  time  of  this  dynasty 
we  reach  historic  ground.  Development  of  a  feudal  system. 
The  imperial  domain  lay  in  the  middle  of  the  empire,  whence 
the  name  applied  to  the  empire,  "  Middle  Kingdom."  Un- 
der Sing-wang,  birth  of  Confucius,  551  b.  c. 

255-206.  Dynasty  of  Tsin,  famous  for  the  energetic 
monarch  Che-ivang-te  (246-210),  who  extended  the  empire  to 
the  sea,  defeated  the  Mongols,  built  the  Chinese  Wall  (1400 
miles  long,  15-30  feet  high,  15-25  feet  broad);  213,  Ckd- 
wang-te  ordered  the  destruction  of  many  thousand  historical 
and  philosophical  books. 

206  B.  C.-221  A.  D.  Dynasties  of  East  and  West  Han. 
Brilliant  period  of  Chinese  history.  The  power  of  the 
feudal  lords  limited,  the  empire  consolidated  and  strength- 
ened, and  extended  westward  to  Russian  Turkestan, 
Conquest  of  northern  Corea  (109  A.  d.).  Annexation  of 
Hainan.  This  period  was  succeeded  by  one  of  great 
confusion. 

221-265  A.  D.  Epoch  of  the  Three  Kingdoms:  Wd,  in  the  north; 
Wu,  in  the  east;  and  Shuh,  in  the  west.  Wuti,  265  A.  d.,  re- 
united a  large  part  of  the  empire  and  founded  the  dynasty  of 
Tsin,  but  the  country  soon  relapsed  into  a  divided  state,  which 
continued  until 

590  A.  D.  Yang-Kian,  prince  of  Sny,  in  the  northern  king- 
dom of  Wei,  extending  his  conquests  southward,  united  the 
whole  empire  under  his  sceptre  and  founded  the  dynasty  of 
Suy. 

§  10.    JAPANESE.     Turanian. 

Geography:  The  Japanese^  empire,  Dai  Nippon,  is  a  chain  of  isl- 
ands which  skirts  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia  opposite  Corea,  Man- 
churia, a-nd  Amur.  It  comprises  four  large  islands:  Kiushiu;  Shiko- 
Z-M;Hondo,2  or  Honshiu,  the  principal  island;  Yezo;  and  some  three 
thousand  small  islands.^  Nature  of  the  country,  rocky,  mountainous, 
volcanic.  Highest  mountain,  Fusiyama  (12,000  ft.),  in  the  centre  of 
the  east  coast  of  Hondo.  Kivers  numerous  but  small;  among  the 
largest:  Tone-gawa,  Shinano-gawa,  Kiod-gawa,  Ti-gmva.  Lake  Biica 
in  Hondo.     Principal  cities:  Kioto,  Yedo,  or  Tokio,  Yokohama,  Osaka. 

Religion:  The  most  ancient  religion  of  Japan  bears  the  native 
name  of  Kami-no-michi,  "  the  way  of  the  gods,"  but  is  better  known 
abroad  by  the  Chinese  term  Shinto.  It  consisted  of  a  theology  which 
comprised  the  gods  of  heaven,  the  mikados,  many  deified  mortals,  ani- 

1  Japan  {Zipnngu  in  the  Middle  Ap^e)  is  a  name  given  to  the  empire  by 
foreifrners.     It  is  probably  of  Chinese  origin. 

2  This  is  the  name  recently  applied  to  the  main  island  by  the  Japanese  gov- 
ernment; previously  the  .lapanese  had  no  name  for  this  island.  Nippon,  the 
name  frequently  given  it  by  foreigners,  is  tlie  name  of  the  whole  empire. 

3  Saghalin  was  given  to  Russia  in  1875  in  exchange  for  the  Kurile  islands. 


B.  c.-A.  D.  Japanese.  33 

mals,  plants,  and  natural  objects,  and  of  a  ritual  for  the  worship  of 
these  deities.  The  chief  command  of  the  religion  was  implicit  obedi- 
ence to  the  gods,  especially  to  the  mikado.  It  had  no  moral  code. 
It  was  emphatically  a  state  religion,  and  was  often  used  as  a  political 
engine.  In  552  A.  d.  Buddhism  was  introduced  into  Japan,  where 
it  spread  rapidly.  Development  of  a  score  or  more  of  sects.  (Among 
others  Shin-shu,  which  teaches  salvation  by  faith  in  Buddha.)  Bud- 
dhism for  a  time  overshadowed  ihe  older  religion,  but  the  present 
government  has  fully  reinstated  the  Shinto  faith. 

Chronology:  The  origin  of  the  Japanese  is  uncertain.  They  in- 
vaded the  islands  from  Asia,  and  conquered  them  from  the  savage 
Ainos,  whom  they  found  there.  The  present  Japanese  are  certainly 
a  mixed  race,  containing  Turanian  and  Malay  elements. 

While  the  mythical  history  of  Japan  comprises  a  dynasty  of  gods, 
followed  by  a  dynasty  of  rulers  descended  from  the  sun-goddess,  and 
who  are  sometimes  assigned  reigns  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years 
each,  the  earliest  date  of  what  is  believed  in  Japan  to  be  authentic 
history  is  660  B.  c;  the  dates  are  probably  untrustworthy  until  much 
later. 

660-585  B.  c.  Jimmu  Tenno,^  the  first  Mikado,^  being 
the  5th  in  descent  from  the  sun-goddess.  He  was  leader  of 
the  invasion,  and  conquered  Kiushiu,  Shikoku,  and  a  part  of 
the  main  island.  Jimmu  is  regarded  by  many  foreign  scholars 
as  a  mythical  character.  He  was  the  founder  of  an  unbroken 
dynasty,  of  which  the  reigning  mikado,  Mutsu-Hito,  is  the  122d 
(123d  counting  Jingu)  sovereign.  The  lOtli  mikado,  Sujin 
(97-30  B.  c.)  introduced  reforms,  reorganized  the  administra- 
tion of  the  empire  and  generally  advanced  the  civilization  of 
the  people.  Intercourse  opened  with  Corea.  Succeeding  em- 
perors continued  the  war  with  the  native  Ainos,  who  were 
pushed  further  and  further  to  the  north.  Especially  famous  is 
the  reign  of  the  12th  mikado, 

71-130  A.  D.  Keiko,  whose  more  famous  son,  Yamato-Dake,  "  the 
warlike,"  conquered  the  great  eastern  plain,  the  KoantO.  The 
14th  mikado,  Chinai,  dying  suddenly,  was  succeeded  by  his  wife 
the  renowned 

201-269  A.  D.  Jingu-Kogo,  sometimes  called  the  15th  mikado,  al- 
though never  formally  crowned.  She  suppressed  a  rebellion 
in  Kiushiu,  and  herself  led  an  army  to  Corea,  which  she  re- 
duced to  submission.  Diplomatic  relations  with  China.  Her 
son  and  successor, 

270-310  A.  D.     Ojin,  was  a  great  warrior,  and  is  still  worshipped  as 

1  His  true  name  was  Knn-yamato-iware-hiko-no-milcoto.  After  the  introduc- 
tion of  Chinese  characters,  the  long  native  names  of  gods  and  emperors  were 
transcribed  into  the  shorter  Chinese  equivalents.  It  also  became  customary  for 
the  mikados  to  receive  after  death  a  different  name  from  that  which  they  had 
borne  while  living.  The  first  mikado  received  the  name  Jimmu,  "  spirit  of 
war,"  to  which  was  joined  one  of  the  official  titles  of  the  mikado,  Tenno,  "  lord 
of  heaven." 

2  Mikado,  the  most  general  title  of  the  emperors,  is  derived  either  from  Mi, 
"honorable,"  and  Kado,  "gate"  (compare  "  Sublime  Porte,"  and  "Pharaoh '' 
p.  1,  note  3),  or  from  Afika,  "great,"  and  to,  "  place." 

3 


34  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

the  god  of  war.  Introduction  of  Chinese  literature  and  civil- 
ization, which  at  this  date  was  far  in  advance  of  the  Japanese. 
From  this  time  to  the  sixth  century  the  annals  of  Japan  are 
marked  by  no  great  events. 

B.    WESTERN  PEOPLES. 

§  1.     CELTS.     Aryan. 

Celts,  or  Kelts,  is  the  name  given  to  that  race  which,  at  the  dawn  of 
authentic  history,  occupied  the  extreme  west  of  Europe.  They  be- 
longed to  the  Indo-European  family,  and,  if  the  Asiatic  origin  of 
that  family  be  accepted,^  were  the  first  branch  to  enter  upon  the 
wesstward  migration. 

a.     Continental  Celts.     Gauls. 

Geography :  At  the  time  of  the  Roman  conquest  (59  -  51 ), 
Gaul,  or  that  part  of  Europe  occupied  by  the  Celts  (KsAtoQ  or 
Gauls  (rdWoi),  was  divided  among  three  great  groups  of  tribes: 
Belgians,  dwelling  between  the  lower  Rhine,  the  forest  of  Ardennes, 
the  Mame,  and  Seine.  This  people  have  been  claimed  as  Teutons, 
but  the  weight  of  evidence  assigns  them  to  the  Celts.-^  Tribes  : 
Remi,  Suessiones,  Nervii,^  Menapii.  Gauls,*  dwelling  between  the 
Seine,  Mame,  middle  Rhine,  Rhoyie,  and  Garonne.  Tribes  :  In  the 
valley  of  the  Seine  (Sequana):  Parisii  (with  the  city  Lutetia  Parisi- 
orum,  now  Paris),  Senones  ;  in  the  valley  of  the  Loire  (Liger)  : 
Namnetes,  Turones,  Carnutes,  Boii,  jEdui,  Averni ;  W.  of  the  Seine  : 
Treviri;  in  the  valley  of  the  Saone  ^nd  Rhone  :  Sequani,  Allohroges. 
The  Aquitanians,  between  the  Garonne  and  the  Pyrenees,  were  not 
€elts,  but  Iberians.     In  Switzerland:  Helvetii,  Vindelici. 

Religion :  Soon  after  the  conquest  the  theology  of  the  Gauls  was 
largely  superseded  and  corrupted  by  the  introduction  of  the  Roman 
gods.  Little  is  therefore  known  of  the  pure  Celtic  religion,  whose 
nature  has  consequently  become  a  favorite  subject  for  dispute.  It 
was  a  pantheism,  which  had  its  cycle  of  great  gods,  its  local  divin- 
ities, its  deifications  of  forests,  rivers,  and  fountains.  Among  the 
great  gods  are  the  following,  with  their  Roman  equivalents  :  Bormo, 
Grannus  (^Apollo),  with  his  companion  the  goddess  Damona  ;  Segomo, 
Cannulas  (^Mars),  with  the  goddess  Nemetonia;  Belisama  (^Minerva  ?); 
Taramicus  (Jupiter).  Complicated  and  imposing  ceremonial,  con- 
ducted by  the  Druids,  or  priests,  who  were  accorded  at  least  equal 
honors  with  the  nobles.  They  did  not  form  an  hereditary  class,  but 
were  recruited  from  the  people.     Exemption  from  military  service 

1  See  Introduction. 

2  The  Belgians  are  also  claimed  as  non-Aryans,  of  the  same  race  as  the 
Aquitanians. 

8  Dahn,  Urrjesch.  d.  Germ.  III.  26,  note  9. 

■*  In  spite  of  Caesar's  statement  that  the  Gauls  were  called  Celts  in  their  own 
language,  the  two  names  are  not  considered  synonymous.  It  is  probable  that  the 
Gailic  tribes  formed  a  division  distinct  from  the  Celtic  tribes  (using  Celt  in  the 
narrow  sense  of  inhabitant  of  Gaul).  The  attempt  has  even  been  made  to  draw 
the  geographical  boundary  between  them. 


B.  c.  Celts.  35 

and  taxes.     Use  of  writing,  with  Greek  alphabet.     Exercise  of  juris- 
diction.    Human  sacrifices. 

Civilization :  That  the  Celts  of  Gaul  had  reached  quite  an  ad- 
vanced stage  of  civilization  ^  is  clear  from  the  readiness  with  which 
they  accepted  the  higher  civilization  of  Rome,  and  from  the  fact  that 
their  social  state  as  depicted  by  Caesar  exhibits  a  degeneracy  which 
was  not  seen  again  in  northern  Europe  until  the  decay  of  the  Neus- 
trian  state  under  the  Merowingiaus,  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  a.  d. 
Chronology:  Before  the  conquest  the  history  of  the  Celts  of 
Gaul  is  the  history  of  their  collisions  with  the  southern  nations. 

The  Celtic  migration  was  slow,  and  large  bodies  were  left  behind 
at  various  points,  as  in  Bohemia  and  throughout  Germany,  where 
many  traces  of  Celtic  occupation  survived  the  Teutonic  conquest. 
According  to  some  writers  the  Celts  immigrated  in  two  bands,  the 
Goidelic  or  Gadhelic  Celts  being  the  more  northerly,  and  the  Bry- 
ihonic  or  Cymric  Celts  the  more  southerly  ;  this  is  but  a  surmise. 
Not  earlier  than 

2000.  The  Celts  reached  the  western  shores  of  Europe.  Their 
principal  settlements  were  made  in  central  France.  They 
here  attained  their  highest  culture,  and  from  this  point 
detachments  went  forth  to  conquer  new  lands.  There  were 
four  principal  emigrations. 

1.  To  the  British  Isles.     Date  unknown.     See  p.  36. 

2.  To  Spain,  where  they  mingled  with  the  Iberian  inhabitants 
and  formed  the  Celtiherians.  Celts  in  Spain  were  known  to  Herodo- 
tus in  the  fifth  century  B.  c. 

3.  To  Northern  Italy.  The  legendary  history  of  Rome  places 
this  event  in  the  reign  of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  or  about  600  B.  c. 
Tribe  followed  tribe  mitil  the  whole  of  northern  Italy  was  occupied 
(^Gallia  Cisalpina).  Tribes  :  Bituriges  (Milan),  Cenomani  (Brescia  and 
Verona),  Boii  (Bologna),  *J)enones  (coast  between  Rimini  and  Ancona). 
390.     Conquest  of  Rome  by  the  Senones  under  their  Brennus,  i.  e. 

military  leader. 
283.     Extermination  of  the  Senones  by  the  Romans  ;  defeat  of  the 

Boii  on  the  Vadimonian  lake. 
238.     General    league   of    Cisalpine  Gauls  against    Rome.     Defeat 

of  the  league  at  Telamon,  225.     Capture  of  Milan  by  Scipio. 

Formation  of  Roman  colonies  at  Placentia,  Cremona,  Mutina. 

In  the  second  Punic  War,  Hannibal  induced  the  Gauls  to 

take  up  arms,  but  in  the 
193.     Battle  of  Mutina,  the  last  resistance  of  the  Boii  was  broken 

and  northern  Italy  was  rapidly  Romanized. 

4.  To  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  In  278  a  band  of  Gauls  under  a 
Brennus  ravaged  Macedonia  and  Greece.  After  a  futile  attack  upon 
Delphi,  the  survivors  made  their  way  by  land  to  Asia  Minor,  where 
they  settled  in  the  interior,  and  gave  their  name  to  Galatia. 

1  The  stage  of  development  in  civilization  attained  b}-  ancient  peoples  must 
be  largely  determined  by  the  degree  of  complexity  found  in  their  social  and 
political  systems.  In  our  day,  when  material  comforts  and  conveniences  form 
a  so  much  larger  part  of  the  popular  idea  of  civilization  than  they  ever  did 
before,  it  is  well  to  remember  this  in  judging  the  civilizations  that  are  gone. 


36  Ancient  History.  B.  C. 

Of  the  Celts  of  Gaul  little  is  known  until  the  Roman  conquest. 
Some  time  before  this,  it  is  probable,  the  pressure  of  the  Teutonic 
migration  had  made  itself  felt  in  tha  west,  but  the  details  of  the 
conflicts  are  imknown.  Celts  and  Teutons  became  here  and  there 
interspersed,  but  in  general  the  Rhine  was  the  boundary.  About 
125-121,  the  Romans  conquered  Southern  Gaul  and  made  it  a 
province  {Gallia  Narhonensis).  While  the  Celtic  origin  of  the  Cimbri 
may  not  be  admitted  without  question,  it  is  certain  that  Gallic  tribes 
played  a  considerable  part  in  that  great  invasion  of  Italy  (113-101). 

58-51.  Conquest  of  Gaul  by  Caesar  (p.  138),  after 
which  the  history  of  Gaul  belongs  to  that  of  Rome. 

b.     Celts  of  the  British  Isles. 
BRITAIN. 

Geography :  The  island  of  Britain  forms  an  irregular  triangle,  and 
is  bounded  E.  by  the  German  Ocean,  S.  by  the  Straits  of  Dover  and 
the  English  Channel,  W.  by  St.  George's  Channel,  the  Irish  Sea,  North 
Channel,  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  falls  into  three  geographical 
divisions,  corresponding  somewhat  to  the  later  political  divisions.  I. 
The  extreme  north,  beyond  the  deep  indentations  of  the  Frith  oj 
Clyde  and  the  Frith  of  Forth,  is  mountainous  and  barren,  with  numer- 
ous small  lakes  {Loch  Ness,  Loch  Tay,  Loch  Lomond),  and  sharply 
cut  coasts  on  the  west.  II.  The  southern  and  eastern  portion  :  hilly 
in  the  N.  and  W.  ;  on  the  E.  a  broad  plain,  well  watered  and  fertile. 
Eastern  rivers  :  Humber  (Ouse,  Trent),  Witham,  Welland,  Nen,  Ouse, 
running  tlirough  a  broad  fen-land  into  the  Wash,  Thames.  Western 
rivers  :  Severn,  Mersey.  Island  of  Wight.  In  early  times  the  greater 
part  of  this  plain,  the  modern  England,  was  covered  with  forests, 
of  which  scanty  traces  remain.  The  Andredsiveald  covered  a  large 
part  of  the  counties  of  Surrey  and  Sussex  ;  north  of  the  Thames  a 
huge  forest  extended  nearly  to  the  Wash,  of  which  Epping  and  Hain- 
ault  forests  formed  a  part.  The  fens  about  the  Wash  were  much 
more  extensive  than  now.  III.  The  broad  western  promontory  of 
Wales,  mountainous  with  small  rivers.     Island  of  Anglesea. 

Religion  and  Civilization :  The  Celts  of  Britain  were  ruder  than 
their  brethren  of  Gaul,  and  never  reached  the  same  stage  of  civiliza- 
tion, but  they  seem  to  have  resembled  the  continental  Celts  in  cus- 
toms and  religion.     Druids.     Bards. 

History,  a.  Mythical:  Inordinate  pride  of  ancestry,  a  fertile  im- 
agination, and  an  acquaintance  with  Biblical  and  classical  history  en- 
abled the  British  bards  and  priestly  historians  to  compose  for  their 
race  a  mythical  past,  unique  in  its  extent,  its  detail,  and  its  disregard 
of  time  and  space.  Gaul  was  colonized  by  Meschish,  son  of  Japhet, 
son  of  Noah,  about  1799  (Anno  Mundi)  under  the  name  of  Samotkes. 
Meschish  ruled  Gaul  109  years,  when  he  conquered  Britain  in  1908 
(a.  m.)  and  reigned  over  both  countries  47  years.  He  was  followed 
by  six  sovereigns  of  his  race,  but  on  the  accession  of  the  seventli, 
Lucius,  2211  A.  M.,  Britain  was  wrested  from  liis  rule  by  Albion,  a 
descendant  of  Ham.     He  and  his  successors  reigned  over  Britain 


B.  c.-A.  D.  Celts,  37 

until  2896  a.  m.  or  1108  b.  c,  when  the  line  of  Japhet  recovered  the 
island  in  the  person  of  Brute,  great-grandson  of  ^neds  of  Troy. 
Brute  built  Troynouant,  afterwards  Lud's  Towriy  London.  He  was 
followed  by  his  descendants,  among  whom  we  may  mention  Bladudy 
founder  of  Bath,  Leir  (841-791),  Ferrex  and  Porrex  (496^91),  with 
whom  his  line  expired.  Britain  for  a  time  divided  into  five  kingc 
doms,  was  finally  reunited  under  Malmucius  Dunwall,  the  son  of 
Cloten  king  of  Cornwall  (441-^01),  whose  son  Brennus  left  his  island 
home  to  sack  Rome,  assault  Delphi,  and  found  the  kingdom  of 
Galatia.^  Among  the  successors  of  Malmucius  were  Coill  (160-140). 
Pyrrhus  (66-64),  and  Lvd  (who  in  some  mysterious  manner  began 
to  reign  in  69)  Cassivelaunus  (expedition  of  Caesar),  Cymbeline  (19 
B.  C.-16  A.  D.),  Caractacus,  Vortigem  (445-^155  (485)  a.  d.).  Arthur 
(508-542).  Finally  the  list  merges  in  the  historical  line  of  the 
kings  and  princes  of  Wales. 

h.  Probable.  The  Britons  of  historic  times  were  Celts  who  came 
to  the  island  from  Gaul  at  two  periods.  The  first  invasion  was  very 
early,  and  the  invaders  were  Celts  of  the  Goidelic  (Gadhelic)  or 
northern  branch.  From  the  testimony  of  sepulchral  monuments  it 
is  conjectured  that  the  Celts  found  two  races  in  Britain  :  a  small, 
dark-haired  race,  perhaps  of  Iberian  stock,  and  a  large  light-haired 
race  of  Scandinavian  origin.  The  Goidelic  Celts  conquered  without 
exterminating  the  previous  inhabitants,  and  held  the  land  many  cen- 
turies, until  a  new  invasion  of  continental  Celts  occurred.  This  time 
it  was  the  Brythonic  or  Cymric  Celts  of  the  southern  stock,  who  crossed 
the  channel,  probably  not  very  long  before  the  expedition  of  Caesar, 
and  dispossessed  their  kinsmen  of  the  southern  and  eastern  portion 
of  the  island.  Tribes  :  Cantii,  the  most  civilized,  Attrebatii,  Belgce^ 
Damnonii,  Silures,  Trinobantes,  Iceni,  Brigantes,  etc. 

The  ancients  received  their  first  direct  knowledge  of  Britain  from 
Pytheas  of  Massilia,  who  landed  on  the  island  in  the  third  century 
B.  c.  That  the  Phoenicians  ever  visited  Britain  is  doubted  by  English 
scholars,  who  contend  that  they  obtained  their  tin  either  from  the 
rivers  of  Gaul,  or  from  the  Gallic  tribes  who  imported  it  from 
Britain.     With 

55-54  B.  c.  The  two  expeditions  of  Caesar,  the  actual 
history  of  Britain  begins.  The  effect  of  the  invasions  was 
transitory. 

43  A.  D.  Claudius  began  the  conquest  of  Britain  in  earnest,  and  his 
generals  reduced  the  country  south  of  the  Avon  and  Severn. 

58.     Revolt  of  Boadicea,  leader  of  the  Iceni ;  her  defeat. 

78-85.  Agricola,  under  Vespasian  and  Domitian,  carried  the  Roman 
arms  far  into  Scotland  and  built  a  wall  from  the  Frith  of  Forth 
to  the  Frith  of  Clyde  as  a  defense  against  the  wild  tribes  of 
the  north.  Henceforward  Britannia  formed  a  tolerably  quiet 
part  of  the  Roman  empire.  Roman  fortresses,  towns  and  villas 
covered  its  soil  in  profusion. 

121.     Hadrian  built  a  wall  from  the  Tyne  to  the  Solway.     In 

1  Brennus  killed  himself  after  the  repulse  from  Deiphi;  his  army  settled  in 
9alatia. 


St.  Michael's  College 
Scholastic's  Ll-.ary 


38  Ancient  History,  b.  c. 

139.     Antoninus  strengthened  the  wall  of  Agricola.     In  210  Severus 

added  new  defenses  to  that  of  Hadrian. 
180.     Legendary  conversion  of  Lucius,  king  of  the  Trinobantes,  to 
Christianity,  after  which  the  new  religion  spread  through- 
out the  country,  a  church  was  organized  and  bishoprics  founded 
at  Canterbury  and  York  {?). 
With  the  decay  of  the  empire  its  power  in  Britain  declined.     Troops 
were  withdrawn  to  assist  in  defending  the  continental  borders,  or  in 
supporting  the  claims  of  rival  aspirants  for  the  crown.     Durmg  the 
third  century  the  attacks  of  the  Picts  and  Scots  in  the  north  grew 
more  and  more  severe,  while  the  southern  and  eastern  coasts  suffered 
from  the  ravages  of  the  Frank  and   Saxon  pirates.     Count  of  the 
Saxon  Shore,^  the  olficer  in  charge  of  the  coast  between  the  Wash 
and  Southampton  water,  which  was  most  exposed  to  these  ravages. 
From 
286-294  Britain  was  independent  under  Cerausius,  who  proclaimed 

himself  emperor  of  Britain. 
360.     Scots  from  Ireland  ravaged  the  western  shores. 

410.  Honorius  renounced  the  sovereignty  of  Britain.     The  with- 

drawal of  the  legions  left  Britain  to  her  own  resources.  A 
period  of  civil  dissension  and  exposure  to  foreign  inroads  fol- 
lowed, broken  by  the 

411.  "  Alleluia  Victory  "  of  the  Britons  accompanied  by  St.  Ger- 
manuSy  over  the  Picts.  Finally  the  king  of  the  Damnonii, 
Vortigern  (Guorthigen),  either  by  usurpation  or  election,  ob- 
tained the  sovereignty  over  a  large  part  of  the  island,  and,  as 
the  story  goes,  invited  the  invasion  of  the  Teutonic  conquer- 
ors (p.  176). 

IRELAND. 

Geography :  Lying  W.  of  Britain,  Ireland  is  bounded  on  the  E. 
by  the  North  Channel,  the  Irish  Sea,  and  St.  George's  Channel ;  on  all 
other  sides  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  a  low  plain,  fringed  with 
hilly  tracks  upon  the  coast ;  abounding  in  lakes  (Lough  Corrib,  L. 
Mask,  L.  Erne,  L.  Neagh,  Lakes  of  Killarney,  L.  Dearg,  L.  Ree^,  and 
rivers  {Boyne,  Liffey,  Barrow,  Blackwater,  Shannon). 

Religion  and  Civilization:  In  Ireland  as  in  Britain  we  find 
Celtic  inhabitants,  Celtic  religion,  and  Celtic  culture,  but  both  in 
a  still  more  primitive  form  than  in  England  ;  so  much  so,  indeed, 
that  it  may  be,  the  Celts  of  Ireland  were  the  best  representatives  of 
primitive  Aryan  civilization.     Druids.     Bards. 

History:  Again  the  liistorian  is  confronted  with  a  vast  mass  of 
very  valuable  tradition  mingled  with  a  great  amount  of  priestly  in- 
vention. The  Irish  historical  books  speak  of  five  invasions  of  Ire- 
land.    I.  Partholan  led  a  force  from  central   Greece,  which  ruled 

1  Comes  Litnris  Saxonici  per  Britnnninm.  An  attempt  has  been  made  (Lap- 
penberg,  Kemble)  to  show  that  this  name  indicates  the  settlement  of  Saxons 
npontliis  shore  long  before  the  Teutonic  conquest.  What  people,  it  has  been 
asked,  Avould  name  a  portion  of  their  country  after  its  worst  enemies  ?  A  ref- 
erence to  our  "Indian  Frontier,"  by  which  is  meant  land  held  by  the  whites 
but  molested  by  Indians,  might  dispel  this  objection.  The  argument  from 
i'oinage  is  stronger,  but  on  the  whole  the  assumption  does  not  seem  to  be 
proved. 


B.  c.  Greeks.  39 

Ireland  300  years,  and  >:hen  died  of  the  plague,  and  were  succeeded 
by  II.  Nemed,  from  Scythia,  who  also  died  of  the  plague.  III.  Fir- 
bolgs,  who  came  under  five  chiefs  and  settled  in  various  parts  of 
the  island.  IV.  The  Tuatha  De  Danann,  of  the  race  of  Nemed,  who 
defeated  and  nearly  exterminated  the  Firholgs.  V.  Milesians  or 
Scots,  who  under  Galam,  son  of  Breogan,  came  from  Spain,  and 
conquering  the  Tuatha  De'  Danann,  divided  Ireland  among  the  sons 
and  other  relatives  of  Galam.  The  ancestry  of  Galam  goes  back 
to  Noah.  The  historical  interpretation  of  these  legends  seems  at 
present  to  be  that  Ireland  at  the  commencement  of  the  Christian 
era  was  occupied  in  the  north  by  Goidelic  Celts  (Cruithni,  Picts)  ; 
in  the  east  and  centre  by  British  and  Belgic  tribes  (Cymric),  and  in 
the  southwest  (Munster)  by  a  people  of  southern  extraction  (Ibe- 
rians ?).  Between  the  numerous  petty  kingdoms  thus  established 
incessant  war  prevailed,  with  the  details  of  which  the  legendary  his- 
tory is  filled.  Tuathal  (died  160  A.  d.),  a  powerful  king  who  reigned 
over  Leinster  and  Meath,  and  warred  with  the  rival  kingdom  or 
kingdoms  in  Munster,  is  probably  historic.  Irish  Invasions  of  Brit- 
ain :  Settlements  in  Wales,  Devon,  and  Cornwall,  and  especially  in 
the  north.  Ireland  was  never  conquered,  or  even  invaded,  by  the 
Romans,  though  Agricola  had  planned  an  Irish  expedition.  The 
Irish  were  converted  to  Christianity  in  the  fifth  century.  Palladius, 
sent  to  Ireland,  431  a.  d.,  died  soon  after.  St.  Patrick  (Succath  or 
Maun),  took  up  the  work  and  brought  it  to  a  successful  conclusion. 
Establishment  of  numerous  monasteries,  which  in  the  next  cen- 
tury attained  wide  renown  for  the  learning  of  their  members. 

§2.    GRECIAN  HISTORY.    Aryan. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  SURVEY  OF  ANCIENT  GREECE. 

See  Kiepert,  Atlas  Antiquus,  Tab.  V  and  VI. 

The  peninsula  of  Greece  (Hellas,  ^  'EWds)  bounded  N.  by  Mace- 
donia and  Illyria,  and  on  all  other  sides  by  the  sea  (E.  mare  jEgceum, 
S.  mare  Myrtoum  and  mare  Creticum,  W.  mare  Ionium),  is  divided  into 
four  principal  regions  :  Peloponnesus,  Central  Greece,  Thessaly, 
Epirus. 

A.  Peloponnesus  (^  neXoir6uuri(ros,  Island  of  Pelops),  connected 
with  the  mainland  by  the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  washed  on  the 
N.  by  the  waters  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  is  divided  into  nine  dis- 
tricts :  1.  Achaia,  formerly  inhabited  by  lonians,  in  twelve  com- 
munities, or  cantons.  jEgium,  capital  of  the  confederacy,  Patrce. 
2.  Elis  or  Eleia,  in  iEolic  dialect,  Vdlis,  drained  by  the  Alphms  and 
Peneus.  It  is  subdivided  into  Elis  Proper,  or  Hollow  Elis:  Elis 
and  its  harbor  Cyllene,  Pisatis  :  Olympia,  not  a  city  but  a  temple  of 
Zeus,  in  a  walled  grove  ("AXtls),  with  places  for  games,  altars,  and  va- 
rious buildings,  and  Triphylia.  3.  Messenia  :  Pylos,  the  home  of 
Nestor,  opposite  the  island  of  Sphacteria,  Messene,  built  in  369  b.  c, 
the  hill  fortresses  of  Ithome  and  Ira.  4.  Laconia  (AaKcoviK-q),  with 
the  mountain  range  of  Taygetus,  ending  in  the  promontory  Tsenarus  : 
Sparta  (:S,TrdpT7i),  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Eurotas  ;  north  of  Sparta, 
Sellasia  ;    on  the  coast  Helos,  and   Gythium  the  harbor  of  Sparta, 


40  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

5.  Argolis  (rh  ''Apycs,  ri  ^Apye(a)  comprised  many  cantons,  politically 
independent  of  one  another :  Argos,  with  its  harbor  Nauplia,  on  the 
gulf  of  Argolis y  near  by  Tiryns,  with  Cyclopean  walls,  Hermioney 
TrcRzen,  Epidaurus,  on  the  Saronicus  sinus;  inland,  Mycence  with 
Cyclopean  structures.  The  Lion  Gate,  the  so-called  Treasure  House 
of  Atreus.  6.  Phliasia  :  Phlius.  7.  Corinthia  :  Corinth,  formerly 
Ephyra  with  its  citadelJ.  crocormfAt^.  8.  Sicyonia:  Sicyon  (Sikuccv). 
9.  Arcadia,  the  mountainous  region  in  the  interior,  with  the  ranges 
Cyllene  and  Erymanthus  on  the  borders  of  Achaia;  Mantinea,  Tegea^ 
Megalopolis,  the  latter  founded  in  370. 

B.  Central  Greece,^  also  divided  into  nine  districts :  1.  Megaris, 
since  the  Dorian  conquest,  belonging  ethnographically  and  politi- 
cally to  Peloponnesus:  Megara,  and  its  harbor  Niscea.  2.  Attica 
('Attiktj)  with  the  mountains  Parnes,  Brllissus  (Pentelicus^,  Hymettus, 
and  the  promontory  of  Sunium,  the  rivulets  Cephissus  and  Ilissus. 
Athens  {'AOrjvai)  with  the  Acropolis  (PropyloRa,  Parthenon^  Erech-^ 
theion),  the  fortified  harbor  of  Pirceus  (Ueipaievs),  connected  with  the 
city  by  the  Long  Walls  (rh  fiaKpa  relxv ;  tos  (tk4\7}),  the  two  unimportant 
harbors  Munychm  and  Zea  and  the  open  bay  of  Phaleron,  which  served 
as  a  roadstead.  Attic  demes  :  Eleusis,  Marathon,  Decelea,  Phyle,  etc. 
3.  Boeotia,  with  Mts.  Helicon,  and  Cithceron,  Lake  Copals,  traversed 
by  the  Cephissus ;  Thebes  (kirTdtrv^os),  with  its  citadel  the  Cadmea; 
Thespice ;  Leuctra  ;  Platmce,  which  separated  itself  very  early  from 
the  Boeotian  league  and  allied  itself  with  Athens  ;  Haliartus,  Coronea, 
Orchomenos.  On  the  coast;  Aulis,  Delium,  and,  not  far  distant,  Tan- 
agra.  4.  Phocis:  At  the  base  of  Mt.  Parnassus,  Delphi  (AeA^oO, 
with  the  oracle  of  the  Pythian  Apollo,  Cr/ssa,  with  its  harbor, 
Cirrha;  Elatea.  5.  Eastern  Locris  :  {h.oKpo\  v^oi),  for  a  time  di- 
vided by  a  part  of  Phocis  into  the  southern  region  of  the  Opuntian 
Locrians  with  the  town  Opus,  and  the  northern  of  the  Epicne- 
midian  Locrians  (i.  e.  they  who  dwell  on  the  mountain  of  Cnemis) 
with  the  town  Thronium.  6.  Western  Locris  (AoKpoi  kairipioi,  called 
by  the  other  Grecians  Ao/cpol  o^Shai,  "the  stinking").  Amphissa, 
Naupactus.  7.  Doris  (Aopfs),  between  the  mountains  CEta  and  Par^ 
nassus,  the  country  of  a  small  body  of  Dorians,  who  at  the  time  of 
the  Dorian  invasion  remained  in  the  north,  called  from  its  four  miim- 
portant  villages,  the  Tetrapolis.  8.  .Sltolia,  Calydon,  Pleuron,  and 
Thermum  (afterwards  the  place  where  the  assembly  met  at  the  time 
of  the  iEtolian  league).  9.  Acarnania,  with  the  promontory  Actium; 
Stratus,  near  the  river  Achelous,  ('AxeAi^os)  which  separates  Acarna- 
nia from  jEtolia. 

C.  Thessaly,  watered  by  the  Peneus  (valley  of  Tempe),  with  the 
mountain  range  of  Pindus  in  the  W.  on  the  border  of  Epirus;  in  the 
S.  Othrys;  in  the  E.  Pelion,  Ossa;  in  the  N.  Olympus  and  the  Camou- 
nian  mountains.^  Five  divisions  from  S.  to  N.:  1.  Phthiotis,  in  the 
most  southern  part.  Malls,  on  the  Sinus  Maliacus  was  the  Pass  of 
Thermopylae,  i.  e.  "  gate  of  the  warm  springs ; "  Lamm.  2.  Thessa- 
liotis,  Pharsalus.     3.  Pelasgiotis,  Pherce,   Crannon,  Larissa  on  the 

1  The  expression  Hellas  propria  first  appears  in  the  Roman  period  ;  tho 
Greeks  never  used  Hellas  for  the  name  of  this  particular  part  of  the  country. 

2  But  see  Kiepert,  LehrbSd.  a.  Geoyr.,  §  210,  note  1. 


B.  C.  Greeks.  41 

Peneus.     4.  Hestiaeotis.     5.  The  eastern  coast  land,  Magnesia, 

lolcos,  on  the  Sinus  Pagasceus,  Demetrias. 

D.  Epirus.  In  historic  times  inhabited  by  lUyrian  tribes  not  of 
pure  Grecian  blood.  Principal  tribes:  Molossians,  in  whose  terri- 
tory was  Ambracia,  not  far  from  the  Ambracian  gulf,  and  Dodona 
(oracle  of  Zeus);  Thesprotians,  PandosXa  on  the  Achtrorij  Chao 
uians. 

In  Macedonia,  which  lay  north  from  Thessaly,  the  following 
places  are  to  be  noted:  Pydna,  Pella,  the  royal  residence  since  the 
reign  of  A:*chelaus  (formerly  jEgae  or  Edessa  enjoyed  this  distinc- 
tion). On  the  penmsula  Chalcidice:  OlynthuSy  PotidcBttj  Staglrus.  In 
Thrace:  Amphipolis  near  the  mouth  of  the  Strymon,  PhilippcE,  Abdera, 
Perinthus  (Heradea),  Byzantium.  In  the  Thracian  Chersonese: 
Sestos,  opposite  Abydos  in  Asia  Minor. 

Most  important  islands :  In  the  ^gean  sea :  1,  Crete 
(KprjTT],  kKaT6fnro\is) :  Cnosus  (Gnossus),  and  Gortyn  (a) ;  2,  Thera,  a 
colony  of  Sparta,  itself  mother  city  of  Cyrene  in  Africa  (p.  49), 
Melos ;  3,  the  12  Cyclades :  Paros,  Naxos,  to  the  north  the  small  De- 
los  (Mt.  Cynthus,  sanctuary  of  Apollo),  Cythnos,  Ceos,  AndroSy  TenoSy 
etc.  In  the  Saronic  gulf:  4,  uEgina  (Atytvo);  5,  Salamis.  In  the  sea 
of  Eubcea;  6,  Eubcea  with  the  promontory  of  Artemisium  in  the 
north,  Chalets,  Eretria.  In  the  Thracian  sea:  7,  Lemnos;  8,  Samo- 
thrace;  9,  Thasos.  On  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  from  N.  to  S. :  10, 
Tenedos,  not  far  from  Ilium  or  Troy,  in  the  district  of  Troas;  11, 
Lesbos:  Mitylene, Methymna;  12,  Chios;  13, /Sawios opposite  the  prom- 
ontory of  Mycale;  14,  Cos;  15,  Rhodes. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  Mediterranean  the  island  of  Cyprus, 
(KiTTpos),  cities  (originally  Phoenician,  afterwards  Greek):  Salamis 
{Schalem),  Paphoc  and  Amathus,  centre  of  the  worship  of  Aphrodite 
(Venus  Amathusia). 

In  the  Ionian  sea  from  S.  to  N. :  1,  Cythera,  south  of  Laconia,  with 
temple  of  Aphrodite;  2,  Zacynthos;  3,  Cephallenia,  called  by  Homer 
Samos;  4,  Ithaca;  5,  Leucasj  6,  Corcyra  (KepKwpa),  perhaps  the  Scheria 
of  Homer. 

RELIGION   OF   THE   GREEKS. ^ 

The  religion  of  the  early  Greeks  was  a  pantheistic  nature-worship,, 
distinguished  among  others  by  the  multiplicity  of  its  deities,  and  their 
intricate  gradation,  as  well  as  by  the  wealth  of  biographical  detail 
which  the  imagination  of  the  poets  provided  for  them.  The  great 
gods,  Olympic  deities,  were  12  in  number.  Male  divinities :  Zeus  "  the 
God,"  lord  of  the  sky,  and  ruler  of  all  other  gods  as  well  as  of  men; 
Poseidon,  god  of  the  sea;  Apollo,  probably  originally  the  highest  god 
of  some  local  district,  the  divinity  of  wisdom,  of  healing,  of  music  and 
poetry,  but  not  until  later  the  sun-god;  Ares,  god  of  war;  HephcEstus, 
god  of  fire,  and  of  work  accomplished  by  the  application  of  fire,  set 
apart  from  the  other  gods  by  his  lameness;  Hermes,  god  of  invention, 
commercial  skill,  cunning,  bravery.      Female  divinities:  Hera,  con- 

1  Rawlinson.  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World.  Also  Grote,  Hist,  of  Greece^ 
vol.  I.;  Curtius,  Griech.  Gesch.  I.  543-60;  456-549  passim. 


42  Ancient  History.  B.  Co 

sort  of  Zeus;  Athena,  the  maiden  goddess  sprung  from  the  head  of 
Zeus,  the  embodiment  of  wisdom  and  of  housewifery;  Artemis,  god- 
dess of  hunting,  afterwards  connected  with  the  moon,  as  her  brother 
Phcebus  Apollo,  with  the  sun  ;  Aphrodite,  goddess  of  sensual  love,  prob- 
ably introduced  from  the  East;  Hestia,  goddess  of  fire,  especially  of 
the  hearth-fire  ;  Demeter,  "  earth-mother,"  presiding  over  agriculture. 

In  the  lower  rank  of  gods  may  be  mentioned:  Dionysim,  god  of 
wine  and  drunkenness;  Hades,  god  of  the  lower  world,  the  Graces, 
the  Muses,  the  Fates,  the  Furies,  etc.  The  fields  and  forests,  the 
ocean  and  the  rivers  were  crowded  with  Nymphs  and  Hamadryads, 
Naiads  and  Nereids,  while  creatures  of  a  lower  order.  Satyrs  (among 
whom  Pan  rose  to  the  level  of  a  god  of  the  second  rank)  and  monsters 
{Cyclopes,  Gorgons,  Centaurs,  etc.)  abounded. 

Reverence  was  also  paid  to  the  heroes,  ideal  representations  of  fa- 
mous men,  real  or  imaginary.  Such  were  Cadmus  (Thebes),  Theseus 
(Athens),  and  Heracles,  the  mostly  widely  known  of  all  (see  p.  45). 

The  gods  were  worshipped  by  invocation,  and  by  sacrifices  offered 
in  accordance  with  a  rigid  ritual  at  altars  which  could  be  im- 
provised anywhere.  There  were,  however,  permanent  altars  for  all 
divinities,  in  temples  where  the  statue  of  the  divinity  was  also  en- 
shrined. These  temples  were  frequently  erected  on  lofty  and  com- 
manding sites,  and  upon  their  construction  and  decoration  was  lav- 
ished the  highest  skill  in  architecture  and  sculpture.  Brilliant 
coloring  was  also  employed  upon  the  temples.  Each  family,  tribe 
and  race,  each  city,  district  and  comitry  had  its  recurring  fes- 
tivals of  special  honor  to  the  gods  (Panathencea  at  Athens).  Re- 
ligious festivals  of  all  Greece:  Olympian  (Zeus)  every  fifth  year,  in 
July  or  August,  at  Olympia  in  Elis;  Pythian  (Apollo),  every  fifth 
(9th)  year,  at  Delphi;  Isthmian  (Neptune),  every  five  years  on  the 
Isthmus  of  Corinth;  Nemean,  every  third  year,  at  Nemea  in  Argolis. 
These  festivals  were  the  centre  of  Grecian  national  life.  Amphyctio- 
nic  Council,  the  most  important  of  the  Amphyctionics  (p.  51),  a  reli- 
gious conference  which  met  at  Delphi,  and  represented  the  political 
side  of  the  Pan-Hellenic  religion.  Consultation  of  oracles,  for  obtain- 
ing the  counsel  of  the  gods,  especially  at  Delphi.  Mysteries,  or  rites  of 
secret  religious  societies,  the  most  renowned  at  Eleusis.  No  hierarchy 
of  priests ;  yet  those  who  had  charge  of  the  sacrifices,  and  more  espe- 
cially of  the  oracles,  often  attained  great  influence. 

Ideas  of  future  life  vague  and  unsatisfactory.  The  more  advanced 
minds  among  the  Greeks  undoubtedly  attained  to  the  idea  of  the  es- 
sential oneness  of  divinity. 

GRECIAN   HISTORY   CAN   BE    DIVIDED   INTO   FOUR   EPOCHS. 

X-1104  (?).  I.  Mythical  period  down  to  the  Thessalian  and  Dorian 
migration. 

1104  (?)-500.  II.  Formation  of  the  Hellenic  states.  Period  of  con- 
stitutional struggles  down  to  the  Persian  ivars. 

500-338.  III.  Persian  wars  and  internecine  strife  for  the  hegemony 
down  to  the  loss  of  independence  at  the  battle  of  Charonea. 

338-146.  IV.  Grseco-Macedonian  or  Hellenistic  period  down  to  the 
subjugation  of  Greece  by  the  Romans.     Destruction  of  Corinth, 


B.  c.  Greelcs,  43 

FIRST   PERIOD. 

M3rthical  time,  down  to  the  Thessalian  and  Dorian  migration 

(x-1104?).! 

The  Greeks,^  or  as  they  called  themselves  the  Hellenes  ("EAATjves), 
belong  to  the  Indo-European  or  Aryan  family. 

The  Greeks  state  that  the  original  inhabitants  of  their  country- 
were  the  Pelasgians.  The  meanmg  of  tliis  name  is  much  disputed. 
According  to  some  scholars  it  denotes  the  band  which  afterwards 
divided  mto  the  Italians  and  Hellenes.  Another  view  regards  the 
Pelasgians  and  Hellenes  as  the  same  people,  but  holds  that  the  latter 
name  is  applied  to  those  tribes  wliich,  "  endowed  with  peculiar  abil- 
ities and  inspired  with  peculiar  energy,  distinguished  themselves  above 
the  mass  of  a  great  people,  while  they  extended  their  power  within 
the  same  by  force  of  arms,"  ^  so  that  their  name  became  in  historic 
times  the  one  generally  accepted.  Others,  again,  regard  the  name 
Pelasgian  as  Semitic,  and  so  applied  originally  to  the  Phoenician  in- 
habitants of  the  coast,  especially  to  the  Minyce  of  Orchomenos,  and 
afterwards  erroneously  transferred  to  the  Illyrian  aborigines  of 
Epirus,  Acadia,  etc. 

Qodona,  in  Epirus,  with  the  oracle  of  Zeus^  the  god  of  the  sky, 
was  the  oldest  centre  of  the  Pelasgian  life  and  religion.  Remains 
of  Pelasgian  buildings,  called  by  the  Greeks  Cyclopean^  are  found  in 
Tiryns  in  Argolis,  and  in  Orchomenos  in  Bceotia. 

Our  earliest  historical  information  shows  the  Hellenes  divided 
into  various  tribes.  Of  these  the  Achaeans  were  most  prominent 
during  the  heroic  times,  and  their  name  was  therefore  used  by  Homer 
to  denote  the  entire  race.  In  historic  times,  on  the  contrary,  the 
Dorians  and  lonians  occupy  the  foreground;  the  other  tribes  are 
then  classed  together  under  the  name  2Bo\ian,  and  the  dialects 
which  were  neither  Dorian  nor  Ionian  are  known  as  ^olian.  The 
following  mytliical  genealogy  seems  to  have  been  invented  at  a  very 
late  period,  and  to  have  originated  at  Delphi. 

Hellen  (son  of  Deucalion) 

A. 

^olus  (i.  e.  the  many-colored)         Dorus         Xuthus  (i.  e.  the  exUe) 


Ion  Achseus. 

We  have  no  authentic  information  about  the  manner  of  the  Hel- 
lenic migration  into  Greece.  According  to  one  well-founded  theory, 
a  part  of  the  immigrants,  and  among  them  the  ancestors  of  the  Do- 
rians, forced  their  way  over  the  Hellespont  into  the  mountainous 
region  of  northern  Greece,  where  they  established  themselves  as 
shepherds  and  tillers  of  the  land.  Other  bands,  among  whom  were  the 
ancestors  of  the  lonians,  having  descended  from  the  highlands  of  Phry- 

-  According  to  Duncker,  Hist,  of  Antiq.,  TOO  years  later. 

2  Grdken  (Grsci,  TpaiKoi)  was  the  name  given  to  the  Greeks  by  the  people  of 
Italy;  it  was  the  name  of  a  tribe  in  Epirus,  or  the  Jllyrian  name  for  the  Hellenes 
m  general. 

8  Curtius,  Griechische  Geschic/ite,  I.  29;  Hist,  of  Greece,  N.  Y.  1876, 1.  41 


14  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

gia,  by  way  of  the  valleys,  to  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  were  there 
transformed  into  a  race  of  seamen^  and  gradually  spread  themselves 
over  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago  to  the  mainland  of  Greece.^  (The 
former  formed  the  western,  the  latter,  the  eastern  Greeks). 

Remembrance  of  the  fact  that  western  Greece  received  its  civiliza- 
tion from  the  East  gave  rise,  at  a  later  period,  to  stories  about  un- 
authentic immigrations.^ 

Cecrops  (K6»cpo»;/),  according  to  the  original  story  autochthonus 
king  of  Attica,  and  builder  of  the  Cecropia  (Acropolis  of  Athens), 
was  afterwards,  in  consequence  of  that  identification  of  Grecian 
and  Egyptian  mythology  which  is  illustrated  by  the  conception  of 
Neithy  goddess  of  Sais,  as  Pallas  Athena  (p.  2),  falsely  represented 
as  an  Egyptian  immigrant  from  Sais. 

The  truth  seems  to  be  that  the  cliffs  by  the  Ilissus,  which  were 
called  the  Cecropia^  formed  the  first  fortress  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  region,  upon  which  their  altars  and  sanctuaries  found  protec- 
tion, and  around  which  the  first  beginnings  of  political  life  in 
Attica  grouped  themselves.  Afterwards  the  Cecropia  was  per- 
sonified under  the  name  Cecrops.  According  to  the  legend  Cecrops 
was  succeeded  by  Erichthonios,  the  latter  by  Erechtheus^  the  two 
becoming  soon  imited  into  one  person,  in  whom  the  Erechtheion, 
the  temple  of  Poseidon  Erechtheus,  on  the  Acropolis,  is  personified. 
The  legend  makes  Erechtheus  the  founder  of  the  festival  of  Pan- 
athencea  and  conqueror  of  Eumolpus  (i.  e.  sweet  singer)  of  Eleusis, 
the  centre  of  the  worship  of  Demeter  (story  of  her  daughter  Core,  in 
the  lower  world  Proserpina;  the  Eleusinian  mysteries).  Eleusis  was 
united  with  Athens  into  one  community.  Erechtheus,  according  to 
the  legend,  was  succeeded  by  (Eneus,  the  latter  by  j^geus,  the  father 
of  Theseus,  the  national  hero  of  the  lonians  (p.  45). 

A  later  legend  tells  how  Danaus,  brother  of  jEgt/ptus,  came  from 
Upper  Egypt  to  Argos.  He,  too,  with  his  fiifty  daughters,  the  Dan- 
aides,  who,  with  the  exception  of  Hypermnestra,  murdered  their  hus- 
bands, the  sons  of  jEgyptus,  and  were  for  this  crime  condemned  to 
fill  the  bottomless  tub,  belongs  to  the  native  mythology.  The  Dan- 
aides  are  the  springs  of  Argos,  which,  in  the  summer  time,  exert 
themselves  in  vain  to  satisfy  the  soil ;  the  water  which  gushes  from 
them  being  dried  up  in  the  chalky  earth.  According  to  the  legend 
the  descendants  of  Lynceus  and  Hypermnestra  ruled  in  Argos. 

On  the  other  hand  the  legend  of  the  migration  of  the  Pelopidae 
from  Lydia  to  Greece  seems  to  have  a  historical  f oimdation.  Pelops, 
son  of  king  Tantalus,  who  ruled  the  country  about  the  Sipylus,  came 
to  Elis  in  Peloponnesus.  His  sons  Atreus  and  Thyestes,  with  the 
help  of  Achceans  from  Phthiotis,  made  themselves  masters  of  Tiryns 
and  Mycenoe,  which  had  been  founded  by  Perseus.  Of  the  sons  of 
Atreus,  Agamemnon  reigned  over  the  whole  of  Argolis,  while 
Menelaus  became  king  of  Sparta  and  Messina.  The  buildings  and 
sculptures  in  Mycenae,  which  are  ascribed  to  the  Atridce,  resemble 
Assyrian  art,  and  Assyrian  art  could  have  come  to  Greece  earliest 
by  way  of  Lydia. 

1  Curtius,  I.,  Griech.  Gesch.,  I.  29  sqq. ;  ffist.  of  Greece,  I.  41. 

2  Cf.  Duncker,  Gesch.  des  Alth.,  III.  (2  Auflage),  1  Kap.  4-6.  Curtiua, 
Griech.  Gesch.,  I.  58;  Bist.  of  Greece,  I.  73. 


B.  c.  Greeks.  45 

Cadmus,  the  mythical  founder  of  the  Theban  state,  is  the  per- 
sonification of  Phoenician  colonization,  or  at  least  of  that  civilization 
which  Hellas  had  received  from  Phcenicia  (p.  18). 

The  national  heroes  of  Grecian  legend. 

The  myth  of  Heracles  ('HpoKArjs,  Hercules),  son  of  Zeus  and  Alc- 
mena,  grew  up  out  of  the  union  of  various  religious,  historical,  and 
ethical  elements.  Heracles  was  in  the  begimiing  an  actual  divinity 
whom  tradition,  in  the  course  of  time,  degraded  to  a  demi-god.  In 
him  are  united  the  Phoenician  Melkart  (p.  17)  and  Sandon,  the  sun- 
god  of  Asia  Minor,  and  his  heroic  deeds  are  for  the  most  part  adapta- 
tions of  the  deeds  ascribed  to  these  two  divinities.  Heracles  is  at 
the  same  time  the  popular  symbol  brought  by  the  Phoenicians  to  the 
eastern  Greeks,  and  from  them  to  the  western  Greeks,  of  the  pioneer 
activity  of  the  ancient  settlements.  A  portion  of  the  mass  of  legends 
connected  with  Heracles  after  his  transformation  into  a  Greek  is  ex- 
plained by  later  historical  relations.  The  Dorians  adopted  him  as 
their  tribal  hero.  Their  kings  called  themselves  his  descendants, 
Heraclidse  ;  from  him  they  derived  their  rights  to  the  Peloponnesus. 
Hence  liis  rights,  in  the  legends,  not  only  over  Mycence,  in  opposition 
to  Eurystheus,  but  also  over  other  parts  of  the  peninsula  (Auglas  in 
Elis,  Tyndareus  in  Sparta).  The  poetry  of  a  later  time,  regarding 
Heracles  as  an  ethical  conception,  presented  him  as  the  model  of 
heroism,  moral  force,  and  renunciation,  especially  of  willing  obedi- 
ence (the  12  labors  at  the  behest  of  Eurystheus;  the  choice  of  Her- 
cules). 

Theseus  (©Tjo-eus),  son  of  jEgeus,  the  descendant  of  Cecrops,  is  the 
family  hero  of  the  lonians,  and  of  the  Athenians  in  particular. 
He  cleared  the  road  from  Troezen,  where,  according  to  the  legend, 
he  was  born,  to  Athens  (especially  the  isthmus),  of  robbers  (PeripketeSy 
Sinnis,  Sciron,  Damastes  or  Procrustes),  so  that  the  lonians  of  the 
Peloponnesus  and  of  Attica  thenceforward  could  assemble  on  the 
isthmus  at  the  sacrifices  to  Poseidon.  Theseus  put  to  death  the 
Minotaur  in  Crete,  and  rescued  the  Athenian  youths  and  maidens 
sent  as  a  sacrifice  to  him.  He  conquered  at  Marathon  the  wild  bull 
which  is  said  to  have  likewise  come  from  Crete.  He  repulsed  the 
Amazons  who  made  an  attack  upon  Athens  for  the  purpose  of  avenging 
the  rape  of  Antiope.  These  three  myths  express  the  historical  fact 
of  the  liberation  of  Attica  from  the  tribute  which  it  owed  to  the 
Phoenicians  of  Crete  and  the  smaller  islands,  who  offered  human 
sacrifices  to  their  god  Moloch.  The  origin  of  the  story  of  the 
Amazons  is  to  be  found  in  the  virgin  servants  of  the  Phoenician 
goddess  Astarte,  who,  at  the  religious  ceremonies,  executed  dances 
in  armor.  The  legend,  moreover,  ascribes  to  Theseus  the  union  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Attica  into  one  state,  and  the  separation  of  the 
people  into  the  three  orders:  Eupatridce  (nobles),  Geomori  (peasants), 
and  Demiurgi  (artizans),  whereas  the  arrangement  of  the  four 
ancient  classes  (Phylre) :  Geleontes  (nobles),  HoplUes  (warriors), 
Argadeis  (artizans),  jEgicoreis  (shepherds)  was  referred  by  the 
Athenians  to  the  mythical  tribal  ancestor  of  the  Ionian  tribe.  Ion 
(p.  43). 


46  Ancient  History.  B.  c. 

The  Grecian  legends  adopted  Minos  (mIi^ws),  also  originally  of 
Phoenician  origin,  and  transformed  him  into  a  Hero  of  the  Dorians 
who  dwelt  in  Crete  since  1000,  and  a  wise  legislator  and  suppressor 
of  piracy.     Advanced  civilization  existed  in  Crete  before  1500. 

Concerted  enterprises  of  the  heroic  time. 

Expedition  of  the  Argonauts.     The  golden  fleece. 

Phrixos,  son  of  the  king  of  the  Minyae,  Athamas  of  lolcos,  in  Thessaly„ 
whom  his  father  was  about  to  sacrifice  to  Zeus  in  order  to  obtain  rain, 
fled  with  his  sister  Helle,  on  the  ram  with  the  golden  fleece,  who  was 
given  them  by  their  mother  Nephele.  Helle  during  the  journey  fell 
into  the  sea,  which  is  now  called  Hellespont  ("  sea  of  Helle  "),  near 
Abydos.  Phrixos  reached  Colchis,  on  the  Pontus  Euxlnus,  and  king 
jEetes.  The  ram  was  sacrificed,  the  golden  fleece  preserved  in  a 
grove  of  the  god  Ares,  guarded  by  a  dragon.  Jason,  from  lolcos,  in- 
cited by  his  uncle  Pelias,  sailed  in  the  ship  Argo  to  Colchis  at  the 
head  of  a  band  of  heroes  consisting,  according  to  the  original  myth,  of 
Minyaj  alone,  but  according  to  the  later  legends  accompanied  by 
Heracles,  Theseus,  Castor,  Pollux,  Orpheus,  etc.  They  gained  pos- 
session of  the  fleece  by  the  aid  of  the  enchantress  Medea,  daughter 
of  JEetes.  Return  to  lolcos.  Pelias  murdered  at  the  instigation  of 
Medea.  According  to  a  later  continuation  of  the  legend,  flight  of 
Jason  and  Medea  to  Corinth,  where  Jason  fell  in  love  with  Glaucttf 
the  daughter  of  the  king.  Medea  poisoned  Glauca,  and  killed  her 
own  children.  Medea  went  to  Athens  and  became  the  consort  of 
JEgeus. 

This  myth  seems  to  have  been  originally  purely  symbolical.  The 
golden  ram,  which  Nephele,  that  is,  the  "cloud,"  sends,  is  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  fertilizing  power  of  rain-clouds.  The  cloud-ram  de- 
parts to  his  home,  the  land  of  the  sun-god.  His  fleece,  a  pledge  of 
blessing,  is  brought  back  by  Jason  (the  "  healer,"  the  "  bringer  of 
blessings "),  with  the  help  of  the  daughter  of  the  son  of  the  sun, 
Meies,  who  is  learned  in  magic.  This  myth  was  afterwards  expanded 
and  localized  in  a  manner  which  hints  at  the  early  voyages  of  the 
Pelasgic  (p.  43)  Minyae.  The  principal  site  of  the  wealth  and 
power  of  the  Minyse  was  Orchomenos  in  Bceotia;  but  the  gulf  of 
Pagdsce,  on  which  lolcos  is  situated,  is  the  scene  of  their  early  inter- 
course by  sea. 

War  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes. 

The  story  of  (Edipus  appears  in  its  simplest  form  in  Homer,  and 
was  expanded  by  the  Attic  tragic  poets.  C£dipus  (olShovs),  son  of 
Jocasta,  and  Ldios  king  of  Thebes,  a  great-grandson  of  Cadmus,  is 
exposed,  in  infancy,  in  consequence  of  an  oracle  which  prophesied 
injury  to  his  parents.  He  was  rescued  and  brought  up  by  Polybos  in 
Corinth.  At  Delphi  he  kills  his  father,  without  recognizing  him, 
solves  the  riddle  of  the  Sphinx  (What  creature  is  there  which  goes 
on  4,  2,  and  3  feet  ?  Man,  in  childhood,  in  manhood,  in  old  age), 
becomes  king  of  Thebes,  and  marries  his  own  mother.  When  his 
crime  is  made  known  to  him,  he  puts  out  his  eyes.  His  daughters 
Antigone  and  Ismene.     Quarrels  of  his  sons  Eteocles  ('EtcokA^s)  and 


B.  c.  Greeks.  47 

Polynlces  (UoKwelicris).  Polynices  attacks  Thebes  with  his  allies  : 
Adrastus,  Tydem,  Amphiardus,  Capaneus,  Hippomedon,  Parthenopceus. 
The  hostile  brothers  fall  in  personal  contest;  of  the  other  princes  all 
perish  but  Creon,  the  uncle  of  the  brothers,  who  becomes  king  of 
Thebes. 

"War  of  the  Epigoni. 

Ten  years  later,  expedition  of  the  Epigoni  (sons  of  the  Seren). 
Thebes  captured  and  plundered.  Thersanderj  son  of  PolyniceSy  made 
king  of  Thebes. 

1193-1184.     Trojan  T^ar. 

Priam  was  king  of  Troy,  or  Ilium,  in  Asia  Minor;  his  consort  was 
Hecuba  (Hecabe).  Of  his  fifty  sons  the  following  appear  in  the 
legend  :  Hector  (^EKTwp),  whose  wife  is  Andromache,  and  Paris 
(^Alexandros).  The  latter  abducts  Helena  ('EAcVt?),  wife  of  MenelduSy 
of  Sparta.  The  noblest  princes  of  Greece  unite  to  bring  her  back. 
Agamemnon  of  Mycenae,  brother  of  Menelaus,  and  leader  of  the 
Greeks;  Sthenelus  of  Tiryns ;  iVes^or  of  Pylos  ;  Achilles  ('AxtAAetis), 
king  of  the  Myrmidons  from  Phthia  in  Thessaly,  son  of  Peleus  and 
the  Nereid  Thetis;  Patroclus;  AJax  (Afas),  and  Teucer,  sons  of  Tela- 
mon  of  Salamis;  the  younger  Ajoj:,  son  of  Oileus,  leader  of  the 
Locrians;  Diomedes  of  Argos,  son  of  Tydeus;  Odysseus  of  Ithaca, 
son  of  Laertes;  Idomeneus,  of  Crete,  grandson  of  Minos,  etc. 

Among  the  allies  of  the  Trojans  from  Asia  Minor  are  :  Sarpedon 
and  Glaucus,  leaders  of  the  Lycians,  troops  from  Mysia,  Moeonia  (in 
Lydia),  Paphlagonia,  and  Phrygia,  also  Thracians  and  Pceones  from 
the  other  side  of  the  strait. 

The  historical  kernel  of  this  great  Grecian  legend  is,  perhaps,  the 
fact  of  a  military  expedition  of  Grecian  tribes  against  the  Trojans 
and  the  conquest  of  Troy;  everything  else  in  the  story  is  mythical. 
Perchance  the  ^olian  colonization  of  historic  times  (p.  49)  and  the 
ensuing  contests  with  the  native  population  gave  rise  to  the  romance 
of  the  Trojan  war,  which  tradition  then  removed  to  the  time  before 
the  Dorian  migration.  The  prehistoric  existence  of  a  powerful  city 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Troy,  and  its  name  'Tpoiv  and  "lAioy,  is 
certain. 

Connected  with  the  tale  of  the  Trojan  war,  are  the  stories  of  the 
return  of  the  Grecian  princes.  The  murder  of  Agamemnon  by  his  wife 
Clytemnestra  and  her  paramour,  and  the  vengeance  of  his  children 
Orestes  and  Electra.  Tlie  ten  years  wandering  of  Odysseus  and  his 
many  adventures  (Polyphemus,  Lastrygones,  Circe,  Calypso,  the 
Phseacians,  etc.). 

SECOND    PERIOD. 

From  the  Thessalian  and  Dorian  Migration  to  the  beginning 
of  the  Persian  -Wars,  (1104  (?)-500.) 

Migration  of  the  Thessalians  from  Epirus  to  the  valley  of  the 
Peneus,  thenceforward  called  Thessaly.  Of  the  former  inhabitants, 
kalians,  part  became  serfs  (irevetrTcu),  part  fled  the  country.     A  por- 


48  Ancient  History,  e-  c 

tion  of  the  latter  conquered  Bceotia.  The  previous  inhabitants  of 
BoBotia,  probably  Pelasgians,  as  for  instance  the  Minyse  in  Orchome- 
nos,  and  the  Cadmeans  in  Thebes,  were  partly  subdued,  partly  scat- 
tered in  various  settlements.  Their  name  is  henceforward  un- 
known to  history. 

The  Dorians  were  likewise  driven  away  by  the  Thessalians.  They 
had  inhabited  the  country  about  the  Othrys  and  (Eta,  and  the  small 
mountamous  region  where  they  maintained  themselves  after  the  in- 
vasion, and  which  was  known  as  Doris.  That  portion  of  them  which 
emigrated  also  took  the  southern  way.  Strengthened  by  iEtolian 
bands,  they  crossed  to  the  Peloponnesus  between  Naupactus,  where 
they  constructed  vessels,  and  the  promontory  of  Rhion.  This  is  the 
so-called 

1104  (?).^  Dorian  migration,  or  the  conquest  of  Pelo- 
ponnesus by  the  Dorians  and  ^tolians,  according  to 
the  story,  under  the  leadership  of  the  HeraclidaB  {Teme- 
rnis,  Cresphontes,  Aristodemus,  descendants  of  Heracles. 

The  conquerors  crossed  the  northern  portion  of  the  Peloponnesus 
without  making  a  settlement,  and  turned  towards  the  countries  on 
the  western  coast.  Tlie  inhabitants  of  these  regions,  the  Epei,  being 
subdued,  the  ^tolians  established  themselves  here,  and  founded  a  new 
commonwealth,  called  Elis.  Out  of  the  mixture  of  the  ^tolians  and 
Epei,  sprang  the  new  tribe  of  the  Elei.  The  Dorians  passed  through 
southern  Arcadia,  probably  up  the  valley  of  the  Alpheus,  and  estab- 
lished themselves  in  the  south  and  east  of  Peloponnesus.  The 
native  population,  consisting  of  Achseans  and  ^oliaus,  were  in 
part  expelled,  in  part  placed  in  subjection;  wliile  in  some  regions  they 
gave  up  certain  territories  to  the  new-comers  by  treaty.  The  last 
was  the  case  in  Laconia,  where  the  native  chiefs  made  treaties  with 
the  invaders  and  thereby  received  for  a  time  recognition  of  their 
princely  rights  and  support  in  their  supremacy. 

So  arose  in  Peloponnesus,  one  after  another,  but  slowly  and  after 
much  fighting  and  many  revolutions,  the  following  Dorian  communi- 
ties: 1.  Messenia  {Cresphontes) ;  2.  Sparta  {Procles  and  Eurysthenes, 
sons  of  Aristodemus);  3.  Argos  {Temenus),at  first  the  most  powerful 
state,  at  the  head  of  a  league,  to  wliich  Epidaurus  and  Trcezen,  under 
their  own  rulers,  belonged;  4.  Phlius;  5.  Sicyon;  6.  Corinth,  these 
tliree  containing  many  of  the  old  inliabitants,  who  lived  among  the 
new  inhabitants  under  the  same  laws.  Outside  of  Peloponnesus:  7. 
Megara;  and  8.  the  island  -ZGgina  (Atyiya). 

The  remains  of  the  old  population,  the  Achaeans,  who  were  driven 
from  their  homes,  expelled  or  subjugated  the  jEgialian  lonians^  who 
inhabited  the  northern  coast  of  Peloponnesus. 

The  whole  region  was  henceforward  called  Achiaia. 

1068  (?),     Codrus    (K^Spos),  the  last  king  of  Athens,  fell  a  vol- 
untary sacrifice  in  battle  against  the  Dorians. 
According  to  the  legend,   Codrus  was  the   son  of  the  Nestoriau 
Melanthus,  who  had  fled  from  Pylos  to  Athens. 

1  Sec  p.  43,  note  1- 


B.  C. 


Greeks.  49 


The  immediate  consequence  of  these  migrations  and  conquests  was 
the  practice  of  colonization,  on  a  great  scale,  which  at  first  was  car- 
ried on  by  the  tribes  which  had  been  expelled  from  their  homes,  but 
in  wliich  the  conquering  Dorians  soon  took  active  part. 

The  Pelasgic  population,  driven  from  Thessaly,  settled  partly  on 
the  peninsula  Chalcidice,  partly  in  Crete,  and  partly  on  the  coast  of 
Mysia ;  the  Minyce  from  lolcos,  and  Orchomenos  occupied  LemnoSf 
Imbros,  Samothrace.     More  important  were  the 

1000-900  (?)     ^olian,  Ionian,  Dorian  colonies  which 
settled  along  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  and  its  islands. 

^olian  and  Achaean  colonies:  Mitylene  and  Meihymna  on  the 
island  of  Lesbos;  Cyme  and  Smyrna  on  tiie  mainland  of  Asia  Minor 
(^Smyrna  afterwards  became  Ionian). 

The  lonians,  who  were  driven  away  by  the  Achseans,  fled  first  to 
Attica,  but  finally  founded  along  the  coast  of  Lydia  12  cities  with  a 
common  sanctuary  at  Panionium  on  Mycale,  the  most  important  of 
which  were:  Miletus,  mother-city  of  more  than  80  colonies,  Ephesus, 
Phoccea  (p.  26),  Colophon,  and  occupied  the  islands  of  Samos  and 
Chios. 

Dorian  colonies,  along  the  coast  of  Caria:  Halicamassus  and  Cni- 
dus.  Dorians  and  Achcean^  founded  settlements  in  Crete,  Rhodes, 
where  they  gradually  drove  out  the  Phoenicians,  in  Melos  and  in 
Thyra,  whence  in  631  the  colony  of  Cyrene  was  sent  out  to  the  north 
coast  of  Africa. 

1000  (?).^    Homer  and  liis  successors   (Homeridse).     Hiad  and 
Odyssey. 

Constitution  of  society  and  government.  During  the  heroic 
period,  and  at  the  begimiing  of  historic  times,  we  find  everywhere  a 
patriarchal  monarchy,  the  hereditary  property  of  families  who  derived 
their  descent  from  the  gods.  In  the  historic  times  gradual  formation 
in  all  states  of  a  republican  constitution,  partly  through  the  extinction, 
partly  through  the  expulsion,  of  the  old  dynasties.  Tliis  republican 
constitution  was  at  first  aristocratic;  later,  in  most  states,  democraticy 
frequently  reaching  the  latter  state  through  the  intervening  suprem- 
acy of  a  Tyrant  (Tvpawos),  a  name  applied  to  every  one  who  attained 
supreme  power  in  an  illegal  manner,  and  originally  not  conveying  the 
idea  of  an  arbitrary  or  cruel  government. 

The  democracy  of  antiquity  was  not,  however,  a  form  of  govern- 
ment in  wliieh  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants,  but  in  which  the  major- 
ity of  the  citizens,  took  part  in  the  conduct  of  the  commonwealth.  In 
most  of  the  Greek  states,  the  majority  of  the  population  consisted, 
not  of  citizens,  but  of  slaves.^  Democracies  in  the  modem  sense 
were  almost  unknown  in  ancient  times. 

In  Doric  Sparta  the  population  consisted  of  three  classes,  strictly 
distinct  from  one  another:  1.  Spartiatce  (^irapTiaTai,  comprising  '6/j.oiot, 

1  The  Grecian  statements  concerning  the  epoch  of  Homer  differ  almost  five 
hundred  years  from  one  another. 

^  Cf.  Becker,  Chnricles  (trans.),  361;  and  Schoemann,  Antiquities  oj 
Greece,  I.  100  foil. 

4 


50  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

i.  e.  those  having  full  rights,  and  vnofieiovts  i-  e.  those  of  less  means, 
who  could  not  furnish  the  required  contribution  to  the  Syssites)  di- 
vided into  three  Phylse,  each  composed  of  10  Obse  (u&ai);  these  were 
the  Dorian  conquerors,  who  occupied  the  fertile  portions  of  the  La- 
conian  territory,  the  valley  of  the  Eurotas,  and  the  lowlands  extending 
to  the  sea;  2.  Lacedcemonians  or  Perioeci  (jreploiKoi,  i.  e.  they  who  dwell 
round  about),  descendants  of  those  Achseans  who  had  submitted  to 
the  conquerors  by  treaties.  They  were  free,  but  payed  dues,  as  trib- 
utary property-holders  and  small  land-owners,  and  were  without 
political  rights,  but  were,  however,  bound  to  military  service;  3. 
Helots  (from  etAcores,  "prisoners"?),  serfs  of  the  state.  They  were 
divided  among  the  Spartiatse  by  lot,  and  tilled  their  lands,  pa;yang  to 
their  lords  a  fixed  portion  of  the  harvest.  The  number  of  the  Periceci 
was  almost  four  times  that  of  the  Spartiatce,  while  the  number  of  the 
Helots  was,  perhaps,  from  2  to  3  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  Pe- 
ricEci. 

820  (?)•     Constitution  and  Laws  of  Lycurgus. 

Lycurgus  (AvKodpyos),  according  to  tradition  of  royal  descent,  and 
guardian  of  the  young  king  Charilaus,  arranged  the  relation  of  the 
three  classes,  as  described  above,  according  to  settled  principles.  His 
code  of  laws  was  for  the  Spartiatae  alone.  The  form  of  government 
was  an  aristocratic  republic,  in  spite  of  the  two  hereditary  kings 
(generals,  high  priests,  judges).  Both  kings  must  be  of  the  Heraclid 
race,  one  a  member  of  the  Agidce  (from  Agis,  son  of  Eurystheus),  the 
other  of  the  Eurypontidm  (from  Eurypon,  grandson  of  Procles;  see 
p.  48).  The  Council  of  Elders  (yepovala,  28  Gerontes,  at  least  60  years 
of  age,  elected  for  life)  under  the  two  kings  as  presiding  officers  had: 
1.  the  previous  discussion  of  everything  that  was  to  be  laid  before  the 
popular  assembly;  2.  jurisdiction  over  capital  crimes.  The  popular 
assembly  {a\ia),  consisting  of  all  Spartiatae  over  thirty  years  of  age, 
who  had  not  lost  their  political  rights,  had  no  right  of  initiation,  and 
decided  without  debate.  At  a  later  period  the  five  Ephors,  i.  e.  in- 
spectors (for  the  5  wards)  who  had  probably  existed  before  Lycurgus, 
acquired  great  power  (p.  56). 

Assignment  of  an  hereditary  landed  estate  to  every  Spartan  family, 
which  had  lost  its  possessions  since  the  conquest;  equal  division  of 
the  Helots,  or  slaves  of  the  state,  for  the  purpose  of  tilling  these 
lands.  No  new  division  of  all  landed  property.^  (Tradition  makes 
Lycurgus  divide  the  land  into  9000  (4500  ?)  lots  for  the  Spartiatse, 
and  30,000  for  the  Perioeci.)  Establishment  of  social  unions  or  com- 
pulsory clubs  {(TK7]val),  whose  members  ate  together,  even  in  time  of 
peace  :  Phiditia  or  Syssitia.  Children  were  brought  up  in  common, 
and  the  young  men  of  the  Spartan  warrior-nobles  dwelt  together. 
The  Crypteia  (/cpuirre/a),  an  organized  guard  over  the  Helots  by  young 
Spartans.     No  actual  hunting  of  the  Helots.^ 

776.      First  Olympiad,   that  is,  the  first  year  in  which 

1  Grote,  Hist,  of  Greece  (Boston,  1851),  II.  393  foil. 

2  Schoemann,  Antiq.  of  Greece,  1. 195. 


B.  c.  Greeks.  51 

the  name  of  the  Olympian  victor  was  recorded.     (The  first  was 
Coroibus.) 

Olympian  games  (raised  to  greater  importance  since  820,  by  the  par- 
ticipation of  Sparta  ?) ;  Nernean  games  smce  573,  in  honor  of  Zeus, 
Istlmiean  games  (Poseidon,  since  582),  and  Pythian  games  (Apollo,  en- 
larged after  590).      Oracle  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  founded,  accordmg 
to  tradition,  at  the  command  of  the  god,  by  Cretans  (i.  e.  Dorians) 
from  Cnosus.     Amphictyonies,  societies  for  common  worship  (per- 
formance of  sacrifices),  the  most  important  of  which  was  the  Delphic. 
734.     Foundation  of  Syracuse  ^  by  the  Corinthian  Archias. 
743-724.  (?)    First  Messenian  war.      Aristodemus  king  of  the  Mes- 
senians.     Defence  of  Ithome.     Tliose  Messenians  that  did  not 
emigrate  became  tributary.     A  part  of  the  land  was  confis- 
cated as  conquered  territory. 
708.     Foundation  of  Tarentum  by  the  Spartan  Phalanthus. 
645-628. 2     Second  Messenian  war.     Aristomenes.     Defence  of  Ira 
(JE-'lpa),  for  nine  years.     The  Athenian  bard  Tyrtseus  accom- 
panied the  Spartans.     After  the  fall  of  Ira  the  greater  part 
of  the  Messenians  fled  to  Sicily ;  Zancle,  also,  was  occupied  by 
them,  but  does  not  appear  to  have  received  the  name  Messana 
before  the  fifth  century.^    The  remaining  Messenians  became 
Helots. 
In  Athens  government  of  the  nobles  (Eupatridce)  since  the  death 
of  Codrus  (1068  ?).     The  chief  officers  of  state  were  the  Archons, 
at  first  (1067-753)  chosen  for  life,  from  the  family  of  Codrus  ex- 
clusively, afterwards  (752-683)  elected  for  ten  years,  the  first  four 
only  being  of  the  family  of  Codrus,  the  rest  taken  from  the  Eupa- 
tridce  m  general. 

From  682  on  there  were  nine  archons  chosen  every  year,  and 
serving  only  one  year,  taken  from  the  Eupatridce  alone,  and  chosen 
by  them  alone.     These  were:    1.  Archon  Eponymus  (i.  e.  he   from 
whom  the  year  is  named),  the  presiding  officer.     2.  Basileus,  i.  e. 
king  of  the  sacrifices,  high  priest.     3.  Polemarchus,  at  first  leader  of 
the  army,  afterwards,  when  the  military  command  was  entrusted  to 
Strateges  by  turn,  only  superintendent  of  military  affairs;  the  other 
six  were  Thesmothetce,  judges,  heads  of  the  department  of  justice. 
Cir.  621.     Laws  of  the  Archon  Draco.     No  alteration  of  the  consti- 
tution, only  reform  of  the  criminal  law,  and  the  law  relating 
to  debts,  introducing  great  severity,  frequent  use  of  the  deatli 
penalty,  and  heavy  fines.     Hence  later  known  as  the  "  Law  of 
Draco,  written  with  blood." 
624?     Insurrection  of  Cylon,  who,  with  the  assistance    of  his 
father-in-law  Theagenes,  tyrant  of  Megara,  seized  the  Acropo- 
lis.   Cylon  was  driven  into  banishment  by  the  Archon  Megacles, 
of  the  family  of  the  Alcmceonidce,  and  his  followers  were  put  to 

1  Concerning  the  date  of   the  foundation,  see  Holm,  Gesch.  Sicilien*,   h 
881  Bqq. 

2  According  to  Duncker,  Gesch.  des  Altherth.,  and  Curtius,  I.  240.    Ac- 
cording to  the  older  but  very  doubtful  assumption,  685-668. 

8  Holm,  Gesck.  Siciliens,  I.  200. 


52  Ancient  History,  b.  c. 

death  while  clinging  for  protection  to  the  altars.     On  account 
of  this  sacrilege  the  Archons  for  the  year  were  banished.     Re- 
ligious purification  of  Athens  by  Epimenides  of  Cnossus. 
Solon,  of  the  family  of  the    Nelidae,    g-ained  great  influence  by 
the  recapture  of  Salamis,  wliich  had  been  taken  by  the  Megarseans, 
and  through  his  share  in  the 

600-590. 1     First  sacred  war  against  Crisa  and  Cirrha^  whose  in- 
habitants had  robbed  the  temple  of  Apollo  in  Delphi.     The 
Amphyctyonies  destroyed  both  cities  after  a  long  contest ;  the 
inhabitants  were  enslaved  and  their  land  consecrated  to  the 
Pythian  Apollo. 
Growing  dissatisfaction  in  Athens  with  the  government  of  the 
nobility,  and  internal  disorders.     The  citizens  were  divided  into  three 
parties:  1.  The  great  land-owners  of  the  plain  (ol  ck  rod  veSiov),  the 
2upatridce.     2.  The  peasants  of  the  mountainous  districts  (Sm/cpiot), 
3.  The  inhabitants  of  the  coast  (irapaAoi),  a  well-to-do  middle  class. 

594.  Solon,  w^hile  Archon  Eponymus,  being  authorized 
by  a  special  enactment  to  negotiate  between  the  aristoc- 
racy and  the  people,  proposed  and  carried  out  at  first  the 
Seisaohtheia  (i.  e.  the  removal  of  burdens),  whereby  debts 
secured  by  mortgage  were  reduced  about  21  fo  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  new  standard  of  coinage;  the  Attic  or  Euhcean 
talent  ($1078.87)  instead  of  the  Aginetan  talent  ($1630.50) ; 
personal  security  for  debts  was  abolished,  and  all  money  fines 
as  yet  unpaid  were  remitted.  Anmesty  for  all  who  had  been 
deprived  of  their  political  rights  (^rt^iiot).  Return  of  the 
Alcmseonidse. 

The  Constitution  and  Laws  of  Solon  were  established 
for  the  citizens  (iroXlrai)  only.  Excluded  from  all  political  rights 
were :  1.  The  metceci  {/xeroiKoi,  foreigners  not  citizens,  but  living  in 
Athens  under  protection  of  the  government),  who  were  regarded 
in  law  as  minors,  and  required  to  be  represented  by  a  patron 
(irpoa-rdT-ns)  who  was  a  citizen,  in  all  legal  transactions.  2.  The 
slaves  (Sov\oi). 

The  two  latter  classes  formed  the  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants. 
In  her  most  prosperous  days  the  citizens  of  Athens  may  be  estimated 
at  90,000,  the  metceci  at  45,000,  tlie  slaves  at  360,000.  So  that  in 
the  period  of  most  extreme  democracy  the  sovereign  people  formed 
a  small  minority  of  the  population.  ^ 

Division  of  all  citizens,  for  purposes  o^  military  service  and  the 
exercise  of  political  rights,  into  classes,  according  to  income  received 
from  property  in  land,  no  regard  being  paid  to  movable  property  of 
any  kind.  The  unit  of  measure  was  the  inedimnv^  (52J53  liter),  for 
grain  and  vegetables;  the  metretes  (39.39  liter),  for  wine  and  olive 
oil.     The  following  four  classes  were  formed:  — 

1.  Pentakosiomedimni,  men  whose  estates  brought  in  a  minimum  of 
500  medimni  and  metretes. 

1  According  to  Curtius,  Hist,  of  Greece,  I.  281.  The  date  formerly  ao 
septed  was  596-586. 

2  Cf.  Schoemann,  Aniiq.  of  Greece,  I.  348,  353. 


B.  c.  .  Greeks.  53 

2.  Knights  (linreTs),  yield  of  estates  300-500  medimnl. 

3.  Zeugitce  (i.  e.  they  who  work  their  land  with  one  span  of  mules), 
yield  of  estates  at  least  150  medimni. 

4.  Thetes,  comprising  all  who  owned  land  yielding  less  than  150 
mediimii,  or  possessed  no  land,  but  were  either  day  laborers  in  the 
country,  or  artisans,  sailors,  tradesmen  in  the  city. 

Taxation  consisted  in  the  duty  of  the  citizens,  as  arranged  in  these 
four  classes,  to  systematically  supply  ships,  horses,  and  arms  for  mili- 
tary service.  The  members  of  the  ^rst  three  classes  served  as  hoplites 
(^TrAtTot),  heavy  armed  foot-soldiers;  members  of  the  Jirst  two  classes 
served  also  in  case  of  need  as  cavalry,  furnishing  their  own  horses, 
while  members  of  the^rs^  class  furnished  ships  for  the  fleet  at  their 
own  expense,  for  which  purpose  they  were  enrolled  in  48  naucrarise; 
the  thetes  were  to  be  called  upon  to  serve  as  light-armed  foot,  or 
upon  the  fleet,  only  to  defend  the  country  from  invasion.  There  was 
no  other  regular  taxation  of  citizens;  state  officials  served  without 
pay,  and  the  other  expenses  of  the  commonwealth  were  covered  by 
the  yield  of  the  mines,  which  were  state  property,  by  fines,  by  a  poll- 
tax  laid  on  the  metoeci,  and  by  the  harbor  dues.  When  extraordinary 
taxes  were  necessary,  they  were  adjusted  on  the  basis  of  the  classes 
described  above,  the  fourth  class,  however,  being  exempt. 

After  the  time  of  Solon,  the  nine  archons  were  taken  from  the  first 
class;  every  citizen  had  a  vote  in  their  election.  The  council  (jSouA:^) 
of  400,  formerly  chosen  from  the  Eupatridce  alone,  was  henceforward 
open  to  all  citizens  of  the  Jirst  three  classes  over  thirty  years  old.  The 
popular  assembly  (iKK\rjaria)  consisted  of  all  citizens  over  twenty  years 
old. 

The  Areopagus  (from  "Apeios  vdyos,^  Hill  of  Ares,  or  Mars),  the  an- 
cient court  which  had  jurisdiction  over  murder  and  arson,  and  a  general 
supervision  over  the  entire  administration  of  the  state,  was,  after  this 
time,  composed  of  archons  who  had  retired  from  office.  Legal  mat- 
ters were  adjusted  by  the  heliasts  (j}\icurrai,  so  called  from  the  halls, 
7]\iaia,  where  they  sat),  bodies  having  sometliing  of  the  nature  of  both 
judge  and  jury,  and  consisting  of  citizens  over  thirty  years  old,  chosen 
by  the  thesmothetae,  out  of  a  list  of  6000  citizens  which  was  formed 
by  lot. 

Tliis  tiviocratic  constitution  of  Solon  paved  the  way  from  aristocracy 
to  democracy.  In  itself  it  was  essentially  conservative,  since  the 
larger  landed  estates  were  nearly  all  in  the  hands  of  the  nobles. 
Solon  also  established  a  code  of  laws  for  regulating  the  entire  civil 
life,  wliich  was  not  completed  until  later. 

Solon  left  Athens  for  ten  years.  Travels  in  eastern  Asia,  Crete, 
and  Egypt.  New  party  divisions  in  Athens.  The  nobles  were  led 
by  Lycurgus;  the  middle  class  by  the  Alcmseonid  Megacles;  the  poorer 
classes  by  Pisistrdtus,  who,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  Solon,  who 
had  returned  to  Athens  and  was  now  an  old  man,  constantly  gained 
new  supporters,  and  finally  made  liimself  master  of  the  Acropolis. 

1  The  hill  only  was  so  called  by  the  ancients.    Tne  court  was  known  aa  ^  iv 


54  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

560-627'      Pisistratus  (nctato-Tparog),  tyrant  of  Athens. 

Emigration  of  Athenian  nobles,  under  Miltiades  the  elder,  to  the 
Thracian  Chersonese.  Solon  left  Athens  again  and  went  to  Asia 
Minor.  Conversation  with  Croesus  in  Sardes  (see  p.  26).  He  died 
(559)  at  Soli,  in  Cyprus  (?). 

Pisistratus  ruled  in  Athens  under  the  forms  of  the  Solonian  consti- 
tution, which  he  did  not  revoke.  He  managed  that  the  people  should 
always  choose  archons  who  suited  him.  Driven  out  by  a  coalition 
of  the  nobles  and  the  moderates,  569,  he  returned  five  years  later 
(55-1).  A  second  time  exiled  in  552,  he  again  regained  his  power 
after  eleven  years  absence,  and  ruled  without  further  interrup- 
tion from  541  to  527.  New  emigration  of  noble  families,  particu- 
larly that  of  the  Alcmceonidce.  Pisistratus  conducted  his  government 
until  his  death,  with  mildness  and  wisdom,  and  bequeathed  it  to  his 
son, 

627-610.     Hippias  ('Itnrlas),  under  whom 

619.  PlatcEce  seceded  from  the  Boeotian  League  and  entered  into 
alliance  with  Athens.  The  Boeotians  were  defeated  by  the 
Athenians.  Hippias  conducted  the  government  after  the  man- 
ner of  his  father,  until  his  brother,  Hipparchus,  was  murdered 
by  Harmodius  (^'ApfiSdios)  and  Aristogiton  (^ApiaToyelTuv^  in  514. 
(See  Thucydides,  VI.  54-59,  where  he  criticises  the  traditional 
tale  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton.)  Hippias  took  a  cruel 
revenge,  was  driven  out  of  the  city  by  the  exiled  nobles  (Clis- 
thenes  sit  the  head  of  the  Alcmceonidce)  in  connection  with  a 
Spartan  army  under  Cleomenes.  He  took  refuge  with  Darius, 
king  of  Persia. 

509.  Reforms  of  Clisthenes  (KXcto-^eVT/s),  son  of  Mega- 
cles,  grandson  of  Clisthenes,  of  Sicyon. 

Tliis  was  not  only  a  change  in  the  constitution,  but  a  social  reform 
as  well.  The  constitution  of  Solon  was  not,  however,  repealed,  but 
only  further  developed  in  a  democratic  manner,  without  as  yet  intro- 
ducing equal  political  rights  of  all  citizens.  The  Solonian  arrange- 
ment of  classes  for  purposes  of  taxation  remained;  the  archonsliip 
was  as  before  restricted  to  the  first  class,  and  membership  of  the 
council  to  the  first  three  classes. 

With  the  consent  of  the  Delphic  oracle,  now  indebted  to  the  Alc- 
mseonidse,  for  the  erection  of  a  new  temple,  the  four  old  Athenian 
tribes  {(i>v\a[),  Geleontes,  Hoplites,  Argddeis,  jEgicoreis(p.  4S),  which 
Solon  had  left  in  existence,  were  set  aside,  and  there  were  substituted 
for  them  ten  new  tribes,  which  were  political  and  religious  unions. 
These  new  tribes  did  not  form  connected  territorial  divisions.^ 
Each  tribe  consisted  of  ten  demes,  or  local  communities,  which,  how- 
ever, were  not  contiguous,  but  were  scattered  about  the  country  and 
interspersed  with  demes  belonging  to  other  tribes.  In  all  there  were  100 
demes,  later  174.  This  arrangement  was  designed  to  break  up  the 
local  influence  of  the  aristocracy,  and  put  an  end  to  the  old  patri- 
archal condition  of  things,  whereby  only  nobles  and  large  land-owners 

1  Duncker,  IV.  454;  Schoemazm,  Antiq.  of  Greece,  I.  369. 


$.  c.  Greeks.  55 

could  hold  the  position  of  demarch  (5^/topxos),  the  presiding  officer  of 
a  commnnity. 

Henceforward  every  two  denies  formed  a  naucrary,  which  was  ex- 
pected to  fit  out  and  man  a  trireme  (a  vessel  with  three  banks  of 
oars) ;  whereas  the  old  division  of  Attica,  made  in  682,  into  48  nau- 
craries,  had  been  based  on  the  old  politico-religious  division  into  tribes 
and  phratries.  These  phratnes  {(pparpiai,  12),  the  subdivisions  of  the  old 
tribes  {<pv\al),  were  untouched  by  the  reform  of  Clisthenes,  but  they 
were  reduced  to  the  condition  of  religious  corporations  for  keeping 
lists  of  births,  marriages,  and  deaths,  but  without  political  impor- 
tance. 

The  council  (Bov\-fj)  was  increased  from  400  to  500  members,  fifty 
for  each  tribe ;  and  each  of  these  sets  of  fifty  presided  in  the  council 
for  the  tenth  part  of  a  year  (prytani/j  irpvravela);  the  members  of 
these  presiding  committees  of  fifty  were  called  prytanies.  Instead  of 
four  popular  assemblies  in  a  year,  as  formerly,  ten  were  held  hence- 
forward. 

508.     The  Athenian  nobility,  headed  by  IsagoraSj  with  the  help  of 
a  Spartan  army  under  Cleomenes,  brought  about  a  short  re- 
action.    Clisthenes  fled;  the  Acropolis  was  delivered  to  the 
Spartans  by  a  treacherous  archon.     A  revolt  of  the  Athenian 
populace  compelled  Cleomenes  to  make  a  disgraceful  capit- 
ulation :  withdrawal  of  the  Spartans  without  arms,  and  sur- 
render of  the  le'aders  of  the  aristocracy.     The  latter  were  put 
to  death,  and  Clisthenes  was  recalled. 
506.     An  expedition  of  the  Spartans  against  Athens  under  their  kings, 
Cleomenes  and  Demeratus,  at  the  head  of  their  Peloponnesian 
allies,  was  broken  up  by  the  sudden  withdrawal  of  the  Corin- 
thians and  the  lack  of  harmony  between  the  Spartan  kings. 
The  allies  of  the  Spartans,  the  Bceotians  and  the  Chalcidians 
from  Euboea,  were  defeated  by  the  Athenians.     The  latter  con- 
quered a  part  of  Euboea,  and  apportioned  4000  peasant  holdings 
among  Attic  farmers,  who  retamed  their  Athenian  citizenship. 
The  Athenian  democracy  derived  an  accession  of  strength  from  a 
reduction  in  the  powers  of  the  archons.     The  place  of  holding  the 
popular  assembly  was  changed  from  the  market-place  (^ayopd),  where, 
according  to  a  custom  sanctified  by  its  antiquity,  the  first  archon 
presided,  to  the  rocky  hill  of  the  Pnyx  ;  and  the  duty  of  presiding 
in  the  popular  assembly  and  in  the  council  was  fixed  upon  an  offi- 
cer (€fl-£o-TOT77s),  who  was  chosen  by  lot  from  the  prytany,  for  the  time 
bemg,  and  who  was  changed  every  day.     This  officer  also  held  the 
keys  of  the  Acropolis  and  of  the  archives.     It  is  uncertain  how  far 
Clisthenes  had  introduced  the  use  of  the  lot,  in  selecting  state  offi- 
cials (of  course,  only  from  the  numbers  of   qualified   candidates). 
Election  of  ten  Strategi,  one  from  each  tribe,  each  of  whom  had  by 
turns  the  chief  command  of  the  army,  which  formerly  belonged  to  the 
archon  polemarchus.     The  right  of  appc^al  from  the  decision  of  the 
thesmothetse  to  the  heliasts,  wliich  had  been  introduced  before  Solon 
for  certain  cases,  was  now  extended  to  all  cases.     Establishment  of 
the  ostracism  (b(TTpaKiafx6s,  used  until  417^,  i.  e.  the  power  of  the 
sovereign  popular  assembly  to  decree,  by  means  of  a  secret  ballot, 


56  Ancient  History,  b.  c. 

with  bits  of  pottery  (6(TrpaKa),  the  banishment  of  any  citizen  who  en-* 
dangered  the  public  liberty,  without  process  of  law.^ 

In  Peloponnesus,  during  this  period  of  internal  development  at 
Athens,  Sparta  had  become  the  first  power.  Soon  after  the  first 
Messenian  war,  an  essential  increase  in  the  powers  of  the  Ephors 
had  taken  place  (under  king  Theopompus).  About  560,  another  re- 
form had  been  accomplished  by  the  Geront  Chilon,  with  the  aid  and 
religious  consecration  of  Epimenides  of  Cnossus,  which  completed  the 
aristocratic  form  of  goverimient  at  Sparta,  and  gave  increased  strength 
to  the  conamonwealth.  The  Ephors  received  an  extraordinary  dis- 
cipluiary  power  over  every  individual,  not  excepting  even  the  kings. 
The  power  of  the  latter  gradually  dwindled  to  a  shadow.  After  the 
victory  at  Thyrea  (549),  the  power  of  Atgos,  which  in  the  seventh 
century  had  again  attained,  under  Kmg  Pludon,  a  transient  increase, 
was  broken,  and  the  Argive  league  was  dissolved.  The  Spartan 
state,  which  was  everywhere  the  opponent  of  tyranny  and  the  pro- 
tector of  republican-aristocratic  governments,  became  the  leader  of 
a  league  of  the  Peloponnesian  states,  and  claimed  the  Hegemony  over 
all  the  Hellenic  cantons. 

THIRD  PERIOD. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  Persian  wars  to  the  loss  of  inde- 
pendence by  the  Battle  of  Chgeronea.     500-338. 

500-449.    Persian  wars. 

500-494.  Revolt  of  the  Ionian  Greeks  against  the  Persians  (p.  28). 
The  assistance  rendered  them  by  Athens  and  Eretria  was  the 
immediate  cause  of  the  attempt  of  the  Persians  to  subjugate 
European  Greece. 

493-479.    Attack  of  the  Persians  upon  the  Greeks. 

493  (492  ?).  First  expedition  of  the  Persians  against  Greece, 
under  Mardonius. 

The  land  force  subdued  the  coast  of  Thrace ;  the  fleet  conquered 
ihe  island  of  Thasos.  Alexander,  kuig  of  Macedonia,  submitted  volun- 
tarily. The  Persian  army,  surprised  by  a  Tliracian  tribe,  suffered 
great  loss ;  the  fleet  was  for  the  most  part  destroyed  by  a  storm  off 
the  promontory  of  Athos.     Mardonius  thereupon  decided  to  return. 

Construction  of  citadels  on  the  Thracian  coast  to  serve  as  points 
of  support  in  future  campaigns  :  Byzantium,  Sestos,  Abdera,  received 
Persian  garrisons. 

491.  The  Persian  heralds,  who  required  signs  of  submission  (water 
and  earth),  were  sacrilegiously  murdered  at  Sparta  and  Athens 
The  Cyclades  and  JEgina  promised  submission  to  Persia.  The 
Athenians  received  from  the  Spartans  ^ginetan  hostages. 

490.     Second  expedition  of  the  Persians  against  Greece,  un- 

1  The  ostracism  was  in  no  sense  a  sentence  or  a  juridical  decision,  but  g 
purely  political  act  of  the  highest  power  in  the  state. 


B.  C. 


Greeks.  57 


der  Artaphernes  (the  young  nephew  of  Darius)  and  an 
older  general,  the  Mede  Datis. 

A  fleet  of  600  triremes  and  the  same  number  of  transports,  with 
100,000  infantry  and  10,000  cavalry  on  board,  crossed  the  ^gean  sea. 
After  destroying  the  city  of  Naxos,  the  Persians  landed  in  Euhoea. 
The  city  of  Eretria  was  stormed,  and  taken  by  treachery  ;  those  of 
the  uihabitants  who  were  not  put  to  death  were  sent  as  prisoners  to 
the  great  king  at  Susa.  By  the  advice  of  Hippias  (p.  54)  the  Per- 
sians landed  on  the  east  coast  of  Attica,  and  encamped  in  the  vicinity 
of  Marathon. 

At  Athens  the  entire  military  power  of  the  city  (9-10,000  Hop- 
lites)^  was  called  to  arms  under  the  ten  Strategi  of  the  ten  tribes, 
among  whom  were  Aristldes,  Themistocles,  and  Miltiades  (the 
younger),  who  had  been  recalled  from  the  Chersonese.  The  Athenians 
crossed  the  Brilessus  and  advanced  to  meet  the  Persians;  they  en- 
camped in  face  of  the  enemy  for  nine  days  in  a  position  strengthened 
by  entrenchments,  and  whence  they  covered  the  road  to  Athens.  Re- 
inforced by  1000  Platajans,  they  attacked  the  Persians  without  wait- 
ing for  the  arrival  of  the  assistance  which  had  been  sought  from 
Sparta.  It  is  probable  that  the  Persians  had  at  this  time  embarked  a 
portion  of  their  army,  especially  the  cavalry,  in  order  to  attempt  a 
second  landing  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Athens.  After 
hard  fighting  the  Athenians  defeated  the  enemy  in  the 

490.   12  September.     Battle  of  Marathon, 
under  the  leadership  of  Miltiades. 

Tlie  plan  of  the  Persians  to  surprise  Athens  from   the  sea  was 
prevented  by  a  forced  march  of  the  army  back  to  the  city.     The  Per- 
sian fleet  returned  to  Asia  Minor.     Hippias  died  in  Lemnos. 
i89.     Ill-considered  and  unsuccessful  attack  of  Miltiades,  who  had 
been  clothed  with  unrestricted  power  as  military  commander, 
upon  Paros.     Miltiades,  on  his  return  to  Athens  wounded,  was 
brought  to  trial  at  the   complaint  of  Xanthippus,  and   con- 
demned to  pay  the  costs  of  the  expedition,  amounting  to  fifty 
talents,  which  sum  was  paid  by  his  son  Cimon,  after  the  death 
of  his  father. 
Aristides  and  Themistocles  were  now  the  leading  statesmen  at 
Athens.     The  latter  devoted  special  attention  to  increase  and  im- 
provement of  the  fleet,  the  necessity  of  which  was  proved  to  the 
Athenians  by  an   unsuccessful  war  with  ^gina,  which  occurred  at 
this  time,  and  for  wliich  they  were  obliged  to  hire  ships  from  the 
Corinthians.2      On  the  motion  of  Themistocles,  the  income  from  the 
silver  works  at  Laurium  were  spent  upon  the  fleet,  and  20  triremes 
were  built  every  year. 

483.  As  the  growing  rivalry  "between  Aristides  and  Themistocles 
endangered  the  commonweal,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  council 
the  assembly  decided  between  the  two  men  by  the  ostracism 
(p.  o5).  Aristides  was  condemued  to  ten  years'  exile  from 
Athens  by  more  than  6000  votes. 

1  Duncker,  Gesch.d.Alterthmn,  TV.  073.    CurtiuS;  Hist,  of  Greece,  II.  246 

2  Curtius,  IJist.  of  Uretce,  II.  202. 


58  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

Themistocles  urging  the  fortification  of  Pirjeus,  a  strong  wall  was 
built,  the  foundations  of  which  are  yet  visible,  which  also  enclosed 
the  small  harbors  of  Munychia  and  Z.ea  on  the  southeast  of  Pirseus. 
Radical  reform  of  the  naval  department.  The  naucraries  (p.  55)^ 
wliich  had  not  been  able  to  furnish  all  the  ships  needed  by  the  state, 
since  the  year  500  b.  c,  were  dissolved,  and  their  place  supplied  by 
a  new  arrangement  known  as  the  trierarchies.  The  building  of  sliips 
and  the  supply  of  the  more  essential  portions  of  their  equipment  were 
undertaken  by  the  state;  the  completion  of  the  equipment,  the  repaiis. 
and  the  supplies  of  the  crew,  during  service,  of  one  sliip  was  assigned 
as  a  service  due  the  state  (Kenovpyla)  to  one  well-to-do  citizen,  who 
in  return  was  appointed  trierarch,  or  commander-in-chief  of  the 
ship.  Whereas  in  the  naucraries  the  expenses  of  the  sliips  had 
fallen  exclusively  upon  the  Pentakosiomedimni  (i.  e.  the  large  land- 
owners, p.  52),  all  citizens,  whether  land-owners  or  not,  whose  property 
exceeded  a  certain  standard  could  be  called  upon  for  this  purpose, 
and  were  entitled  to  the  honor  of  the  trierarchy.^ 

481-480.  Third  expedition  of  the  Persians  against  Greece, 
under  Xerxes. 

This  expedition,  planned  by  Darius,  was  carried  out  by  his  son 
Xerxes,  after  extensive  preparations.  Pisistratus,  son  of  Hippias, 
and  Demaratus,  the  deposed  king  of  Sparta,  accompanied  Xerxes  on 
the  expedition. 

Construction  of  a  canal  at  Acanthus  by  the  force  on  the  fleet 
and  the  subject  Thracians,  to  avoid  the  storms  about  Mt.  Athos. 
Bridge  over  the  Hellespont,  between  Sestos  and  Abydos,  built  by 
Phoenician  and  Egyptian  laborers.  Erection  of  large  magazines  in 
Asia  Minor  and  on  the  coast  of  Thracia. 

481.     The  troops  from  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the  empire 
assembled  at  Critalla  in  Cappadocia,  whence  they  were  con- 
ducted to  Sardes  by  the  king  in  person. 
480.     In  the  spring  departure  from  Sardes  (about  900,000  men). 
March   through  Mysia.     Passage  of   the  Hellespont,  lasting 
seven  days.     March  through  Thrace  and  Macedonia.     Passage 
of  the  fleet  (more  than  1300  triremes,  among  which  were  over 
400  Grecian  ships  from   Asia  Minor)  through  the  canal  at 
Acanthus. 
After  the  Greeks  had  given  up  the  plan  of  defending  the  pass  of 
Tempe,  the  Persian  army  traversed  Thessaly  without  opposition.    Not 
only  the  Thessalians,  but  also  the  Boeotian  cities,  with  the  exception  of 
PlatcEce  and  Thespice,  sent  the  king  symbols  of  submission. 

480.  July,  Battle  of  the  Greeks  under  Leonidas,  at  Ther» 
mopylse  (i.  e.  warm  gates,  a  pass  at  the  foot  of  Calli- 
dromus,  near  hot  springs)  against  the  army  of  Xerxes. 

The  Spartan  king  Leonidas,  defended  the  pass  of  Thermopylae, 
with  about  6000  Hoplites,  among  whom  were  300  Spartiatce,  and 
1000  Lacedaemonian  Perioeci,  against  the  overwhelming  force  of  the 

1  Boeckh,  Public  Economy  of  the  Athenians  (Lamb's  trans.),  359,  695-745 


B.  C.  Greeks.  59 

Persians,  while  1000  Phocians  guarded  the  footpath  over  (Eta.  The 
Persians,  guided  over  this  path  by  the  traitor  Ephialtes,  drove  back 
the  Phocians  and  attacked  the  Grecian  army  in  the  rear.  Leonidas 
ordered  the  Perioeci  and  the  troops  of  the  allies  to  retire,  and  died 
a  heroic  death  with  his  300  Spartiatae  and  700  Thespians,  who  re- 
fused to  leave  him.  The  ThebanSj  who  had  fought  under  Leonidas 
against  their  will,  laid  down  their  arms;  part  of  them  were  cut  down: 
part  branded,  at  the  king's  command,  and  sent  back  to  Thebes.  At 
the  same  time 

480.     Indecisive   sea-fight    at  Artemisium, 

a  promontory  and  temple  at  the  northern  point  of  Euhoea. 
During  the  first  day  about  280  Grecian  ships,  under  conduct  of  the 
Spartan  Euryhiddes,  fought  against  the  Persian  fleet,  under  AchcE- 
menes,  which  was  weakened  through  losses  by  storms,  and  the  dis- 
patch of  200  ships  around  the  southern  end  of  Eubcea.  Night  put  an 
end  to  the  indecisive  battle.  Loss  of  the  200  Persian  ships  which 
were  sent  around  Eubcea. 

'  On  the  second  day  the  Grecian  fleet,  reinforced  by  53  triremes, 
had  a  victorious  contest  with  Cilician  ships. 

On  the  third  day,  also,  the  battle  remained  undecided,  although 
the  Persians  attacked  with  their  whole  fleet. 

On  receipt  of  the  news  of  the  capture  of  the  pass  of  Thermopylae, 
the  Grecian  fleet  hastened  to  the  Gidf  of  Saldmis.  The  Pelopon- 
nesian  army,  having  established  itself  on  the  isthmus,  began  the  con- 
struction of  a  wall  across  the  isthmus,  instead  of  coming  to  the  as- 
sistance of  the  Athenians. 

Xerxes  traversed  central  Greece,  without  meeting  with  resistance. 
Locrians  and  Dorians  submitted.  He  ravaged  the  land  of  the  Pho- 
cians, the  detachment  sent  to  Delplii  was,  however,  driven  back,  with 
the  help  of  a  thunderstorm.  Boeotia  was  treated  as  a  friendly  coun- 
try.    Thespice  and  PlatcecB  alone  were  destroyed. 

The  Athenians  abandoned  their  city,  leaving  only  a  garrison  in  the 
Acropolis.  The  fortifications  of  the  Pirseus  being  incomplete,  the 
fleet  conveyed  the  old  men,  women,  and  children,  with  all  personal 
effects,  to  Saldmis,  ^gina,  and  Argolis,  in  which  latter  place  the 
Athenian  children  were  provided  with  schooling  at  the  expense  of 
the  inhabitants.  Return  of  the  exiles  permitted.  Xerxes  entered 
the  city,  the  Acropolis  was  taken  by  storm,  the  temples  thereupon 
and  the  city  burned  to  the  ground. 

480.     20  Sept.     Naval  battle  of  Salamis. 

The  Grecian  fleet,  now  united  and  strongly  reinforced  (378  tri- 
remes, 7  fifty-oared  vessels),  was  under  the  command  of  the  Spartan 
Burybiades.  The  Grecians,  being  through  the  contrivance  of  the 
strategus  Themistocles,  surrounded  by  the  enemy  and  forced  to  fight, 
WQU  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Persian  fleet,  which  still  numbered 
750  (?)  vessels.  The  island  of  Psyttalta,  which  the  Persians  had  oc- 
cupied, was  recaptured  by  Aristldes,  who  had  hastened  from  ^gina  to 
take  part  in  the  combat.  The  Greeks  lost  40,  the  Persians  200,  ships. 
The  Persian  fleet  anchored  in  the  bay  of  Phaleron.     Retreat,  not 


60  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

flight,  of  Xerxes.     Mardonius  was  left  in  Thessaly  with  the  best  part 

of  the  army  (260,000  men). 

480.    Nov.    Xerxes,  after  suffering  great  loss  through  drought  and 

lack  of  provisions,  reached  the    Hellespont,  where  he  found 

the    fleet,   which  transported  the    army,  the   bridge    having 

been  carried  away  by  storms. 

The  Grecian  fleet,  instead  of  pursuing  the  Persians,  as  Themis- 

toeles  wished,  laid  unsuccessful  siege  to  the  city  of  Andros.     The 

Athenians  returned  to  their  city,  and  at  once  began  its  reconstruction. 

479.     Fourth  expedition  of  the  Persians  against  Greece. 

After  Mardonius  had  in  vain  offered  the  Athenians,  through 
Alexander  of  Macedonia,  a  separate  peace  with  recognition  of  their 
independence,  he  entered  Attica  and  advanced  on  Athens,  strength- 
ened by  a  reinforcement  under  Artabdzus,  and  by  contingents  from 
his  allies  in  northern  Greece,  Thessalians,  Boeotians,  a  part  of  the 
Phocians,  and  the  Ar gives.  The  Athenians,  being  a  second  time  faith- 
lessly left  in  the  lurch  by  the  Spartans,  retired  again  to  Salamis. 
Whatever  had  been  rebuilt  in  the  city,  the  Persians  destroyed. 
Finally  the  whole  Peloponnesian  force  of  30,000  hoplites  and  twice 
as  many  light-armed  troops  having  crossed  the  isthmus,  Mardonius 
i^etired,  and  took  up  a  favorable  position  in  Boeotia  on  the  Asopus. 
More  than  10,000  Athenians,  Platceans,  and  Thespians  joined  the  Hel- 
lenic army.  Fausanias  was  the  leader  of  the  Spartans  and  of  the 
whole  force.  He  commanded  the  most  imposing  army  that  Hellas 
had  ever  seen.     The  Hellenes,  however,  had  no  cavalry. 

479.     Sept.    Battle  of  Plataeae. 

After  long  delay  and  much  marching  back  and  forth,  Fausanias, 
who  had  twice  entrusted  the  most  dangerous  positions  to  the  Athe- 
nians under  the  command  of  Aristides,  decided  to  retreat  without 
offering  battle;  being,  however,  attacked  by  Mardonius  and  com- 
pelled to  defend  himself,  he  fought  bravely  at  the  head  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesians,  and,  being  well  supported  by  the  Athenians,  gained  a 
decisive  victory.  Mardonius  fell.  Rout  of  the  Persians;  their 
camp  captured  by  the  Greeks. 

The  Grecian  army  advanced  before  Thebes;  the  leaders  of  the  Per- 
sian party  were  given  up,  and  executed  on  the  isthmus. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  campaign  against  Mardonius  a  Grecian 
fleet  under  the  Spartan  king,  Leotychidas,  —  Xanthippus  commanding 
the  Athenians  under  him,  —  had  been  dispatched  to  patrol  the  -^gean 
Sea.  At  the  call  of  the  Samians  the  fleet  sailed  for  Asia  Minor,  and 
took  the  offensive  against  the  Persians. 

479-449.  Offensive  war  of  the  Grecians  against  the  Persians. 
The  Persian  admiral,  Mardontes,  distrusting  the  Greeks  of 
Asia  Minor,  who  were  in  liis  fleet,  did  not  venture  to  accept 
the  naval  battle  offered  him  near  Samos.  He  beached  his 
fleet  at  the  promontory  of  Mycdle,  opposite  Samos,  and  en- 
trenched himself.  The  Grecian  marines  landed,  and  utterly 
defeated  the  Persians  in  the 


B.  c.  Greeks,  61 

479.     Battle  of  Mycale 

(on  the  day  of  the  battle  of  Plataeae  ?),  captured  the  camp  and 
burned  the  Persian  ships.     Several  of  the  island  cities,  par- 
ticularly SamoSy  Lesbos,  and  Chios,  and  afterwards  the  Grecian 
coast  towns  of  Asia  Minor,  joined  the  Hellenic  league.     The 
Peloponnesians  returned  home;  the  Athenians  and  I oniang  con- 
quered Sestos  in  the  Thracian  Chersonese, 
Rebuilding  and  enlargement  of  Athens,  which,  in  spite  of  the  ob- 
jection of   the  Pelopomiesians,  was  surroimded  with  strong  walls. 
(Stratagem   of   Themistocles.)      Completion   of   the  fortification  of 
Piraeus,  where  a  large  city  grew  up. 

478  (?).     Reform  of  Aristides,  from  which  dates  the  real  supremacy 
of  the  democracy  in  Athens.    The  state  offices  -were  opened 
to  all  four  classes  alike  (p.  53). 
Under  the  command  of  Pausanias,  the  united  fleet  of  Peloponne- 
sians, Athenians,  and  Ionic  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  conquered  Byzan- 
tium, and  acquired  a  rich  booty.     The   overbearing  demeanor  of 
Pausanias  toward  the  other  members  of  the  league,  and  the  winning 
manner  of  the  Athenian  leaders,  A  ristldes  and  CimoHy  brought  it  about 
that  after  the  recall  of  Pausanias  by  the  Ephors 

477  (?).     The  Hegemony  (chief   conduct   of  the  war)  was 
transferred  from  Sparta  to  Athens,  and  a  Hellenic  con- 
federacy (symmachy)  was  formed,  the  political  head  of 
which  was  Athens,  and  whose  religious  centre  was  the 
temple  of  Apollo  in  Deles,  where  the  treasury  of  the 
league  was  also  established.     The  smaller  states  contrib- 
ute money  only,  instead  of  furnishing  contingents  of  ships. 
Rivalry  between  Themistocles  and  Cimon.     The  supporters  of  the 
latter  procured  the  ostracism  of  Themistocles.     He  retired  to  Argos. 
Wliile  there  suspicion  attached  to  him  of  bemg  implicated  in  the 
treasonable  intrigues  of  Pausanias.     The  latter,  threatened  with  uu- 
prisonment  by  the  Ephors,  took  refuge  in  the  temple  of  Athena  at 
Sparta,  and  there  died  of  starvation  (467?).     Themistocles,  driven 
from  Argos,  went  to  Corcyra,  thence  to  Epirus,  and  finally  to  Susa, 
where  he  offered  the  Persian  monarch  his  services  against  his  native 
land.     Artaxerxes  I.  (p.  28)  gave  him  a  princely  domain   in  Asia 
Minor,  where  he  died  (460). 

After  the  retirement  of  Aristides  from  political  life,  and  his  death, 
which  occurred  soon  after  (467  ?),  Cimon  became  the  leader  of  the 
Athenian  commonwealth.  He  began  the  construction  of  the  two  long 
ivalls  (to  <tk€\t]),  one  of  which  connected  the  city  with  Piraeus,  and  the 
other  with  Phaleron.^ 

Cimon,  the  victorious  leader  ci  the  fleet  of  the  league,  captured 
those  places  on  the  Thracian  coast  which  were  still  occupied  by  the 
Persians  (Eton,  469) ;  chastised  the  pirates  of  Scyra,  and  carried  the 
bones  of  Theseus  to  Athens;  captured  Naxos,  which  had  revolted 

1  Oncken  [Athen  u.  Hellas,  I.  72)  holds  that  the  walls  were  begun  during 
the  banishment  of  Cimon;  so  also  Ad.  Schmidt,  Das  perikleische  Zeitalter^ 
I.  57,  who,  however,  places  the  banishment  of  Cimon  in  461. 


62  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

from  the  league,  and  now  lost  its  independence,  as  punishment  (467); 
defeated  the  fleet  and  army  of  the  Persians  in  the 

465.     Battle  of  the  Burymedon, 

in  Pamphylia.    Cimon  conquered  the  Chersonese  and  punished 

the  island  of  Thasos,  which  had  seceded  from  the  confederacy. 
464.     Earthquakes  in  Sparta;  insurrection  of  the  Laconian  helots, 

a  portion  of  whom  joined  the  Messenian  helots  and  occupied 

Ithome. 

464-456.     Third  Messenian  war, 

in  which   the   Spartans  were  forced  to  implore  the  help  of 

Athens,  which  was  furnished  at  the  instance  of  Cimon,  but  was 

afterwards  sent  back  by  the  suspicious  Spartans  (461).     The 

Athenians,  offended,  allied  themselves  with  the  Ar gives,  the 

principal  enemies  of  the  Spartans  in  the  Peloponnesus. 

In  Athens,  rivalry  between  Cimon,  head  of  the  aristocratic  party, 

and  Pericles,  the  son  of  Xanthippus,  leader  of  the  democracy.     The 

latter  party  succeeded  in  establishing  the  payment  of  citizens  serving 

in  the  army,  or  as  judges,  and  the  bestowal  of  alms  of  the  state  upon 

the  poor  at  festivals  out  of  the  public  treasury.     The  beginning  of 

the  decline  of  the  Athenian  democracy. 

The  Athenians  sent  aid  to  the  Egyptian  rebel  Inaros  (p.  28)  against 
the  Persians.  The  expedition  came  to  an  unfortunate  end,  the  Athe- 
nian army  being  surrounded  on  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Nile,  and 
compelled  to  surrender. 

460.     The  law  of  Ephialtes  took  from  the  court  of  Areopagus  the  cen- 
sorship over  the  state,  which  had  been  intrusted  to  it  by  Solon 
(p.  53),  and  limited  its  sphere  of  action  to  its  judicial  powers. 
459.     After  this  democratic  victory  Cimon  was  banished  from  Athens 
by  ostracism. 
About  this  time  (between  460  and  454),  the  treasury  of  the  con- 
federacy was  transferred  from  Delos  to  the  Acropolis  of  Athens. 
The  contributions  of  the  members  of  the  league  thereby  acquired  the 
character  of  a  tribute  paid  to  the  Athenians.     The  confederates  be- 
came for  the  most  part  subjects  of  Athens,  which  became  the  capital 
of  a  great  coast  and  island  empire.^ 

459.  Megara,  threatened  by  Corinth,  ^gina  and  Epidaurus,  was 
placed  under  the  protection  of  the  Athenians,  who  connected 
Megara  with  its  port,  Niscea,  by  long  walls. 
458.  The  Athenians,  after  suffering  a  defeat  in  Argolis,  gained  t^vo 
battles  at  sea  over  the  allied  Corintliians,  Epidaurians,  and 
^ginetans ;  blockaded  ^gina,  and  energetically  defended  Meg- 
ara. This  great  development  of  power,  on  the  part  of  Athens, 
caused  a 

457-445.     "War  of  the  Spartans  and  Boeotians  against 
Athens. 
A  Spartan  army  under  Nicomedes,  the  guardian  of  the  young  king, 
Plistoanax,  had  been  sent  to  Central  Greece  to  protect  the  Dorian 

1  Curtius,  Hist,  of  Greece,  II.  378. 


B.  a  Greeks.  63 

tetrapolis  against  the  attacks  of  the  Phocians,  who  were  compelled 
to  give  up  their  conquests.  The  Spartan  army,  cut  off  from  a  return 
over  the  isthmus  by  the  Athenians,  retired  to  Boeotia,  where  it  assisted 
the  Boeotians  against  Athens. 

457.     Battle  of  Tanagra,  a  Spartan  victory,  which  they  neglected 
to  utilize.     They  concluded  an  armistice  with  Athens  and  re- 
turned to  Sparta. 
Very   soon   the    Athenians   again   invaded   Boeotia,  defeated   the 
Tliebans  at  Q^nophyta  (456),  and  replaced  the  aristocratic  govern- 
ments in  most  cities  by  democratic,  which  were  friendly  towards 
Athens.      The   Phocians   and    Opuntian    Locrians    jomed    Athens. 
^gina  was  forced  to  surrender  to  the  Athenians  after  a  long  siege, 
gave  up  its  ships  of  war,  and  became  tributary  (456).    The  Athenians 
laid  waste  the  coasts  of  Laconia,  and  conveyed  the  Messenians,  whom 
the  Spartans  had  granted  a  free  departure  from  Ithome,  to  Naupactus 
(p.   40),   where  they  formed  a  settlement.     Reconciliation  between 
Pericles  and  Cimon;  the  latter  recalled  after  an  exile  of  nearly  five 
years  (454).     The  mfluence  of  Cimon  brought  about  an 
451  (?).    Armistice  between  Athens  and  Sparta  for  five  years,  and 
a  new  naval  expedition  agamst  the  Persians.    Cimon  conducted 
200  ships  to  Cyprus.     He  died  during  the  siege  of  Citium. 
After  his  death  his  fleet  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the 
Persian  (i.  e.  Phoenician,  CUician)  fleet,  and  the  hostile  troops 
on  the  land  in  the  double 
449.     Battle  of  Salamis  (lakafxL<i)  in  Cyprus. 

New  party  struggles  in  the  Boeotian  cities.  The  aristocrats,  who 
had  been  driven  out  by  the  Athenians,  returned ;  the  Athenians,  called 
to  the  assistance  of  the  democrats,  were  defeated  at  Coronea  (447). 
The  old  aristocratic  constitutions  were  restored,  not  only  in  Boeotia 
but  also  in  Locrisy  Phocis,  and  Megdra,  which  became  free  from 
the  supremacy  of  Athens.  After  the  expiration  of  the  five  years' 
armistice  the  Spartans  sent  an  army  under  their  young  king,  Plis- 
toanax,  to  Attica,  in  order  to  assist  the  Euboeans  in  a  revolt  against 
the  Athenians.  Pericles  bribed  the  advisers  of  the  young  king 
ind  secured  the  withdrawal  of  the  army;  then  hastening  back  to 
Euboea  with  an  Athenian  army,  he  subdued  the  island  anew  (446). 
Second  assignment  of  Euboean  lands  to  Athenian  citizens. 

445.     Thirty  years'  peace  between  Athens  and  Sparta.     By 
this  peace,  or  more  properly  armistice,  the  Peloponnesian 
and  Athenian  leagues  acknowledged  themselves  to  be  two 
distinct  and  independent  confederacies. 
About  this  time,  or  at  least  after  the  death  of  Cimon,  negotiations 
for  peace  were  opened  between  Athens  and  Persia,  and  an  Athenian 
embassy  under  Callias  was  sent  to  Susa.     No  formal  peace,  however, 
was  concluded,  but  peaceable  intercourse  under  a  tacit  recognition  of 
existing  political  relations  gradually  took  the  place  of  a  state  of  war. 
The   Athenians  gave   up  Cyprus  and  sent  the   Egyptian  rebels  no 
further   aid.     They  continued   to   control   the  iEgean  Sea,  and  the 
Grecian  coast  towns  of  Asia  Minor  were  mostly  their  allies  or  sub- 
jects, —  in  any  case,  practically  free  from  the  Persian  sceptre.     The 


64  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

so-called  peace  of  Cimon,  wherein  the  king  of  Persia  is  said  to  have 
formally  acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  Greeks  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  promised  to  send  no  more  ships  of  war  into  the  iEgean, 
would  seem  to  be  the  invention  of  a  later  time.^ 

444.  At  Athens  Thucydides  (the  son  of  Melasias,  not  the  historian 
of  the  same  name),  became  the  leader  of  the  aristocratic 
party.  His  party  attempted  to  secure  the  ostracism  of  Peri- 
cles, but  when  the  votes  were  counted  it  was  found  that 
Thucydides  was  banished. 

444-429.  Athens  under  the  administration  of  Pericles, 
who,  although  never  archon,  conducted  the  government  of  the 
city  by  his  influence  in  the  assembly,  and  in  his  official  ca'pac- 
ity  as  strategus,  as  superintendent  of  the  finances  (Tamias  or 
Epimeletes),  and  as  superintendent  of  public  buildings  and 
other  public  works. 
440-439.     Revolt  and  subjugation  of  Samos. 

443.     Foundation  of  Thurii  in  Southern  Italy  on  the  ruins  of  Sybaris. 
437.     Foundation  of  Amphipolis  on  the  Strymon.     Completion  of  the 
fortifications  of  Athens  by  the  construction  of  a  third  long  wall, 
parallel  with  the  first  leading  to  the  Piraeus  (p.  61).     Mag- 
nificent buildings,  especially  on  the  Acropolis :  the  Hall  of  the 
Caryatides  in  the  Erechtheion,  the  Propylcea,  the  Parthenon,  or 
Hecatompedon,  the  bronze  statue  of  Athena  Promachos,  a  co- 
lossal figure  over  50  feet  high. 
By  the  Age  of  Pericles  is  commonly  understood  the  whole  time 
of  his  political  activity  (465-429),  or  even  the  entire  period  from  the 
Persian  expeditions  to  the  Peloponnesian  war.     This  was  the  most 
brilliant   epoch  in  the  history  of  Athens,  not  only  in  its  political 
power,  its  trade  and  commerce,  but  in  art  and  literature.     The  tragic 
dramatists:  iEschylus,  526^55;  Sophocles,  496-405;  Euripides, 
480-406;  later  the  comic  dramatist,  Aristophanes  456  (?)-380? 
The  historians:  Herodotos  of  Halicarnassus,  484-424?;  Thucy- 
dides, 470-400  ?     The  sculptor:  Phidias;  the  architects  Ictinus, 
Callicrates,  and  Mnesicles ;  tlie  painter  Polygnotus.     The  phi- 
losophers, Socrates,  469-399,  Zeno  of  Elea,  Anaxagoras,  Prota- 
goras.    Aspasia  of  Miletus. 

431-404.  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR. 

Causes:  Envy  of  the  Dorian  confederacy  at  the  power  of  Athens, 
the  ambition  of  the  Athenians,  and  the  discontent  of  those  of  their 
allies  who  had  been  reduced  to  subjects. 

Immediate  causes:  1.  The  interference  of  Athens  in  the  war 
between  Corcyra  and  Corinth  (435-432),  which  had  broken  out  con- 
cerning Epidamnus  (afterwards  Dyrrhachiuni)  in  lUyria,  a  colony  of 
Corcyra.  The  democrats  of  Epidamnus,  hard  pressed  by  the  exiled 
nobles  in  alliance  with  Illyrian  barbarians,  implored  aid  from  their 

1  Cf.  Curtius,  ffist.  of  Greece,  II.  456  (after  Dahlmann  and  Kriifrer). 
Other  writers  consider  that  a  treatv  was  concluded.  Cf.  Hiecke,  De  Pace 
Cimonica,  1863.  B.  Miiller,  Uber  den  cimon  Frieden,  1866-1869.  Ad, 
Schmidt,  Das  perikleische  Zeitalter. 


B.  C.  Greeks.  65 

mother  city  Corcyra  in  vain,  but  obtained  help  from  Corinth^  the 
mother  city  of  Corcyra.  Enraged  at  this,  the  Corcyraeans  took  sides 
with  the  aristocracy  of  Epidamnus,  defeated  the  Corinthians  at 
Actium  C434),  and  captured  Epidamnus.  Corinth  and  Corcyra  vied 
with  one  another  for  help  from  Athens.  The  Athenians  decided  in 
favor  of  Corcyra,  and  took  part  at  first  with  10,  afterwards  with  30, 
ships  in  the  battle  of  Syhota  (432),  between  the  Corinthians  and  Cor- 
cyrseans,  wherein  the  Corinthians,  at  first  victorious,  afterwards  retired 
before  the  Athenians.  2.  The  inhabitants  of  Potidcea,  a  Corinthian 
colony  on  the  peninsula  of  Chalcidice,  revolted  from  the  Athenian 
league  (432),  and  received  support  from  Corinth.  The  Corinthians 
were,  however,  defeated  by  the  Athenians  at  Olynthus,  and  Potidsea 
was  surrounded  and  besieged. 

The  Corinthians,  supported  by  the  Megareans,  who  (since  432  ?) 
had  been  excluded  from  all  Attic  harbors  and  markets,  and  by  the 
JEginetans,  entered  a  complaint  against  the  Athenians  at  Sparta. 
The  popular  assembly  at  Sparta  having  voted  that  the  Athenians  had 
broken  the  treaty,  the  Peloponnesian  Congress  resolved  on  preparation 
for  war. 

Military  po"wer  of  both  parties :  Achaia  and  Argos  remaineiu 
neutral  at  first.  The  Feloponnesians  were  joined  by  the  Megareansy 
Boeotians,  Opuntian  Locrians,  Phocians.  Independent  allies  of  the 
Athenians:  Platoece,  Corcyra,  Zacynthus,  Chios,  Lesbos,  Thessalians, 
Acamanians.  The  Athenian  league,  including  almost  all  the  islands 
and  coasts  of  the  archipelago  and  the  regions  beyond,  had  been 
transformed,  by  naval  stations  and  garrisons,  into  an  extensive  em- 
pire. 

431.  The  war  ^  began  with  the  surprise  of  Plataese  by  the  Thebans. 
The  gates  were  opened  by  treachery;  but  the  Thebans  were 
driven  out  of  the  city  ;  many  were  captured  or  cruelly  slaugh- 
tered. 
431-425.  Five  invasions  of  Attica  by  the  Feloponnesians,  4  un- 
der the  Spartan  king  A  rchidamus,  the  6th  under  Agis.  While 
the  Athenian  fleet  laid  waste  the  coasts  of  Peloponnesus,  the 
inhabitants  of  Attica  took  refuge  in  Athens,  Piraeus,  or  en- 
camped between  the  long  walls.  The  jEginetans  were  en- 
tirely driven  away  from  their  island  by  the  Athenians,  and  their 
land  divided  among  Athenian  citizens.  The  coimtry  around 
Megara  was  harried  by  an  Athenian  army. 
430.  A  pestilence  resembluig  the  plague  broke  out  at  Athens,  of 
which 

429.     Pericles  died. 

In  the  spring  of  this  year  capture  of  Potidcea.  Cleon  ^  came  for- 
ward as  the  leader  of  the  democratic  party;  the  head  of  the  aris- 
tocratic party  was  Nicias. 

1  This  first  period  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  down  to  the  peace  of  Nidns 
(421),  commonly  known  as  the  Archidamian  war,  is  called  by  Thucydides  (V. 

25)  6  SeKaerrj?  TroAe/u-O?. 

2  Not  a  tanner,  but  an  owner  of  manufactories,  who  carried  on  his  business 
by  means  of  slaves.    Cvirtius,  Hisi.  of  Greece,  III.  61. 

5 


66  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

428.  Revolt  of  Mytilene  in  Lesbos  {Methymna  remained  faitlif ul  to 
the  Athenians).     Before  the  arrival  of  the  help  promised  by 

427.  the  Peloponnesians,  Mytilene  was  compelled  to  surrender  by 
the  Athenians  under  Paches.  The  Athenian  assembly  decreed 
that  all  citizens  of  Mytilene  should  be  put  to  death,  a  sentence 
which  on  the  following  day  was  restricted  to  the  aristocrats. 
More  than  a  thousand  were  slain,  the  city  was  razed,  and  the 
land  on  the  island,  with  the  exception  of  the  territory  of  Meth- 
ymna, divided  among  Athenian  citizens. 

427.  Platcece  forced  to  surrender.  The  survivors  of  its  brave  defenders, 
,  225  in  number,  were  executed  by  the  Spartans.  Bloody  party 
contests  in  Corcyra,  where  victory  at  last  remamed  with  the 
democrats.  Successful  expedition  of  the  Athenians  under  De- 
mosthenes to  assist  the  Acamanians  against  the  AmbraciotSy 
who  received  help  from  the  Peloponnesians. 

425.  Demosthenes  landed  in  Messenia  and  fortified  the  ruined  fortress 
of  Pylos.  The  Spartans  under  Brasiidas  occupied  the  island  of 
Sphactena,  opposite  Pylos.  The  Athenian  fl.eet  under  Nicias 
cut  off  their  retreat.  Spartan  envoys  in  Athens  offered  peace, 
but  their  proposals  were  rejected  at  the  instigation  of  Cleon, 
who,  being  appointed  by  the  people  strategus  in  place  of  Nicias, 
took  Sphactena  by  storm,  and  brought  292  of  the  enemy,  among 
whom  were  120  Spartiatce,  with  him  to  Athens.  The  Athenians 
threatened  to  put  the  prisoners  to  death  whenever  the  Pelo- 
ponnesians should  invade  Attica  again. 

424.  The  island  of  Cythera  occupied  by  the  Athenians.  From 
Cythera  and  from  Pylos,  to  which  latter  place  the  Athenians 
conveyed  Messenians  from  Naupactus,  the  Laconian  territory 
was  harassed  incessantly.  The  Athenians  invaded  Bceotia,  but 
were  defeated  by  the  Boeotians  at  Delium  (^Socrates,  Alcibiddes). 
Expedition  of  the  Spartans  under  Brasidas  by  land  to  Mace- 
donia and  Thrace,  with  the  design  of  putting  an  end  to  the  su- 
premacy of  the  Athenians  there.  Revolt  of  several  towns  from 
Athens;  Brasidas  captured  Amphipolis,  on  account  of  which  the 
Athenian  general  Thucydides  (the  historian),  who  lay  with  a 
squadron  at  Thasos,  was  banished.  The  Athenians  sent  Cleon 
to  Thrace.     Cleon  was  defeated  in  the 

422.  Battle  of  Amphipolis 

by  Brasidas,  and  fell  during  the  flight.     Brasidas  died  of  his 
wounds. 

421.    Peace  of  Nicias, 

concluded  for  fifty  years.  Both  sides  restored  conquests  and  pris- 
oners, a  condition  which  was,  however,  but  imperfectly  executed.  Al- 
though Sparta  even  entered  into  alliance  with  Athens  to  force  this 
peace  upon  their  confederates,  the  war  broke  out  again  in  three  years, 
when  Alcibiades  persuaded  the  Athenians  to  join  the  league  which 
Argos  had  formed  with  several  Pelopomiesian  states,  in  order  to  op- 
pose the  oppressive  ascendancy  of  Sparta-  The  united  Ar gives  and 
Athenians  were  defeated  in  the 


B.  c.  Greeks.  67 

418.   Battle  of  Mantinea. 

By  this  victory  the  Spartans  regained  their  supremacy  in  Pelo- 
poimesus. 
416.   The  Athenians  captured  Melos  and  put  all  the  citizens  to  death. 

415-413.     Expedition  of  the  Athenians  against  Syracuse, 

Suggested  hy  the  request  of  Egesta  for  help  against  Selinus  and 
Syracuse  (Hermocrates),  which  was  granted  by  the  advice  of  Aid- 
biddes.      A  fleet  of  134  triremes,  carrying  36,000  men  inclusive  of 
sailors,  among  which  number  were  5100  hoplites,^  sailed  for  Sicily 
under  AlcibiddeSj   Nicias,  and  Lamdchus.     After  the  occupation  of 
Naxos  and  Catana,  Alcibiades  was  recalled  to  answer  to  a  charge  of 
participation  m  a  sacrilege  (mutilation  of  the  Hermce,  ridiculing  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries).     He  went  to  Argos,  was  condemned  to  death 
in  his  absence,  and  his  property  was  confiscated.     Seeking  revenge  on 
his  enemies,  he  forthwith  went  over  to  the  side  of  Sparta. 
414.   Nicias  gained  a  victory  before  Syracuse  and  besieged  the  city 
with  some  success.     Death  of  Lamdchus.     At  the  advice  of 
Alcibiades,  the  Spartans  sent  a  small  fleet  under  Gylippus  to 
the  assistance  of  Syracuse.     The  Athenians  attacked  the  city 
413.      by  storm,  and  were  repulsed.    They  suffered  from  sickness  and 
want.     Reinforced  by  73  triremes  and  5000  hoplites  under 
Demosthenes,  thej  were  nevertheless  defeated  in  two  naval  bat- 
tles in  the  harbor  of  Syracuse ;  their  fleet  was  surrounded ;  the 
413.      remnants  of  their  army  on  the  retreat  by  land  (on  the  Assina- 
Sept.     rws)  were  in  part  cut  to  pieces,  in  part  captured.    Nicias  and 
Demosthenes  were  executed  in  Syracuse;  7000  prisoners  werG 
sent  to  the  quarries  (Aoroju/at). 
413.        By  the  advice  of  Alcibiades  the  Spartans  occupied  and  forti- 
March.     fled  the  village  of  Decelea  in  Attica.     The  last  nine  years  of 
the  Peloponnesian  war  are  therefore  known  as  the 

413-404.     Decelean  war. 

The  Spartans  made  forays  from  Decelea  into  all  parts  of 

Attica. 
Distress  of  the  Athenians,  flight  of  slaves,  financial  difficulties  of 
the  government.  The  influence  of  the  aristocratic  party  revived. 
Establishment  of  a  new  board  of  ten  councillors  (irp6[3ov\oi).^  Regu- 
lation of  the  finances.  Renewed  preparations  for  war.  Alcibiades 
induced  Chios,  Erythrce,  Clazomence,  and  Miletus  to  revolt.  He  was  in- 
strumental in  forming  an  alliance  between  the  Spartans,  who  declared 
their  wilKngness  to  abandon  to  the  Persian  king  all  Greek  cities  for- 
merly subject  to  him,  and  the  Persian  satrap,  Tissaphemes,  who  paid 
a  subsidy  to  the  Spartans.  A  new  Athenian  fleet  appeared  off  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor  and  defeated 
412.   the  Peloponnesian  fleet  near  Miletus,  but  was  prevented  from 

taking  the  city  by  a  squadron  from  Syracuse.     The  Athenian 

fleet,  increased  to  104  ships,  anchored  off  Samas.     Alcibiades, 

1  Curtius,  Hist,  of  Greece,  III.  357. 

2  Their  functions  are  a  matter  of  dispute.     Cf.  Grote,  History  of  Greece. 
VII.  362.  .  ^   ./  . 


68  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

being  suspected  and  maligned  by  the  Spartans,  went  to  Tissa- 
phernes,  over  whom  he  soon  exercised  great  influence.  At  the 
same  time  he  intrigued  with  the  oligarchs  in  the  Athenian 
army,  whom,  however,  he  only  kept  in  suspense  and  finally 
deceived.  In  the  mean  time 
411.  the  oligarchs  overthrew  the  democratic  constitution  at 
March.  Athens  by  a  coup  d^etat.  A  new  oligarchical  council  of  400 
citizens  was  established  ;  the  popidar  assembly  was  limited  to 
5000  members;  the  payment  of  all  state  salaries,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  pay  of  citizens  serving  in  the  army,  was  abol- 
ished. The  oligarchy  entered  upon  negotiations  for  peace 
with  Sparta,  and  endeavored  to  break  up  the  new  order  of 
things  by  executions  and  banishments.  Their  rule,  however, 
was  of  short  duration.  The  army  before  Samos  refused  to  rec- 
ognize the  alteration  of  the  constitution;  elected  new  leaders 
{Thrasyhvlus)  and  recalled  Alcibiades,  who  assumed  com- 
mand, but  refused  to  lead  the  fleet  against  the  oligarchs  in 
Athens,  and  insisted  that  it  should  remain  in  the  face  of  the 
enemy.  At  Athens  the  oligarchical  rule  of  the  new  council  of 
400  was  broken  after  it  had  lasted  four  months  without  direct 
interference  on  the  part  of  the  army;  the  old  council  of  500 
was  reestablished;  the  popular  assembly  remained  limited  to 
5000  members  (until  410?).  The  abolition  of  salaries  was 
not  repealed. 
The  Spartans  broke  off  all  connection  with  Tissaphernes,  and  en- 
tered mto  alliance  with  Phamabdzus,  satrap  of  Bithynia. 

The  Athenians  under  Thr-asybulm  defeated  the  Peloponnesian  fleet 
under  Mindarus  and  Phamabazus  in  the 

411.    Sea-fight  at  the   promontory   of  Cynossema,  near  AbydoB. 
July.   Three   months  later  Alcibiades  defeated  the  Peloponnesians 

in  a 
411.   Second  sea-fight  at  Abydos. 

Alcibiades,  taken  prisoner  by  Tissaphernes,  soon  escaped,  as- 
sumed command  of  the  Athenian  fleet  again,  and  annihilated 
the  Peloponnesian  fleet  in  the 

410.  Battle  of  Cyzicus, 

Feb.  where  he  also  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  enemy  after 
he  had  escaped  to  the  land.    Having  subdued  the  coasts  of  the 

409.      Hellespont  and  Propontis,  and  captured  Byzantium^  , 

408.   Alcibiades  returned  to  Athens  in  triumph. 

June.  The  sentence  of  Alcibiades  was  repealed,  and  he  was  ap- 
pointed commander  by  land  and  sea,  with  unlimited  power. 
He  guarded  with  the  army  the  festal  procession  to  Eleusis, 
which  had  been  for  a  long  time  discontinued.  Alcibiades  con- 
ducted the  Athenian  fleet  to  Asia  Minor.  The  Spartan,  Ly- 
sander,  had  in  the  mean  time  assumed  the  command  here,  and 
the  brother  of  the  future  king  of  Persia,  Artaxerxes  II.,  the 
younger  Cyrus  (son  of  Darius  II.),  a  friend  of  the  Spartans,  had 
become  satrap  of  Asia  Minor.  While  Alcibiades  was  engaged 
on  a  foraging  expedition  in  the  country  around  Phoccea,  the 


B.  c.  Greeks.  69 

Athenian  fleet  was  involved  by  the  junior  commanders  in  an 
engagement,  and  defeated  by  Lysander  in  the 
407.   Battle  of  Notium,  in  the  gulf  of  Ephesus. 

On  account  of  this  misfortune,  Alcibiades  was  deposed  from 
his  command.  He  retired  to  the  Hellespont,  and  died  in  404. 
The  new  Spartan  admiral  Callicratides,  surrounded  the  Athenian 
fleet  under  Conon  at  Mytilene.  The  Athenians  with  the  greatest  ex- 
ertions fitted  out  a  new  fleet,  which  hastened  to  the  aid  of  Conon. 
The  united  Athenian  fleet  completely  defeated  the  Peloponnesians  in 
the  great 

406.   Battle  of  Arginusse, 

Sept.  (al  'Apyivovaai,  small  islands  ofP  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  east 
of  Lesbos).  Six  of  the  victorious  generals  were  sentenced  to 
death  in  Athens  for  having  abandoned  shipwrecked  troops  in  a 
storm  and  not  buried  the  bodies,  and  were  actually  executed. 

Lysander,  again  appointed  admiral  by  the  Spartans,  defeated  and 
annihilated  the  Athenian  fleet  in  the 

405.     Battle  of  iEgospotami  (Pilyhs  nora/xoi,  goat  river),  opposite 
Aug.  ?  Lampsacus.     Conon  escaped  with  eight  ships.     Slaughter  of 
3000  Athenian  prisoners.     Lysander,  having  first  completely 
destroyed  the  Athenian  power  on  the  coasts  and  islands,  and 
everywhere  established  oligarchical  constitutions,  appeared  with 
the  Pelopomiesian  fleet  before  Piraeus,  while  the  Peloponnesian 
army  enclosed  Athens  on  the  land  side.     Starvation  caused 
the 
404.   Surrender  of  Athens  and  end  of  the  war. 
April.     The   walls  of  Piraeus,  and  the  long  walls  between  the  city 
and  the  harbors,  were  torn  down.     All  ships  of  war  but  twelve 
were  delivered  to  the  enemy.    The  democracy  was  overthrown, 
and  the  government  entrusted  to  thirty  men  of  the  oligarchical 
party. 
404-371.     Second  Hegemony  of  the  Spartans. 
404-403.     Government  of  the  so-called  Thirty  Tyrants,  of  whom 
the  best  known  is  Critias,  at  Athens. 
The  Thirty,  instead  of  forming  a  new  constitution,  endeavored  to 
secure  the  permanent  control  of  the  state,  and  to  strengthen  their 
power  by  receiving  a  Spartan  garrison  in  the  Acropolis,  and  by  numer- 
ous executions.     At  last,  one  of  the  Thirty,  Theramenes,  was  put  to 
death  at  the  instance  of  Critias.     Thrasybulus  assembled  the  demo- 
cratic fugitives  in  Phyle,  defeated  the  troops  of  the  Thirty,  and  seized 
Piraeus  ;  Critias  was  slain.     Ten  more  moderate  oligarchs  took  the 
place  of  the  Thirty.     Through  the  mediation  of  Pausamas,  king  of 
Sparta,  an  understanding  was  reached  between  Thrasybiilus  and  the 
oligarchs  in  Athens,    The  remainder  of  the  Thirty  were  put  to  death. 
General  amnesty.     Re  establishment  of  a  moderate  democracy.     The 
government  was  rearranged  by  the  revision  of  the  laws  made  by 
Euclides  (403). 

401-400.     Retreat  of  the  10,000  under  Xenophon  (p.  29). 
399.      Socrates    (469-399)    executed   in  Athens  by  poison.     His 
scholar,  Plato  (427-348). 


70  Ancient  History.  b.  a 

399-394.     War  between  the  Spartans  and  Persians.     The 

Persian  satrap,  Tissaphernes,  attempted  to  punisli  the  Greek 
cities  of  Asia  Minor  for  their  share  in  the  expedition  of  the 
younger  Cyrus.  The  Spartans  came  to  the  aid  of  the  cities, 
at  first  under  Thibron,  then  under  Dercyllidas^  finally  under 
Agesildus.  The  latter  forced  liis  way  into  Asia  and  defeated 
Tissaphernes,  who  was  executed  by  command  of  his  successor^ 
Tithraustes.     Persian  gold  produced  the 

395-387.  Corinthian  war  against  Sparta,  whose  harmosts  (apfioarat, 
governors)  had  made  themselves  universally  hated.  Coalition 
of  Thebes,  Corinth^  and  Argos,  joiued  by  Athens.     The  Spartan 

395.  Lysander  fell  at  Haliartus  in  Bceotia,  in  battle  with  the 
allies.     The  Lacedaemonian  fleet  was  defeated  in  the 

394.  Battle  of  Cnidus  by  the  Athenian  Conon  and  the  Persian 
satrap  Phamabazus.  The  Spartan  harmosts  were  driven  from 
the  Grecian  cities  of  Asia  Minor.  Agesildus  was  recalled, 
traversed  Thrace,  Macedonia,  and  Thessaly,  and  defeated  the 
allies  in  the 

394.  Battle  of  Coronea  in  western  Bceotia.  Conon  and  the  Per^ 
sian  satrap  Phamabdzus  plundered  the  coasts  of  Laconia.  Conon 
rebuilt  the  (2)  long  vsralls  with  Persian  money.  After  some 
years  of  fighting,  in  which  Iphicrdtes  and  Chabrms  were  the 
Athenian  leaders,  the 

387.  Peace  of  Antalcidas  was  concluded  between  the  Grecian  states 
and  the  Persians.  It  took  its  name  from  the  Spartan  admiral 
who  was  sent  as  envoy  to  Susa.  The  Grecian  cities  of  Asia 
Minor  and  the  islands  of  Clazomence  and  Cyprus  were  abandoned 
to  the  Persians.  The  Athenians  retained  control  of  Lemnos, 
Imbros,  and  Scyros  only  ;  all  other  states  and  islands  were  to  be 
independent  imder  Spartan  and  Persian  guaranty. 

379-362.     War  between  Thebes  and  Sparta,  caused  by  the 
occupation  of  the  Cadmea  in  Thebes  (383)  by  the  Spartan 
PhcebldaSy  who  was  urged  to  take  this  step  by  the  aristocratic 
party  in  Thebes,  as  he  was  conducting  an  army  through  Bce»tia 
agamst  Olynthus. 
The  Theban  democrats  had  taken  refuge  in  Athens,  whence  under 
Pelopidas  they  liberated  Thebes  in  379  and  compelled  the  Spartans 
to  withdraw  from  the  Cadmea.     Cleombrotus  and  Agesildus  were  dis- 
patched to  Bceotia,  but  met  with  little  success.     The   Spartans  at- 
tempted to  surprise  Piraeus.     This  induced  the  Athenians  to  enter 
into  open   alliance   with  Thebes.     They  founded  a  new  confederacy 
(^symmachy)f  embracing   seventy  communities,  under  more  just  con- 
ditions than  those  of  the  first  league  (378).     The  Spartans  were  re- 
peatedly defeated  at  sea  by  the  Athenians  Chabrias,  Phocton,  and 
Timotheus.     Peace  between  Sparta  and  Athens.     Cleombrotus  invaded 
Bceotia  anew,  but  in  the 

371.     Battle  of  Leuotra,  he  was  defeated  by  Epaminondas,  an<J 
fell  on  the  field. 

371-362.     Hegemony  of  the  Thebans. 


B.  c.  Greeks.  71 

370.  First  invasion  of  Peloponnesus  by  the  Thebans,  under  Epam- 
inondas  and  Pelopidas  in  order  to  protect  the  Arcadians, 
who  had  revolted  from  Sparta.  Megalopolis  founded.  An 
attack  by  the  Thebans  on  Sparta  proved  unsuccessful,  but 
they  ravaged  Laconia  and  proclaimed  the  independence  of  the 
Messenians.  Foundation  of  Messene.  The  Athenians  came  to 
the  aid  of  the  Spartans.  Retreat  of  the  Thebans. 
369.     Second  Theban  mvasion  of  Peloponnesus. 

367.  Third  invasion.  Sicyon  revolted  from  Sparta.  The  third  in- 
vasion produced  a  momentary  alliance  of  Achaia  and  Thebes. 
The  Corinthians  and  Phliasians  concluded  peace  with  Thebes. 
In  the  north  the  Thebans  sent  several  expeditions  against  the 
tyrant  Alexander  of  Pherce  for  the  liberation  of  the  Thessalians. 
On  the  second  expedition  Pelopidas  was  captured,  but  soon  set 
free  by  Epaminondas  ;  on  a  new  expedition  he  fell  as  victor  at 
364.      Cynocephalce  (Kwhs  /ce^aAaQ. 

Fourth  expedition  of  the  Thebans  against  Peloponnesus.     Epam- 
inondas fell  in  the 

362.  Battle  of  Mantinea  as  victor  against  the  Spartans  and  their 
allies  (among  others  6000  Athenians). 
General  peace  between  the  Grecian  states,  which  the  Spartans 
alone  refused  to  accept,  not  being  willing  to  acknowledge  the  inde- 
pendence of  Messenia.  Agesildus  went  to  Egypt  to  the  assistance  of 
the  rebels  under  Tachos,  whose  fleet  was  commanded  by  the  Athe- 
nian Chabrias.     Agesildus  died  on  the  voyage  home  (360). 

Rise  of  the  Macedonian  power. 

359-336.  Philip  (^i\nnros),  son  of  Amyntas,  had  passed  three  years 
(368-365)  in  Thebes  as  a  hostage,  and  liad  there  learned  to 
appreciate  Grecian  culture  and  military  science  through  intercourse 
with  Epaminondas  and  other  men  of  note.  After  the  death  of  his 
brother,  Perdiccas,  he  succeeded  him  as  king  of  the  Macedonians  at 
the  age  of  twenty-three.  Gifted  with  courage  and  a  clear  political 
insight,  he  strengthened  the  royal  power  in  a  country  torn  by  party 
strife,  defended  the  borders  against  the  restless  Pceonian  and  Illyrian 
tribes,  and  established  a  standing  army  (^Phalanx).  After  he  had 
given  his  own  state  a  firm  organization,  he  turned  his  attention  to 
extending  his  power  along  the  Thracian  coast,  and  by  cuiming  trick- 
ery encroacjied  on  the  Athenian  territory.  He  captured  Amphipolis 
(357),  Pydna,  Potidcea,  gained  possession  of  the  Thracian  mines,  con- 
cluded an  alliance  with  Olynthus  against  the  Athenians,  and  founded 
Philippi.^ 

357-355.  Social  war  of  the  Athenian  league  against  Athens. 
Since  378  Athens  had  regained  much  of  her  former  influence. 
It  was  speedily  lost.  Chios,  Cos,  Rhodes,  and  Byzantium 
revolted.  Chabrias  perished  in  the  harbor  of  Chios.  Iphicrates 
and  Timotheus,  leaders  of  the  Athenians.  The  latter  were 
forced  to  acknowledge  the  independence  of  their  former  allies. 
355-346.  Second  Holy  "War  against  the  Phocians,  who 
1  Curtius,  Hist,  of  Greece,  V.  60. 


72  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

had  been  condemned  by  the  Amphictyonic  council  to  pay  an 
enormous  fine  for  having  used  the  holy  land  of  Cirrha  (p.  52), 
which  was  consecrated  to  the  Delphian  Apollo.     The  Thebans 
managed  to  have  the  collection  of  the  fine  entrusted  to  them- 
selves. 
The  Phocians  plundered  the  temple  of  Delphi  and  were  thereby 
enabled  to  maintain  by  means  of  mercenary  troops   a  long  and 
dubious  war  against  Thebans,  Locrians,  and  Thessalians.     Leaders  of 
the  Phocians,  Philomelus  (f  354),  Onomarchus,  his  brother  PhaylluSf 
and   son  Phalcecus.      After  a  long  contest  Onomarchus  fell   (352) 
in  battle  against  Philip  of  Macedonia,  whose  entrance  into  central 
Greece  was  prevented  by  an  Athenian  army  at  Thermopylae.     At  a 
later  period  Philip  was  called  upon  by  the  Thebans  for  assistance 
against  the  victorious  Phalcecus.     The  Phocians  forced  by  Pliilip,  who 
had  subdued  the  Thessalians  and  secured  ThermopyljB,  to  lay  down 
their  arms;  their  cities  were  deprived  of  their  walls  by  a  decree  of 
the  Amphictyonic  council;  the  inhabitants  were  separated  into  vil- 
lages, and'  made  tributary  to  the  Delphian  god.     Philip  was  elected 
to  the  Amphictyonic  council  in  place  of  the  Phocians. 

Philip,  whose  power  had  steadily  increased,  had  been  at  war  with 
Athens  since  his  occupation  of  Amphipolis.  In  Athens  Demos- 
thenes (383-322),  since  351,  when  he  delivered  his  first  Philippic, 
was  the  soul  of  an  organization  of  a  national  opposition  to  the  threat- 
ening power  of  Macedonia.^ 

Olynthus,  having  revolted  from  Philip  and  made  peace  with 
Athens,  was  hard  pressed  by  the  king,  and  begged  aid  from  Athens. 
The  three  Olynthiac  orations  of  Demosthenes.  Before  the  arrival 
of  the  Athenian  assistance  Pliilip  captured  Olynthus  by  treachery 
and  destroyed  the  city  (348),  as  well  as  a  large  number  of  smaller 
places  in  Chalcidice,  and  sold  the  inhabitants  as  slaves. 

The  opponents  of  Demosthenes,  Eubulus  and  ^schines  (Al<rx^vr]<s). 
Formation  of  a  Macedonian  party  in  Athens.  Negotiations  with 
Philip,  which,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  Demosthenes,  led  to  the 
shameful  peace  of  Philocrates  (346),  which  left  all  conquests  in  the 
hands  of  the  king.  A  complaint  being  entered  at  Athens  by  Hy- 
perides  against  Philocrates,  he  went  into  exile.  Demosthenes  lodged 
a  complaint  against  iEschines,  who  was  declared  not  guilty  (343). 

Philip  endeavored  to  extend  his  power  to  the  Propontis  and  the 
Pontus  Euxinus,  and  founded  numerous  colonies  in  Thrace  {Philip- 
popolis).  The  national  party  at  Athens  succeeded  iii  forming  a 
league  of  Hellenic  states  (among  others  Megdra,  Achaia,  Corinth), 
under  the  lead  of  Athens  against  Philip.  The  king  besieged 
Perinth  and  Byzantium  m  vain.  The  Athenians  declared  war  against 
him,  sent  a  fleet  and  an  army  to  Byzantium,  and  forced  him  to  raise 
the  siege.  Athens  derived  her  supply  of  gram  from  the  countries  on 
the  Black  Sea;  hence  her  sensitiveness  m  regard  to  Byzantium,  which 
was  the  key  to  the  Euxine. 

339-338.     Third   Holy  "War    (agamst  Amphissa).     At   the    insti- 
gation of    Philip  (^jEschines)  the  Amphictyonic   council  had 
decreed  the  punishment  of  the  Locrians  of  Amphissa  for  hav* 
1  A.  Schaefer,  Demosthenep  u.  seine  Zeit. 


B.  C.  Greeks.  73 

ing  occupied  some  ground  which  was  consecrated  to  Apollo. 
Philip,  entrusted  with  the  execution  of  the  sentence  by  the 
Araphictyons,  seized  Elatea,  which  commanded  the  entrance 
to  Boeotia.  Great  dismay  in  Greece.  The  Athenians  fitted 
out  a  fleet  and  an  army  at  the  instance  of  Demosthenes,  who 
went  in  person  to  Thebes  and  induced  the  Thebans  to  form  an 
alliance  with  Athens.  The  allied  Thebans  and  Athenians  were 
defeated  in  the 

338.   Battle  of  Chseronea  (KatpuiveLo)  by  Philip,  whose  son 
Aug.  Alexander  decided  the  battle  by  amiihilating  the  Holy 

Band  of  the  Thebans.  Philip  punished  the  Thebans  severely  and 
placed  a  garrison  in  the  Cadmea ;  to  the  Athenians  he  granted 
a  favorable  peace.  Peace  of  Demades.  He  advanced  into 
Peloponnesus,  took  a  large  part  of  her  territory  from  Sparta, 
and  divided  it  among  the  Messenians,  Argives,  and  Arcadians. 

Macedonian  Hegemony.  At  a  national  assembly  at  Corinth, 
where  the  Spartans  only  did  not  appear,  Philip  caused  himself 
to  be  chosen  leader  (with  dictatorial  power)  of  the  Grecian 
forces  against  the  Persians  ((rTpoTi77J>s  avTOKpaTwp  tcSu  'EAA^i'a>»'). 
In  other  respects  the  Grecian  cantons  were  to  retain  their 
autonomy;  a  congress  {<rvveBpioy)  at  Corinth  should  adjust 
their  differences. 

FOURTH  PERIOD. 

Graeco-Macedonian  or  Hellenistic  Epoch  down  to  the  Sub- 
jugation of  Greece  by  the  Romans  (338-146). 

After  the  murder  of  Philip,  who  was  on  the  point  of  beginning 
the  war  against  Persia,  by  Pausanias  (336),  the  Macedonian  throne 
was  occupied  by  his  son,  who  had  been  educated  by  Aristotle 
{' ApKTTOTeXTjs,  384—322),  and  was  now  20  years  old. 

336-323.     Alexander  the  Great  ('AAc^ai/Spos).^ 

He  forced  the  Greeks  to  transfer  to  him  the  Hegemony  and  the 
command  against  the  Persians,  quickly  reduced  the  revolted  Thracians 
(^Triballians),  Getce  and  lUyrians  in  the  north,  appeared  on  the  news  of 
a  Grecian  uprising  (of  the  Athenians  and  Thebans)  for  the  second  time 
in  Greece,  defeated  the  Thebans,  destroyed  Thebes  with  the  exception 
of  the  house  of  the  poet  Pindar  (522-442  ?),  and  sold  the  inhabitants 
as  slaves.  The  terrified  Athenians  submitted  and  were  pardoned. 
Antipdter  left  as  vicegerent  in  Macedonia.  In  330  revolt  of  the 
Spartans  put  down  by  Antipater  in  the  bloody  battle  of  Megalopolis, 
where  5000  Spartans,  under  their  king  Agis  II.,  met  a  heroic  death. 

334.   Expedition  of  Alexander  against  Persia,^ 
Spring.  which  was  not  merely  a  war  of  conquest,  but  also  a  scien- 

1  Droysen,  Geschlchte  Alexanders  des  Grossen  {Geschtchte  des  Hellenismus, 
2  Anfl.,  1877,  Th.  I.  with  5  maps  b}'  R.  Kiepert).  Hertzberg,  Die  asiatischen 
Feldziiife  Alexanders  d.  Gr.,  with  a  map  bv  H.  Kiepert. 

2  For  the  route,  see  Kiepert,  Atlas  Antiquus,  Tab.  II. 


74  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

tific  expedition,  and  a  journey  of  discovery.  Alexander  crossed 
the  Hellespont  at  Ahydos  with  30,000  infantry  and  5000  cav- 
alry (generals:  Perdiccas,  Clitus,  Parmenio,  Hephcestio,  Craterus, 
Ptolemceus,  Antigonus),  defeated  the  Persian  satraps  and  Mem- 
non,  leader  of  the  Grecian  mercenaries  of  Darius,  completely 
in  the 

334.     Battle  of  the  Granicus  (a  rivulet  in  Troas). 

Rescue  of  Alexander  by  Clitus.  Advancing  through  Mysia  and 
Lydia,  Alexander  proclaimed  the  freedom  of  the  Grecian  cities  and 
islands  from  Persian  rule,  conquered  Miletus  and  Halicarnassns,  and 
traversed  Caria  and  Lycia.  Prevented  from  advancing  further  by 
the  steep  mountains,  he  went  northward  through  the  land  of  the  Pisi- 
dians  to  Phrygia  by  way  of  Celcence,  Gordium  (the  Gordian  knot),  and 
through  Cappadocia  to  Cilicia  (bath  in  the  Cydnus).  At  Tarsus  he 
was  taken  ill,  but  speedily  recovering  (potion  of  the  physician  Philip- 
pus)  he  passed  through  the  Syrian  Gates  to  Myriandrus  on  the  coast 
in  Syria.  Meantime  the  Persian  king,  Darius  III.  (p.  29)  had  ap- 
proached from  the  Euphrates  with  a  large  army  and  got  to  the  rear 
of  the  Macedonians.  On  hearing  this,  Alexander  turned  back  from 
Syria  and  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Persians  in  the 
333.     Battle  of  Issus,  in  Cilicia. 

Nov.    An  immense  number  of  Persians  fell ;  the  rest  were  captured 
or  scattered.     Darius  escaped,  but  his  mother,  his  wives,  and 
daughters  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victor. 
In  order  to  completely  destroy  the  Persian  power  at  sea,  Alexander 
conquered  Syria,  Phoenicia,  where  he  besieged  Tyre  for  seven  months, 
and  Palestine,  advanced  into  Egypt  without   opposition,  and  went 
from  Pelusium  to  Memphis.     Foundation  of  Alexandria  on  a  well- 
chosen  site.     Expedition  across  the  Libyan  desert  to  the  oracle  of 
Zeus  Ammon  in  the  oasis  of  Sivah.    Leaving  Egypt,  Alexander  passed 
through  Palestine  and  Syria  by  way  of  Damascus,  crossed  the  Eu- 
•phrates  at  Thapsacus,  traversed  Mesopotamia,  crossed  the  Tigris,  and 
defeated  the  Persian  army,  which  outnumbered  his  own  20  times,  in 
the 

331.     Battle  of  Gaugamela  or  Arbela  (jh  "Ap^eXa), 
Oct.     not  far  from  the  ruins  of  Nineveh.     While  Darius  fled  north- 
ward, Alexander  crossed  the  Tigris  a  second  time,  entered 
Babylon  without  resistance,  traversed  Babylonia,  crossed  the 
Tigris  a  third  time,  captured  the  capital  of  Persia,  Susa  in 
Susiana,  and  traversed  Persis.      Capture  of  Pasargddce  and 
Persepoiis. 
In  the  spring  of   330   Alexander  set  out  in  pursuit  of  Darius. 
Crossing  Media  to  Ecbatana  in  the  north,  he  hastened  through  the 
Caspian  gates  to  Parthia.      There,  in  the   neighborhood    of   Heca- 
tompylos,  Darius  Codomannus  was  murdered  (330)  by  the  satrap 
Bessus,  who  fled  to  Bactria  and  assumed  the  royal  title.     After  an 
expedition  northward  to  Hyrcania  against  the  Grecian  mercenaries, 
Alexander  traversed  Parthia  toward  the  east,  turned  southward,  for 
the  purpose  of    punishing  an  insurrection  of   satraps,  and  crossed 
Aria  and  Drangiana.     In  Prophthasia  discovery  of  the  conspiracy  of 


B.  C.  Greeks.  75 

Philotas,  who  was  condemned  by  the  army  and  executed;  his  father, 
Parmenio,  was  put  to  death  in  Echatana  (330)  at  Alexander's  com- 
mand. 

Alexander  now  crossed  Arachosia  in  a  northeasterly  direction, 
crossed  the  Paropanisus  (p.  24),  or  Indian  Caucasus,  in  the  spring 
of  329  (foundation  of  a  new  Alexandria),  advanced  into  Bactria,  pur- 
sued Bessus,  who  had  retreated  beyond  the  Oxus,  but  was  delivered 
to  Alexander,  and  ultimately  crucified.  Alexander  went  northward 
as  far  as  the  Jaxartes  (the  modem  Sir  Daria),  where  he  founded 
Alexandria  Eschdta;  after  some  short  expeditions  against  the  nomades 
(Scythians)  on  the  other  side  of  the  Jaxartes,  he  remained  for  some 
time  in  Sogdiana  (murder  of  Clitus  in  328  in  Maracanda,  now 
Samarcand),  after  which  he  went  to  Bactria.  Marriage  with  Rox- 
ana,  daughter  of  a  Bactrian  prince.  Alexander  began  at  this  time 
to  adopt  oriental  clotliing  and  customs. 

327.     Expedition  of  Alexander  to  India. 

Having  once  more  crossed  the  Paropanisus,  Alexander,  after  sharp 
fighting  with  the  mountain  tribes,  reached  the  Indus,  crossed  it,  and 
entered  the  Punjab  (country  of  five  rivers).     In  alliance  with  the 
Indian  prince  Taxiles,  at  the 
326.     Battle  of  the  Hydaspes  ( FiVas^a,  now  Ihelum) 

he  defeated  Porus,  and  took  him  prisoner,  treated  him,  how- 
ever, with  magnanimity,  and  replaced  him  on  his  throne  as  a 
dependent  prince. 
Foundation  of  Niccea  and  Bucephala.  Alexander  went  eastward 
as  far  as  the  Hyphasis  (Vipa9a,  now  Vjdsa,  or  Bey  as),  when  the 
Macedonian  soldiers  refused  to  go  farther,  and  compelled  him  to  re- 
turn to  the  Hydaspes.  Construction  of  a  fleet  of  some  2000  (?) 
sliips,  which  conveyed  a  portion  of  the  army  down  the  Hydaspes  to 
the  Acesines  (now  Chenaub),  while  the  remaining  part  (with  200  ele- 
phants) marched  along  the  shore.  Contest  with  the  Malli.  Alex- 
ander's rash  bravery  and  severe  wound.  After  his  recovery  the  fleet 
and  army  proceeded,  and  finally  reached  the  junction  of  the  united 
Punjab  rivers  with  the  Indus.  In  325  army  and  fleet  went  dowTi 
the  Indus.  Craterus  returned  to  Persis  with  a  part  of  the  army  by 
the  short  route  to  the  west.  Alexander  continued  with  the  fleet  and 
land  force  to  the  delta  of  the  Indus,  where  the  fleet  under  Nearchus 
entered  the  Indian  Ocean.  Ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide.  Nearchus 
coasted  to  the  west,  and  discovered  the  entrance  to  the  Persian  Gulf, 
while  Alexander  conducted  the  rest  of  the  army  through  the  desert 
of  Gedrosia  (Baluchistan).  After  terrible  suffering  and  severe  loss 
he  arrived  in  Carmania,  met  Craterus,  and  later  Nearchus  on  the 
coast.  The  latter  was  dispatched  to  discover  the  mouths  of  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates. 

324.  Return  of  Alexander  to  Persis  ;  arraignment  and  punishment 
JTan.  of  the  avaricious  and  cruel  governors  who  had  given  up  the 
king  and  his  army  for  lost.  Arrival  in  Susa.  Here  Alexan- 
der disclosed  his  great  plan  of  Hellenizing  the  East,  uniting 
the  victor  and  the  vanquished  into  one  great  nation  and  found- 
ing a  great  Macedonian-Persian  universal  empire  on  a 


76  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

basis  of  equality  of  the  Grseeo-Macedonian  and  the  Oriental  po- 
pulation. Marriage  of  Alexander  with  the  eldest  daughter  of 
Darius  III.  and  the  youngest  sister  of  Artaxerxes  III.,  while 
Hephcestion  took  to  wife  the  youngest  daughter  of  Darius  III. 
Eighty  Macedonian  officers  married  Persian  ladies  of  good 
family,  and  in  consequence  of  rewards  offered  by  the  king, 
10,000  Macedonians  took  Persian  wives.  Great  plans  for  open- 
ing commercial  relations  with  other  nations  and  for  the  con- 
struction of  roads  on  a  large  scale.  Alexander,  as  successor 
of  the  Great  King,  required  to  be  worshipped  as  a  divinity. 
324.  A  mutiny  of  the  Macedonian  army  at  Opis  on  the  Tigris  was 
July,  quelled  by  Alexander's  courage  and  wisdom.  The  veterans 
were  disbanded  after  receiving  great  rewards  and  sent  to 
Macedonia  under  Craterus,  while  Antipdter  was  to  bring  new 
troops  thence.  Death  of  Hephcestion.  Alexander  undertook 
the  exploration  of  the  Euphrates. 

323.     Death  of  Alexander  the  Great, 

June,  at  Babylon,  which  he  had  destined  for  the  capital  of  the  new 
empire. 

323-276.  Wars  of  the  Diadochi  (successors  of  Alex- 
ander.)^ 

These  long  and  complicated  contests,  which  broke  out  immediately 
after  the  death  of  Alexander,  destroyed  the  newly  founded  universal 
empire,  but  carried  on  successfully  in  another  way  the  work  which 
Alexander  had  begun  of  Hellenizing  the  east,  and  spreading  Grecian 
language  and  culture.  (Hellenistic  language,  rj  koiv)}  5id\€KTos),  so  that 
the  new  Persian  empire  which  afterwards  grew  up  on  tliis  ground 
was  very  different  from  the  old  Persian  monarchy,  and  a  worthy 
rival  of  its  great  opponent,  the  empire  of  Rome. 

Perdiccas  became  regent  in  Asia  for  Alexander's  half  brother 
Philip  Arrhidceus  and  his  posthumous  son  by  Roxana,  Alexander.  An- 
tipater  and  Craterus  shared  the  regency  of  the  west.  The  other 
generals  received  lieutenancies  :  Ptolemaeus,  Egypt ;  Antigonus, 
Pamphylia,  Phrygia  and  Lycia;  Eumenes,  Alexander's  secretary,  Pa- 
phlygonia  and  Cappadocia,  which  however  he  had  first  to  subdue; 
Cassander,  Caria;  Leonnatus,  Phrygia  on  the  Hellespont.  The  plan 
of  Perdiccas,  who  married  Alexander's  sister,  to  make  himself  king, 
caused  a  league  of  the  other  generals  against  him.  Perdiccas  was 
murdered  by  his  own  troops  while  on  an  expedition  against  Ptolemseus 
(321).  The  new  regent,  Antipater,  made  a  new  assignment  of  the 
lieutenancies,  wherein  Seleucus  obtained  the  satrapy  of  Babylon. 
After  the  death  of  Antipater  (319)  a  war  followed  between  his  son 
Cassander,  and  the  aged  Polysperchon  over  the  regency.  Antigonus, 
in  league  with  Cassander,  was  victorious  in  Asia  over  Eumenes,  who 
was  betrayed  by  his  own  soldiers  and  whom  he  executed,  while  Cas- 
sander was  victorious  in  Europe  (316).  Lysimachus  made  himself 
master  of  the  lieutenancy  of  Thrace. 

Antigonus  wishing  to  bring  the  whole  empire  under  his  sceptre,  a 

1  Droysen,  Geschlchle  des  Hellenismus,  2  Ed.  Pt.  2  u.  3,  1877,  78 


B.  c.  Greeks.  77 

315-301.     war  broke  out  between  Antigonus  and  the  other 
generals, 

in  the  course  of  which  Antigonus  and  his  son  Demetrius 

Poliorcetes  {TIo\lopkt\tt\s)  assumed  the  royal  title   (306). 

Their  example  was  followed  by  Seleuciis,  Lysimachus,  Cassander. 

During  this  period,  a  time  abounding  in  horrors,  every  member 

of  the  royal  family  of  Alexander  perished,  mostly  by  murder. 

His  ambitious  and  cruel  mother  Olympias  was  condemned  to 

death  at  the  instance  of  Cassander,  and  stoned  by  the  relatives 

of  her  own  victims. 
After  a  long  contest  attended  with  varying  success,  the  war  against 
Antigonus  was  ended  by  the 
301.     Battle   of  Ipsus  {"l^os  in  Phrygia). 

Antigonus  fell,  his  son  Demetrius  fled  and  led  for  many  years 

an  adventurous  life  as  a  pirate. 
In  Europe  the  war  still  lasted.  After  the  death  of  Cassander  (297), 
his  two  sons  quarreled  about  the  succession.  Demetrius  took  the 
opportunity  to  seize  the  supreme  power  in  Macedonia  and  Greece. 
He  lost  his  power  indeed  through  arrogance  and  desire  for  conquest 
after  a  reign  of  seven  years,  but  his  son  Antigonus  Gonatas  after  a 
changeful  career  gained  permanent  possession  of  Macedonia  (277). 

Thus  after  many  divisions  and  the  formation  of  many  sovereignties 
of  but  short  duration,  there  grew  up  out  of  the  Macedonian-Persian 
universal  empire,  five  monarchies,  of  decidedly /feZZenis^ic  character, 
in  which  Greek  was  the  language  of  the  court  and  the  government, 
of  inscriptions  and  coinage,  and  of  the  educated  classes,  and  in  some 
of  which  Grecian  art,  literature  and  learning  reached  a  high  develop- 
ment. Nevertheless,  these  five  monarchies,  from  their  formation  to 
their  fall,  bore  the  imprint  of  the  deepest  moral  decay.  These  five 
states,  to  which  we  must  add  the  republic  of  Rhodes  and  the  Grecian 
Cantons,  were  : 

1.  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies  or  Lagidse  with  its  capital 

at  Alexandria. 

Ptolemceus  I.  (323-285),  called  Soter,  i.  e.  saviour,  because  he  sent 
aid  to  the  Rhodians,  or  Lagi,  i.  e.  son  of  Lagus,  founder  of  the  king- 
dom. Ptolemceus  II.  (285-247)  called  Philadelphus  from  being  the 
husband  of  his  sister  Arsinoe;  foundation  of  the  museum  with  the  Alex- 
andrine library.  Ptolemceus  III.  (247-221),  called  Eicergefes,  i.  e. 
benefactor,  by  the  priests,  temporary  conquest  of  Caria,  Lycia,  Cilicia, 
Cyprus.  Ptolemceus  IV.,  Philopater  (221-205),  decline  of  the  power 
of  the  monarchy.  Ptolemceus  F.,  Epiphdnes  (205-181);  Egypt  be- 
comes dependent  on  the  Romans. 

2.  Syria,  under  the  Seleucidse.     Capital  at  first  Seleucia, 

on  the  Tigris,  afterwards  Antiochia  on  the  Orontes. 

Seleucus  I.  Nicator  (312-281),  founder  of  the  kino^dom.  Antiochus 
I.  Soter  (281-261).  Antiochus  II.  Theos  (261-246).  Seleucus  II. 
(246-226).  Seleucus  III.  (226-222).  Antiochus  III.  the  Great  (222- 
187).     Defeated  at  Magnesia  (190)  by  the  Romans,  Antiochus  was 


78  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

compelled  to  accept  a  peace,  which  struck  the  kingdom  of  the  Seleu- 

cidse  from  the  roll  of  the  great  powers. 

The  following  states  separated  themselves  from  the  Syrian  realm  of 

the  Seleucidse,  and  did  not  belong  to  the  Hellenistic  system  of  states. 

278.  a.  The  confederacy  of  the  Galatians  (p.  35)  in  Asia  Minor^ 
between  Bithynia,  Phrygia,  Lycaonia  and  Cappadocia,  founded 
by  Gallic  tribes,  who,  during  the  wars  of  the  Diodochi,  had 
ravaged  Macedonia  and  Greece,  crossed  the  Hellespont  and 
in  278  settled  in  Asia  Minor.  They  consisted  of  the  three 
tribes  of  Trocmi,  Tectasages  and  Tolistohoii  (each  under  four 
Tetrarchs)  with  the  three  capitals  Tavia,  Ancyra  and  Pessinus. 
In  the  first  century  before  Christ,  Deiotarus  became  king  of 
all  Galatia,  which  Augustus  made  a  Roman  province. 

250.  b.  The  Parthians  (p.  29)  who  under  the  Arsacidae  (250 
B.  c.  to  226  A.  D.)  conquered  all  lands  between  the  Euphrates, 
and  the  Indus,  and  formed  a  dam,  in  the  east,  first  against  the 
Hellenistic  and  afterwards  against  the  Roman  power. 

167.   c.  The  Je-ws  under  the  Maccabees  (p.  11). 

The  two  following  countries  were  never  dependent  on  the  empire 

of  the  Seleucidse. 

a.  Pontus,  which  had,  it  is  true,  submitted  to  Alexander  the  Great, 
but  was  recognized  as  independent  under  its  own  kings  of  Persian 
descent  (of  the  Achsemenidse  it  was  claimed,  p.  25),  by  the  victors 
at  Ipsus  (p.  77).  The  last  kings  were  MitJiridates  VI.  the  Great, 
and  his  son  Pharnaces  (see  Roman  History,  Fourth  Period,  p.  129). 

b.  Armenia,  although  kings  of  Armenia  first  appear  after  the 
battle  of  Magnesia,  (190). 

3.  The  kingdom  of  Pergamon  under  the  Attalidae,  Capi- 

tal, Pergamus  in  Mysia. 
Founded  by  Philetcerus  (283-263)  who  had  been  appointed  gov- 
ernor by  Lysimachus.  Eumenes  I.  (263-241).  Attains  I.  (241-197). 
Eumenes  II.  (197-159),  founder  of  the  library  of  Pergamus.  Atta- 
ins II.  (159-138).  Attdlus  III.  (138-133),  who  bequeathed  the 
kingdom  to  the  Romans. 

4.  Bithynia.    Capital,  Nicomedia. 

Founded  by  Nicomedes  I.  (277-250  ?).  Zeilas  (250-228?).  Pru- 
sias  I.  (228-183),  with  whom  Hannibal  took  refuge.  Prusias  II. 
(183-149).  Nicomedes  II.  (149-91).  Nicomedes  III.  (91-75),  who 
bequeathed  the  kingdom  to  the  Romans. 

5.  Macedonia  under  the  descendants  of  Demetrius  Poli- 

orcetes.  Capital,  Pella. 
Antigonus  Gonatas  (277-239).  Demetrius  II.  (239-229).  Antigonus 
Doson  (229-220).  Philip  V.  (Ill),  (221-179)  defeated  by  the 
Romans  at  CynoscepMlce  (197).  Perseus  (179-168).  After  the  battle 
of  Pydna  (168)  Macedonia  became  a  dependency  of  Rome,  in  146 
it  was  made  a  Roman  province  (p.  122). 

6.  The  island  of  Rhodes  (ToSo?), 

since  the  battle  of  Ipsus  (301)  an  independent  state  ;  since  the  sec« 


B.  c.  Greeks.  79 

ond  century  (b.  c.,)  dependent  ally  of  the  Romans  ;  made  a  province 
by  the  Emperor  Vespasian,  71  A.  d. 

7.     The  Greek  cantons, 

under  the  lead  of  Athens,  made  a  futile  attempt,  immediately  after 
the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  to  throw  off  the  Macedonian  yoke. 
From  the  city  of  Lamia  in  Thessaly,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which 
the  war  was  principally  waged,  it  was  known  as  the 

323-322.     Lamian  "War. 

The  Greeks  were  at  first  successful  under  Leosthenes,  and  defeated 
Leonnatus,  hut  were  defeated  by  Antipdter  and  Craterus  at  Crannon, 
south  of  the  Peneus.  The  cantons  submitted  one  after  another. 
The  Athenians  were  compelled  to  receive  a  Macedonian  garrison  in 
Munychia  and  to  give  up  their  democratic  constitution.  (Phodon 
and  Demddes,  the  political  leaders).  Citizenship  was  regidated  by  a 
property  census.  Demosthenes  fled  and  took  poison  on  the  island  of 
Calauria  (Argolis).  During  the  war  between  Cassander  and  Polys- 
perchon  (p.  76)  the  democratic  party  regained  its  supremacy  in  Athens, 
and  Phocion  was  executed  ;  later,  however,  Demetrius  of  Phaleron^ 
the  political  companion  of  Phocion,  became  under  Macedonian  su- 
premacy, the  ruler  of  the  Athenian  commonwealth  (317-307).  In 
the  course  of  the  wars  of  the  Diadochi  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 
gained  possession  of  Athens  several  times  and  made  the  Acropolis 
the  scene  of  the  greatest  debauchery  (307-295).  The  last  attempt  to 
throw  off  the  Macedonian  yoke  and  regain  its  old  importance  in 
Greece  was  made  by  Athens  under  Glaucon  and  Chremontdes  in 
263  B.  c.  but  it  was  defeated  after  a  three  years'  war  and  continued 
to  be  tributary  to  the  Macedonians.  Thenceforward  Athens  liad  no 
political  influence  in  Greece  ;  it  retamed,  however,  its  autonomy  as 
regarded  its  municipal  administration,  and  continued  to  be  the  seat  of 
culture  and  learning. 

Thessaly,  during  this  period,  was  a  Macedonian  province  ;  Epirus 
was  for  a  time  a  separate  state,  afterwards  it  was  allied  with  Mace- 
donia. Most  of  the  cantons  of  central  Greece  and  Peloponnesus  became 
allies,  more  or  less  dependent,  of  the  Macedonian  sovereigns.  The 
complete  subjugation  of  Greece  by  Macedonia  was  prevented  by  the 

280.     ^tolian  League  founded  about  280,  and  the  Achaean 

League  which  was  renewed  at  the  same  time. 
The  latter  grew  to  considerable  power  and  acquired  the  hegemony 
in  Peloponnesus  after  it  was  joined  by  Sicyon   (251)   which  was 
freed  from  its  tyrants  by  Ardtus,  aud  by  Corinth  (243),  which  Ard- 
tus  had  freed  from  the  Macedonian  garrison. 

Jealous  of  this  hegemony  the  ^tolian  League  and  Sparta,  which 
had  completely  lost  her  ancient  simplicity  of  life,  aud  was  in  the 
hands  of  a  wealthy  oligarchy,  joined  forces  against  the  Achaean 
League.  The  young  king  Agis  IV.  paid  with  his  life  for  liis  attempt 
to  induce  a  reform  of  the  Spartan  state  (241  ?).  A  similar  at- 
tempt made  by  King  Cleomenes  III.  had  better  success,  though  for  a 
time  only  :  he  caused  the  ephors  to  be  surprised  and  put  to  death, 


80  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

banished  eighty  oligarchs,  and  established  a  reformed  constitution. 
Cleommes  conquered  Argos  and  Mantinea,  and  waged  successful  war 
against  the  Achfean  League.  Ardtus  sought  aid  against  Sparta  from 
the  Macedonian  king  Antigonus  Doson^  and  delivered  the  Acropolis 
of  Corinth  into  his  hands. 

The  Spartans  were  defeated  in  the 

221.     Battle  of  Sellasia  (in  Laconia). 

Cleomenes  escaped  by  flight  and  died  in  Egypt  (220).  The 
Macedonians  entered  Sparta,  restored  the  oligarchy  and  forced  upon 
the  Spartans  an  alliance  with  the  Achsean  League,  now  under  Mace- 
donian Supremacy.  The  latter  was  immediately  afterwards  in- 
volved in  a  war  with  the  ^tolian  League,  during  which  the  Spartans 
took  sides  against  the  Achseans,  and  Peloponnesus  was  horribly  rav- 
aged (220-217). 

About  this  time  the  ^'Etolian  League  formed  an  alliance  with  the 
Romans  against  Philip  V.  (III.),  of  Macedonia,  who  was  allied  with 
Hannibal.  {First  Macedonian  war,  see  Roman  history,  third  Period, 
p.  116). 

Philopoemen,  who  has  been  called  "  the  last  of  the  Greeks,"  be- 
came Strategus  of  the  Achfean  League  in  207,  and  defeated  the 
Spartans  under  their  tyrant,  Machanidas,  in  the 

206.     Battle  of  Mantinea,   and  slew  the  tyrant.      Li  the  second 
Macedonian  war   (see  Roman   history,  p.  118),  the  Achcean 
League  likewise  joined  the  Romans  against  Philip  V.  (III.), 
who,  after  the  battle  of  Cynoscephaloe  (197),  was  forced  to 
abandon  the  hegemony  of  Greece.     The  Romans  proclaimed 
the  freedom  of  all  the  Grecian  cantons,  but  they  gave  support 
everywhere  to  that  party  which  devoted  itself  to  the  advance- 
ment of  Roman  interests,  and  caused  themselves  to  be  fre- 
quently appealed  to  as  arbitrators. 
After  the  death  of  a  second  Tyrant  of  Sparta,  the  cruel  Nahis, 
Philopoemen  humbled  the  Spartans  again,  and  forced  them  to  reenter 
the  Achsean  League,  but  was  soon  after  taken  prisoner  and  put  to 
death  in  a  war  against  the  Messinians,  who  had  revolted  at  the  in- 
stance of  Deinocrdtes  (183).    After  the  death  of  Philopcemen,  decline 
of  the  power  of  the  Achcean  League,  which  made  a  final  exertion  in 
the  so-called  Achsean  war  against  the  Romans,  which  ended  with 
the 

Defeat  of  the  Greeks  at  Leucopetra,  on  the  isthmus,  and  the 

146.     Capture  and  destruction  of  Corinth. 

The  Corinthians  were  sold  as  slaves;  a  part  of  their  land  was 
given  to  Sicyon ;  the  rest  became  the  property  of  the  Roman 
state.  The  remaining  Greek  cantons  were  treated  with  kind- 
ness, and  for  the  most  part  retained  tlieir  own  administration 
and  jurisdiction,  but  were  subject  to  the  Roman  governor  of 
Macedonia.  It  was  not  until  later  (27)  that  Peloponnesus  and 
Central  Greece  seem  to  have  become  a  Roman  province 
under  the  name  of  Achaia. 


B.  C.  Roman  History.  81 

§3.    ROMAN  HISTORY. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  SURVEY  OF  ANCIENT  ITALY. 

(See  Kiepert,  Atlas  Antiquus,  Tab.  VII.,  VIII.,  and  IX.) 

Italia  was  first  used  as  the  general  name  of  the  larger  part  of 
the  peninsula,  which  is  traversed  by  the  Apennines  and  extended  to 
the  Macra  and  Rubicon,  since  the  middle  of  the  third  century  before 
Christ;  as  applied  to  the  lohole  peninsula,  as  far  as  the  Alps,  Italia  was 
first  employed  in  scientific  usage  by  Polyhius  (about  150) ;  it  was  not 
used  officially  and  in  a  political  sense,  until  after  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus. It  was  divided  into  Upper  Italy,  Central  Italy,  and 
LoTver  Italy. 

I.  Upper  Italy,  traversed  by  the  Padus  (Po),  and  the 
AtMsis  or  Atdgis  (Adige,  Etsch),  and  containing  the  lakes,  Lacus  Ver- 
bdnus  (Lago  Maggiore),  Lacus  Lanus  (L.  di  Como),  and  Lacus  Bena- 
cus  (L.  di  Garda),  comprised  the  following  three  districts  which,  before 
Augustus,  were  not  reckoned  a  part  of  political  Italy:  1.  Liguria, 
Vercellce  (Vercelli),  Taurasia,  later  Augusta  Taurinorum  (Torino, 
Turin),  Genoa  (Genova);  2.  Gallia  Cisalpina,  also  called  togata, 
in  distinction  from  transalpme  Gaul,  which  was  known  as  Gallia  bra- 
cata,  divided  by  the  Padus  (Po)  into:  a.  Gallia  transpadana,  Co- 
mum  (Como)  ;  Mediolanum  (Milano,  Milan)  ;  Tidnwn  (Pavia),  on  the 
TicLnus,  a  branch  of  the  Po;  Cremona,  on  the  Po;  Mantxm,  on  the 
Mincius,  a  branch  of  the  Po,  near  which  was  the  village  of  Andes, 
the  birthplace  of  Virgil;  Verona,  on  the  Athesis.  b.  Gallia  cispa- 
dana:  Placentia  fPiacenza),  at  the  junction  of  the  Trebia  and  the 
Padv^,  MutXna,  (Modena),  Parma,  Bononia  (Bologna),  Ravenna,  in 
ancient  times  a  seaport.  3.  Venetia:  Patavium  (Padua),  birthplace 
of  Livius,  Aquileia. 

II.  Central  Italy,  lying  between  the  little  rivers  Macra  and 
Rubicon  in  the  N.,  Sildrus  and  Frento  in  the  S.,  was  usually  divided 
into  six  districts :  Etruria,  Latium,  Campania,  on  the  Mare  Tyrrhe- 
num,  or  Inferum;  Umbria,  Picenum,  Samnium,  on  the  Mare  Ad- 
riaticum  or  Superum.  The  Tiber,  running  from  N.  to  S.,  divided 
Etruria  on  the  right,  from  Umbria  and  Latium  on  the  left  bank.  The 
name  of  Samnium  is,  however,  more  correctly  applied  to  the  southern 
inland  district  of  Central  Italy,  so  that  the  Sabellic  tribes,  who  were 
related  to  the  Samnites  and  Picentes,  formed  geographically  a  sepa^ 
rate  seventh  group,  under  which  were  included  the  Vestini,  Marrucini 
and  Frentani,  extending  to  the  Adriatic  coast,  and  the  inland  districts 
of  the  Sabines,  Pceligni,  and  Marsi. 

1.  Etruria,  inhabited  by  the  Etruscans  (Rasenna),  or  Tuscans,  in 
twelve  communities  under  kings  or  Lucumos.  These  formed  a  con- 
federacy, whose  federal  constitution  seems  to  have  been  exceedingly 
loose.  The  most  important  places  in  Etruria  were,  from  N.  to  S.: 
Pisce,  Volaterrce,  Arretium  (Arezzo),  Cortona,  Perusia  (Perugia,  west 
of  which  Lake  Trasimenus),  Populonia,  on  the  coast,  Clusium  (Chiusi), 
Volsinii,  Tarquinii,  Falerii,  Ccerej  Veil. 

6 


82  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

2.  Latium.  In  the  smaller  district  of  the  Latini :  Roma,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber  (a  part  of  the  modern  city,  Trastevere 
and  Borgo,  is  on  the  right  bank,  but  the  principal  part  of  the 
city  is  still  on  the  left  bank),  traditionally  said  to  be  built  on  seven 
hills  (montes:  Capitolinus,  Palatinus,  Aventinus,  Ccelius,  Esquilinus; 
coUes :  Viminalis,  Quirinalis).  ^  On  the  southern  summit  of  the 
Mons  Capitolinus  the  Capitolium  with  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitol- 
inus,  and  the  Tarpeian  Rock;  on  the  northern  summit,  separated 
from  the  southern  by  the  Intermontium,  the  Arx  with  the  temple  of 
Juno  Moneta.  At  the  foot  of  the  Capitol,  the  Forum  Romanum  (the 
market-place),  consisting  of  the  Forum  proper,  and  the  Comitium, 
with  the  speakers'  platform  {Rostra,  named  from  the  prows  of  the 
ships  from  Antium)  between  the  two.  In  the  last  century  of  the 
republic  the  forum  was  surrounded  by  temples  and  basilicas  (e.  g. 
Basilica  Julia).  The  imperial  forums  were  not  open  places,  but 
masses  of  buildings  and  columned  porticos.  The  Palatinus  with  the 
palaces  of  the  emperors;  E.  of  this,  the  Amphitheatrum  Flavium 
(Colosseum,  for  80,000  spectators).  N.  from  the  Capitolinus  to  the 
Tiber  lay  the  field  of  Mars,  Campus  Martins,  during  the  republic 
an  open  field  used  for  military  practice,  athletic  sports,  and  political 
gatherings,  after  Csesar  and  during  the  imperial  period  covered 
with  splendid  buildings,  now  the  centre  of  the  modem  city.  The 
buildings  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber  did  not  belong  to  the  Urhs 
proper.  They  were  situated  partially  on  the  Mons  Janiculus,  par- 
tially on  the  Mons  Vaticanus,  where  the  Vatican  and  the  church  of 
St.  Peter  now  stand;  eastward  stood,  by  the  Tiber,  the  Mausoleum 
Hadriani,  where  the  Castle  of  St.  Angela  now  stands.  Finally  must 
be  mentioned  the  island  of  the  Tiber.  Sixteen  great  artificial  roads 
ran  from  Rome  in  various  directions  :  Via  Appia  and  Via  Latina  to 
the  S.,  Via  Valeria  to  the  E.,  Via  Flaminia  to  the  N.,  Via  Aurelia  to 
the  W.,  etc. 

Ostia,  the  harbor  of  Rome,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber,  existed 
at  the  time  of  the  kings ;  under  the  emperors  a  second  harbor,  Portus, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber.  Laurentum,  Lavinium,  Ardea,  Suessa 
Pometia,  Aricia  (on  the  Via  Appia),  Velitrce  not  far  distant.  Alba 
Longa  on  the  slope  of  Mt.  Albanus,  near  the  lake  of  Albania, 
Tusculum  (near  the  present  Frascati),  Gabii,  Tibur  (Tivoli)  on  the 
Afiio,  a  branch  of  the  Tiber;  Fidence,  north  of  Rome,  south  of  the 
brook  Allia, 

In  the  land  of  the  jEqui,  Pro^neste  (afterwards  a  Latin  city  again. 
In  the  land  of  the  Hemicce,  Anagnia.  In  the  land  of  the  Volscii, 
Fregellce,  Arpinum,  the  birthplace  of  Marius  and  Cicero  ;  on  the  coast, 
Antium  and  Tarracina  (Anxur),  south  of  the  Pomptine  marshes. 
In  the  land  of  the  Aruncii :  Formice,  Minturnce,  on  the  Liris  (Gari- 

liano)  ;  Suessa  {Aurunca),  near  the  Mons  Massicus  and  the  Ager 

^alernus  (famous  wines). 

1  The  expression  "seven-hilled  city  "  applies  properly  to  old  Rome,  the  pala- 
tine citv.  Its  transfer  to  the  Servian  and  republican  kome  is  the  result  of  a 
later  misunderstandnif^.  The  description  of  the  city  of  the  time  of  Con- 
stantine,  leaves  out  the  two  coUes,  Quirinalis  and  Viminalis,  and  increases  the 
number  of  montes  to  7  by  adding  the  Vaticanus  and  the  Janiculus,  which 
lay  outside  of  the  city  proper.     See  Momznseu,  Hist,  of  Rome,  I.  116,  note. 


Ft 


B.  c.  Roman  History,  83 

3.  Campania,  traversed  by  the  Volturnus  (Volturno),  with  the 
mountains  Gaurus  and  Vesuvius  near  Naples.  Two  bays  separated 
from  one  another  by  a  rocky  isthmus:  Sinus  Cumanus  (i^ay  of 
Naples),  and  Sinus  Pcestanus  (Bay  of  Salerno).  Along  the  coast: 
Liternum;  Cumce  (KiJ/xtj,  founded  by  a  colony  from  Chalcis  in  Eubcea 
in  1050  ?)  ;  Misenum  near  the  promontory  of  sinular  name  ; 
Puteoli  (Puzzuoli) ;  Baice  near  lake  Lucrinus,  famous  as  a  watering 
place ;  Parthenope  or  Palceopolis,  the  oldest  part  of  Neapolis  (Nec^TroAts, 
Napoli,  Naples);  Herculantum  and  Pompeii,  buried  in  79  A.  D.  by 
lava  and  ashes  from  Vesuvius;  Salernum  on  the  Sinus  Psestanus,  the 
chief  city  of  the  Picentes  who  had  been  transferred  thither.  Inland: 
Capua  (not  the  modern  Capua,  but  Santa  Maria  Maggiore),  with  an 
immense  amphitheatre;  Nola. 

4.  Umbria.  On  the  coast:  Ariminum  (Rimini),  Pisaurum,  Sena 
Gallica  (Smagaglia).     Inland:  Sentinum,  Iguvium,  Spoletium. 

5.  Picenum.     Ancona  on  the  coast;  Asculum  Picenum. 

6.  Samnium  (in  the  wider  sense,  see  p.  81).  In  the  land  of  the 
Sahini :  ^miVernum,  birthplace  of  Sallust  ;  Cures,  Reate.  In  the  land 
of  the  Pceligni :  Corjinium  ;  Sulmo,  birthplace  of  Ovid.  In  Samnium 
proper:  Bovianum;  JEser?iia;  Beneventum  (Benevento),  former  Mal- 
ventum;  Caudium,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Caudine  Pass  {Fureulce 
Caudincs). 

III.  Lower  Italy,  also  called  Greater  Greece,  Magna 
Grseca  ('EAAas  t]  /j.eydK'n),  was  divided  into  four  districts  :  Apulia, 
Calabria  in  the  east,  Lucania  and  Bruttium  *  in  the  west. 

1.  Apulia  :  Luceria,  A(u)sciUum  ApiUum,  Cannce,  Venusia,  birth- 
place of  Horace,  near  Mt.  Vultur.  2.  Calabria  :  Brundisium 
(Brindisi),  the  port  of  departure  for  Greece;  Tarentum  (Topas,  see 
p.  51).  3.  Lucania:  Pcestum  (Posidonia,  Uoffei^wvia),  with  notable 
yuinsof  temples;  Metapontum;  Heradea  ('Hpo/cAeto).  4.  Bruttium: 
Syhdris  (^.vfiapis),  destroyed  in  510,  by  the  Crotonians  ;  Thurii 
afterwards  built  in  its  neighborhood  (see  p.  64);  Croton  (Kp6Toop), 
not  far  from  the  promontory  of  Lacinium;  Locri  Epizephyrii  (AoKpol 
'Ein(e<pijpioi) ;  Rhegium  ('Prtyiou,  i.  e.  rent,  from  ^yw^Uy  the  present 
Ileggio).     Consetitia  (Cosenza  on  the  river  Busento). 

Italian  Islands. 

Sicilia  (Siwexfa),  separated  from  Italy  by  the  Fretum  SicUlum 
(Strait  of  Messina),  formerly  called  Sicania,  also  Trinacria,  with 
its  three  capes,  or  promontories :  Pelorum  in  the  north,  Pachynum  in 
the  south,  and  Lilybceum  in  the  west.  On  the  eastern  coast  from 
north  to  south  :  Messdna  (formerly  Zancle,  p.  51),  Tauromenium 
(Taormina),  Catdna  (Catania)  at  the  base  of  ^tna,  Syracusae 
('S.vpa.Kova-ai,  Siragossa,  see  p.  51),  at  the  time  of  its  greatest  extent 
comprising  five  cities:  Ortygia,  situated  on  an  island,  and  hence  also 
called  Nasos,  which  now  forms  the  whole  city,  with  the  spring  of 
Arethusa,  Achradina,  Tycha,  Neapolis,  and  Epipolce,  at  first  a  suburb. 

1  This  form  (instead  of  Bi-uttii,  Bruttius  Ager)  has,  however,  no  ancient 
authority'.  The  Byzantines  after  the  tenth  century,  A.  D.,  gave  Bruttium 
the  name  Calabnn,  after  the  Normans  had  dispossessed  them  of  Calabria 
proper,  and  the  eastern  peninsula  was  known  after  that  time  as  Apulia. 


84  Ancient  History.  '  b.  c. 

On  the  south  coast:  Camarlna,  Gela,  Agrigentum  ('AKpdyas,  now 
Girgenti),  between  Gela  and  Agrigentum  the  promontory  of  Ecnomos^ 
not  far  from  the  mouth  of  tlie  (southern)  river  Himera ;  Selinus 
(^eXiuovs).  On  the  west  coast:  Libybceum,  Drepanum,  Eryx.  On  the 
north  coast:  Panormus  (Udvopfios,  now  Palermo,  see  p.  17),  Himera, 
Mylce.     In  the  interior  of  the  island:  Henna. 

Sardinia  (2apSc6):  Caralis  (Cagliari). 

Corsica  (Kvpvos)-.  Alalia^  later  the  Roman  colony  of  Aleria.  Of 
the  smaller  islands  the  following  are  noteworthy:  1.  Melita,  now 
Malta,  and  Gaudos,  now  Gozzo,  south  of  Sicily.  2.  The  Insulop 
Agates,  on  the  west  of  Sicily,  not  far  from  the  promontory  Lilybseum. 
3.  The  Insulce  Police  (now  the  Liparian  islands)  the  largest,  Lipdra, 
north  of  Sicily.  4.  Caprece,  now  Capri,  and  ^naria,  now  Isclua,  at 
the  entrance  to  the  Bay  of  Naples.  5.  The  Pontian  islands,  Pontic, 
Pandataria.     6.  llva,  now  Elba. 

RELIGION   OF  THE  ANCIENT  ROMANS.^ 

Tlie  Romans  possessed  an  ancient  religion  entirely  distinct  from 
that  of  Greece.  It  was  a  common  inheritance  of  the  Italians, 
though  probably  early  receiving  Etruscan  and  Grecian  elements. 
In  the  last  centuries  of  the  republic  the  theogony  of  Greece  was 
imported  into  Roman  literature,  and  to  some  extent  into  the  state  re- 
ligion. At  a  still  later  time,  under  a  policy  of  tolerance,  all  forms 
of  faith  and  superstition  were  represented  in  the  great  capital. 

The  religion  of  the  Romans  was  a  polytheism,  but  their  deifica- 
tion of  nature  was  not  so  detailed,  nor  were  their  deities  so  human  as 
was  the  case  among  the  Greeks.  Their  faith  had  a  sterner  aspect, 
the  practical  side  of  religion  was  more  natural  to  them  than  the 
poetic  side.  They  honored  and  utilized  their  gods,  but  they  wove 
few  fancies  about  them. 

The  great  gods  were :  Jupiter,  god  of  the  sky,  "  father  of  gods 
and  men;  "  Juno,  his  wife,  goddess  of  maternity;  Minerva,  goddess 
of  intellect,  presiding  over  the  arts;  Mars,  god  of  war,  the  most 
representative  of  the  Italian  divinities;  Bellona,  goddess  of  war; 
Vesta,  patron  of  the  Roman  state,  goddess  of  the  national  hearth, 
where  burned  the  sacred  fire;  Ceres,  Saturnus,  goddess  and  god 
of  agriculture;  Ops,  goddess  of  the  harvest  and  of  wealth;  Her- 
cules, god  of  gain,  presiding  over  the  sanctity  of  contracts;  Mer- 
curius,  god  of  traffic;  Neptunus,  god  of  the  sea. 

Venus  seems  not  to  have  been  one  of  the  original  Italian  divinities. 
She  first  appears  as  a  goddess  of  agriculture,  but  was  soon  identified 
with  Aphrodite,  the  Grecian  goddess  of  love.  Of  the  lesser  gods  there 
were  many,  watching  over  every  act  of  individuals  and  of  the  state, 
and  over  every  stage  of  growth  and  development.  Such  were  Tellus, 
Silvanus,  Terminus,  Quirinus,  Janus,  the  god  of  the  beginning  and  end, 
represented  with  a  double  face.  (Gate  of  Janus  in  the  comiturm, 
open  in  time  of  war,  closed  in  time  of  peace).  Lares  and  Penates, 
presiding  over  the  family  and  the  home,  Sol,  Luna,  etc. 

1  Rawlinson,  Reli(jions  of  the  Ancient  World,  chap.  VIII,  Mominsen, 
Hist,  oj  Rome,  Book  I.  chap.  XII.     Leighton,  Hist,  of  Rome,  chap.  IV. 


B.  C.  Roman  History.  85 

Worship.  The  worship  of  the  Romans  consisted  of  a  round  of 
ceremonies,  —  prayers,  sacrifices,  games,  —  of  strictly  prescribed 
form,  \*ath  the  object  of  securing  the  good- will,  averting  the  anger  or 
ascertaining  the  intentions  of  the  gods.  In  private  life  these  ceremonies 
were  performed  in  the  family  and  were  conducted  by  its  head,  the 
pater  familias;  in  matters  affecting  the  whole  people,  the  state,  which 
was  a  larger  family,  conducted  the  worship.  In  early  times  the  king 
presided  at  the  ceremonies.  Under  the  republic  a  rex  sacrijiculiis  was 
appointed  to  perform  those  religious  acts  which  were  formerly  the 
exclusive  right  and  duty  of  the  king. 

The  state  maintained  at  public  cost :  1.  "  Colleges  of  sacred  lore  " 
having  general  supervision  over  religion  and  all  matters  connected 
therewith.  The  most  important  were:  The  college  of  Pontifices, 
four  in  number  (afterwards  nine  and  sixteen),  the  highest  religious 
power  in  the  state.  With  them  rested  the  decision  as  to  which  days 
were  suitable  for  the  transaction  of  business,  public  or  private,  and 
which  not  (dies  fasti  et  nefasti).  Hence  they  controlled  the  calendar, 
whereby  they,  with  the  augures,  became  important  instruments  in  the 
hands  of  the  government.  The  pontifices  also  decided  upon  the  ac- 
tion made  necessary  by  the  auguries.  At  their  head  stood  the  pontifex 
maximus,  who  appointed  the  rex  sacrijiculusy  the  Jiamines  and  vestales. 
College  of  Augures,  originally  four,  then  nine  and  sixteen,  who  con- 
Bulted  the  will  of  the  gods,  as  revealed  in  omens,  by  the  observation 
of  the  flight,  cries,  and  manner  of  feeding  of  certain  birds.  College 
of  Fetiales,  twenty  (?)  in  number,  presiding  over  the  relations  be- 
tween the  Romans  and  other  peoples.  They  conducted  the  conclu- 
sion of  treaties,  acted  as  heralds,  and  performed  the  ceremony  of  de- 
claration of  war,  by  throwing  a  blood-tipped  spear  into  the  hostile 
territory.^  Duumviri  Sacrorum,  having  the  charge  of  the  Sibylline 
books.  The  haruspices  exercised  the  art  of  interpreting  the  will  of 
the  gods  from  the  examination  of  the  entrails  of  slaughtered  victims. 
They  were  an  Etruscan  institution. 

2.  Colleges  of  officiating  priests:  Flamines,  who  presided  in  va- 
rious temples  with  chapters  of  assisting  priests.  Salii,  or  dancing 
priests,  of  Quirinus  and  Mars,  the  latter  having  charge  of  the  sacred 
shields  of  Mars  (ancillce).  Vestal  Virgins,  guardians  of  the  sacred 
fire  of  Vesta,  six  maidens  who  had  taken  the  vow  of  virginity.  Lu- 
perci,  Fratres  Arvales,  etc. 

Besides  the  observance  of  sacrifices  and  the  offering  of  prayers,  the 
priests  had  charge  of  conducting  various  public  games:  Lupercalia, 
(Feb.  15th),  Ferice  Latince,  Saturnalia  (Dec.)  and  others. 

ETHNOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH   OF   ITAXY.* 

At  the  extreme  south  the  lapygians.  Their  descent  is  not  certainly 
established,  though  they  undoubtedly  belong  to  the  Indo-European 
family  and  probably  to  the  Illyrian  race.  In  historic  times  the  rem- 
nants of  the  tribe  appear,  in  striking  contradistinction  to  the  true 
Italici,  in  process  of  rapid  Hellenization. 

1  When  the  growth  of  the  Roman  dominion  had  made  this  a  matter  of  diffi' 
culty,  a  plot  of  ground  in  Rome  was  set  apart  to  represent  hostile  territory,  and 
into  this  the  spear  was  hurled. 

2  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Eome,  I.  chap.  2. 


86  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

To  the  Indo-European  family  belonged  likewise  the  inhabitants 
of  central  Italy,  the  Italici  proper,  who  were  divided  into  the  Latin 
and  the  Umbro-Sabellian  (Oskan),  tribes.  They  were  the  next  of 
kin  of  the  Hellenes.  The  Italici  entered  Italy  by  land.  The  Latini 
occupied  the  western  lowlands  (^Latium,  connected  with  Idtus),^  the 
Umbro-Sabellian  tribes  spread  themselves  over  the  eastern  part  of 
Central  Italy  (Umbrians,  Picentes,  Sabines,  Marsi,  Hemici,  Volscii). 
A  main  division  of  this  group,  the  Samnites,  occupied  the  mountain 
region  which  was  named  after  them,  and  drove  back  the  lapygians. 
From  the  Samnites  several  tribes  branched  off;  so  the  Campdnians, 
called  after  the  plain  (Campus)  which  they  settled  along  the  Tyr- 
rhine  sea. 

Peculiarly  distinct  from  the  Latin  and  Sabellian  Italici,  in  language, 
religion  and  customs  were  the  Etruscans  (in  their  own  language, 
Rasenna).  Up  to  the  present  time  all  attempts  to  establish  their 
ethnographical  position,  have  failed  to  reach  settled  conclusions. 
The  attempt  recently  made,  to  prove  them  members  of  the  Indo- 
European  family  and  the  Etruscan  language  closely  related  to  the 
Latin,  must,  it  would  seem,  be  regarded  as  a  failure.^ 

Perhaps  the  Etruscan  people  were  formed  by  the  union  of  two  dif- 
ferent tribes,  one  of  which  came  to  Italy  over  the  Rsetian  Alps,  while 
the  other  came  by  sea. 

Before  the  invasion  of  the  Celts,  Etruscans  dwelt  north  of  the 
Apennines,  on  both  sides  of  the  Po,  between  the  territory  of  the 
Veneti  (as  far  as  the  Adige),  and  the  Ligurians. 

The  whole  of  Upper  Italy  was  occupied  by  Celtic  tribes  (about 
500  B.  c.?),  which  gradually  forced  the  Etruscans  and  Umbrians  south- 
ward. 

Besides  all  these  migrations  into  Italy  from  the  north  by  land, 
colonization  of  no  mean  extent  began  very  early  on  the  part  of  the 
Hellenes,  in  Sicily  and  Lower  Italy,  by  sea.  (The  Dorians,  Chalcid- 
ians  (i.  e.  lonians),  and  jEolians  were  principally  engaged  therein). 

Roman  History  can  be  divided  into  five  periods. 

753(?)-510(?)  I.  Mythical  time  of  the  kings. 

510-264.  II.  Development  of  the  constitution  by  struggles  between 
Patricians  and  Plebeians.  Subjugation  of  Italy  proper  (Cen- 
tral and  Lower  Italy),  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  Punic  wars. 

264-146.  III.  Epoch  of  the  Punic  wars,  and  beginning  of  the  univer- 
sal rule  of  Rome,  down  to  the  destruction  of  Carthage  and 
Corinth. 

146-31.  IV.  Firm  establishment  of  the  universal  supremacy  of 
Rome,  by  the  conquest  of  the  East,  Spain,  and  Gaul.  Epoch 
of  the  civil  wars,  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  absolute  rule 
of  Octavian,  in  consequence  of  the  battle  of  Actium. 

1  The  Ausonii  (Aiirunci,  in  Campania)  probably  belonged  to  the  Latin  race, 
as  well;  also,  perhaps  the  Italici  in  the  narroioer  sense,  who  dwelt  originally  in 
the  western  part  of  lower  Italy,  and  the  Siculi. 

2  W.  Corssen,  Ueber  die  Sprache  der  Etrusher,  1874.  "W.  Deecke, 
Etruskische  Forschungen,  is  of  the  contrary  opinion,  as  is  K.  O.  Miiller,  Die 
Etrusker,  ed.  by  W.  Deecke,  2  vols.,  1877. " 


B.  c.  Homan  History.  87 

31  B.  C.-476  A.  D.     V.  Sway  of  the  Roman  Ccesars,  dovm  to  the  fall 
of  the  Roman  Empire  of  the  west. 
The  last  period  extends  into  Mediaeval  History. 

FIRST  PERIOD. 

Mythical  Epoch  of  the  Kings  (753  1-510). 

Foundation   of   Rome   according    to   the   Roman   legends. 

King  Numitor  of  Alba  Longa,  the  descendant  of  jEneas,  who  liad 
settled  in  Latium  with  some  Trojan  refugees,  was  deprived  of  his 
throne  by  liis  brother  Amulius,  who  put  his  son  to  death,  and  caused 
his  daughter  Rea  Silvia  to  become  a  vestal  virgin,  in  order  that  the 
line  of  Numitor  should  perish.  The  twins,  Romulus  and  Remus, 
the  sons  of  Rea  Silvia  and  Mars,  the  god  of  war,  were,  by  command 
of  the  king,  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  then  overflowing  its  Isanks.  Their 
cradle  being  caught  by  the  roots  of  a  fig-tree,  the  children  were 
rescued  from  drowning,  were  suckled  by  a  she-wolf,  and  brought 
up  by  the  royal  shepherd  Faustulus.  As  they  grew  up,  Romulus 
and  Remus  led  other  shepherds  on  the  hunt  and  in  forays  for  booty. 
At  the  festival  of  the  Lupercalia,  they  were  surprised  by  robbers  ; 
Romulus  was  taken  prisoner,  brought  before  Numitor,  and  accused 
of  having  plundered  his  fields.  Numitor  recognized  his  grandsons. 
The  latter  thereupon  attacked  the  usurper  Amulius  at  the  head  of 
their  band,  slew  him,  and  placed  the  rightful  king,  tlieir  grandfather 
Numitor,  again  on  the  throne  of  Alba  Longa.  With  the  king's  per- 
mission, the  twins  founded  a  city  on  that  place  on  the  bank  of  the 
Tiber  where  they  had  been  exposed.  (Festival  of  Palilia  or  Parilia, 
April  21,  celebrated  as  the  anniversary  of  the  foundation.)  In 
a  quarrel  as  to  who  should  give  his  name  to  the  city,  Remus  was 
killed.  Romulus,  being  now  the  only  king,  called  the  city  after 
himself,  Roma.^ 

Surmises  about  the  real  origin  of  Rome.  The  results  of  mod- 
ern scientific  investigations  leave  not  the  least  doubt  that  the  Ro- 
man story  of  the  foundation  of  the  city  is  not  historical,  but  an 
invention,  having  not  the  slightest  basis  of  fact.  It  is  perfectly 
clear  that  in  reality  Rome  and  the  Romans  did  not  derive  their 
name  from  the  founder  of  the  city,  but  that,  on  the  contrary,  the 
name  Romulus  was  formed  by  the  inventors  of  che  legend  from  the 
name  of  the  city  and  the  people.^  All  tribal  heroes  are  of  divine 
origin  ;  that  those  of  the  Romans  should  be  sons  of  Mars,  the  god  of 
agriculture  and  of  war,  needs  no  explanation.  The  legend  of  the 
exposure  of  the  twins  and  of  their  miraculous  preservation  and  recog- 
nition bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  story  of  the  youth  of 
Cyrus  (p.  26).  The  fabulous  descent  from  the  Trojan  ^neas  as- 
cribed to  the  family  of  the  founder  of  Rome  was  an  invention  of 

1  According  to  Varro's  era  753,  according  to  Cato's  751 ;  but  to  change 
Years  of  the  city  into  years  before  Christ,  754  or  752  must  be  used  as  the  minu- 
end.   Both  dates  belong  to  the  conventional  chroiiologv.     See  pp.  88  and  89. 

2  Livius,  I.  1-7. 

8  Compare  besides  Mommsen,  Schwegler,  Rom.  Gesch.,  and  Peter,  Eonu 
Gesch.,  I.  56. 


88  Ancient  History,  B.  c. 

Grecian  writers  (Stesichorus  in  the  sixth  century,  Timceus  in  the  third 
century,  b.  c).  The  tale  of  the  building  of  Rome  by  emigrants  from 
Alba,  under  guidance  of  two  princes  of  divine  birth,  was  a  naive 
attempt  to  explain  the  growth  of  a  city  in  the  barren  and  unhealthy 
Roman  Campagna  by  connecting  it  with  the  common  metropolis  of 
Latium. 

Nothing  can  be  considered  historical  except  that  Rome  was,  as 
regards  the  greater  part  of  its  population,  a  Latin  settlement. 
The  city  was  founded,  or  rather  gradually  arose,  at  a  wholly 
unknown  time  and  under  w^hoUy  unknown  circumstances. 
The  settlement  was  formed  very  near  the  border  of  Latium,  and  just 
at  the  head  of  navigation  (for  small  vessels)  of  the  Tiber,  the  natural 
highway  of  commerce  for  Latium,  without  regard  to  the  sterile  char- 
acter of  the  immediate  neighborhood.  This  gives  probability  to  the 
supposition  that  Rome  in  its  earliest  days  "  was  a  border  trading-post 
of  the  Latins."  ^  Not  that  Rome  was  ever  a  mercantile  city,  after 
the  manner  of  Corinth  and  Carthage  ;  it  was  merely  a  trading  village, 
where  the  imports  and  exports  of  Latium,  which  was  essentially  an 
agricultural  district,  were  exchanged. 

The  opinion  that  the  Roman  people  was  a  mixed  race  cannot  be 
maintained,  when  it  is  considered  that  the  development  of  the  Roman 
language,  political  institutions,  and  religion,  was  free  and  individual 
to  a  degree  seldom  equalled.  Of  the  three  tribes  or  townships 
{Gauen)  which  seem  to  have  united  to  form  Rome  (the  Ramnes 
(identical  with  Romani),  the  T'^V^(ens)e'?,  and  the  Zwceres),  the  first  was 
certainly,  the  third  in  all  probability,  Latin  ;  the  second  was,  it  is 
true,  Sabine^  but  it  was  soon  completely  blended  with  the  Latin  ele- 
ments, as  the  Roman  language  shows. 

The  Royal  Epoch,  according  to  the  Roman  Legend.^ 

753-716.     Romulus, 

warrior  king.  Establishment  of  a  retreat  on  the  Capitolinus.  Ap- 
pointment of  100  Senatores  or  Patres  (fathers),  whose  descendants  are 
called  Patricians.  The  three  centuries  of  knights :  Ramnes,  Titi{ens)eSy 
and  Luceres.  Rape  of  the  Sabine  women;  war  with  the  Sabines  fol- 
lowing, their  king,  Titus  Tatius,  seized  the  fortress  on  the  Capitol 
through  the  treachery  of  Tarpeia.  Battle  between  the  Romans 
and  Sabines  interrupted  by  the  Sabine  women,  who  had  been  carried 
off.  Union  of  the  Romans  and  Sabines  in  one  double  state  under  the 
common  rule  of  Romulus  and  Tatius,  until  the  latter's  death.  War 
of  Romulus  with  Fidence  and  Veii.  Romulus  is  translated  during  a 
thunder-storm,  and  henceforward  worshipped  as  the  god  Quirinus. 
715-673.     Numa  Pompilius 

of  Cures,  elected,  after  a  year's  interregnum,  by  the  Romans  from 
among  the  Sabines.  Peaceful  king;  arranges  the  religious  services  of 
the  Romans  according  to  the  advice  of  the  CamoDuas  (prophetess) 
Egeria,  his  consort.  Temple  of  Janus.  Appointment  of  the  five 
Pontijices,  the  first  of  whom  is  the  Pontifex  Maximus,  the  Flamines, 

1  Mommsen,  Blst.  of  Rome,  Book  I.  Chaps.  2  and  4. 

2  Livius,  I.  8  foil. 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  89 

Fetiales,\ihe  four  Augzires,  the  four  vestal  virgins,  afterwards  increased 

to  six. 

67a-641.     Tullus  Hostilius, 

warlike  king.  War  with  Alba  Longa;  contest  of  the  Horatii  smd 
Curatii  decides  in  favor  of  Rome,  to  which  Alba  is  obliged  to  submit. 
War  with  Veil  and  Fidenee;  treachery  of  the  dictator  of  Alba,  Mettius 
FuffetiuSf  who  is  torn  in  pieces.  Destruction  of  Alba  Longa;  the  in- 
habitants are  transferred  to  Rome. 
641-616.     Ancus  Marcius, 

grandson  of  Numa,  at  the  same  time  peaceful  and  warlike  ("  et 
Numse  et  Romuli  memor").  Development  of  the  institution  of  the 
Fetiales.  Successful  war  with  four  Latin  towns,  the  inhabitants  of 
which  are  settled  on  the  Aventine.  For  this  reason  Ancus  Marcius  is 
represented  in  the  traditional  story  of  the  kings  of  Rome,  as  the 
founder  of  the  class  of  the  plebeians.^  Fortification  of  Janiculum,  con- 
struction of  a  bridge  of  piles  ( pons  sublicius)  over  the  Tiber. 

Foundation  of  the  harbor  of  Ostia. 
616^78.     Tarquinius  Priscus, 

who  with  his  wife  Tanaquil  emigrated  from  the  Etruscan  city  of 
Tarquinii,  and  for  whom  Grecian  descent  from  the  Bacchiadce  of  Cor- 
inth was  afterwards  invented.  He  became  guardian  of  Ancus'  son,  and 
was  elected  to  the  throne.  Commencement  of  the  construction  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  on  the  Capitoline  hill.  Construction  of  the  cloacce. 
The  Senate  increased  to  300  members ;  the  number  of  equites  doubled. 
Circus  Maximus.  Successful  wars  with  the  Sabines,  Latins,  and  Etrus- 
cans. After  the  murder  of  Tarquinius  by  the  sons  of  Ancus, 
578-534.     Servius  TuUius 

becomes  king  through  the  cunning  of  Tanaquil.  He  was  the  son 
of  the  slave  woman  Ocrisia  and  a  god,  was  educated  like  a  prince  by 
Tanaquil  in  consequence  of  the  utterance  of  an  oracle,  and  became 
the  son-in-law  of  Tarquinius.  Wars  with  Veii.  Rome  joins  the 
Latin  league.  Construction  of  the  wall  of  Rome.  Establishment  of 
the  census  and  the  division  of  the  centuries  (p  92).  Servius 
Tullius  murdered  by  his  son-in-law, 
534-510.     Tarquinius  Superbus, 

represented  by  tradition  as  a  cruel  despot.  Tarquinius  Superbue 
(i.  e.  the  haughty)  subjugates  the  Latin  league,  conquers  Suessa  Po* 
Kietia,  completes  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  and  gains  posses- 
sion of  the  city  of  Gabii  by  the  deceit  and  treachery  of  his  son  Sextus, 
Tradition  ascribes  to  him  the  acquisition  of  the  Sibylline  books. 
Embassy  of  Titus  and  Aruns  Tarquinius,  the  king's  sons,  to  the  oracle 
at  Delphi.  They  are  accompanied  by  their  cousin,  L.  Junius  Brutus^ 
who  represents  himself  as  feeble-minded,  in  order  to  protect  his  life 
against  the  cruelty  of  the  king;  a  story  which  was  invented  to  explain 
the  name  of  Brutus.  Siege  of  Ardea.  The  rape  of  Lucretia,  wife  of 
L.  Tarquinius  Collatinus  (i.  e.  from  Collatia),hj  the  king's  son,  Sextus, 
leads  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins  and  the  abolition  of  monarchy. 
The  insurrection  is  headed  by  L.  Junius  Brutus,  whom  the  legend 
makes  Tribunus  Celerum,  although  he  was  commonly  considered  an 
imbecile.  Over  the  body  of  Lucretia,  who  died  by  her  own  hand,  he 
1  Peter,  Rvr„.  Gesch.,  1.3  3a    Compare,  on  the  other  hand,  p.  90. 


90  Ancient  History,  b.  c. 

called  the  people  to  arms,  and  incited  the  armj'^  against  the  king,  who 
found  the  city  gates  closed  upon  him,  and  went  into  exile  (Livius,  I., 
57-60). 

Historical  Pacts  of  the  Epoch  of  the  Kings.^ 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  constitution  of  the  oldest  Roman  state 
was  a  patriarchal  monarchy  ;  and  that,  after  the  new  settlement 
had  become  an  independent  community,  the  highest  power  in  Rome 
was  exercised  by  a  line  of  sovereigns  elected  for  life  (rex,  from  the 
same  stem  as  regere,  to  govern). 

But  neither  the  number  nor  all  the  names  of  the  traditional  kings, 
nor  yet  the  deeds  ascribed  to  the  reign  of  each,  still  less  the  r;hro- 
nology  of  their  reigns,  can  be  considered  historically  authentic.  The 
artificiality  of  the  first  four  reigns,  which  are  alternately  warlike  and 
peaceable,  is  self-evident.  Doubtless  the  extension  of  the  Roman  ter- 
ritory and  Rome's  hegemony  over  the  Latin  league  was  not  acquired 
without  severe  contests  and  brilliant  deeds  of  arms ;  but  the  story  has 
come  down  to  us  in  a  fabulous  form  and  has  been  arbitrarily  revised. 
The  destruction  of  Alba,  the  ancient  metropolis  of  Latium,  is  an  his- 
torical fact  ;  the  contest  of  three  Roman  against  three  Alban  broth- 
ers, their  cousins,  is  probably  only  a  personified  designation  of  a 
war  between  two  closely  related  towns,  with  similar  political  divis- 
ions. 

As  regards  the  last  three  reigns,  it  can  be  considered  historical  that 
the  royal  family  of  the  Tarquins  was  of  Etruscan  origin  ;  that  under 
its  rule  Rome  made  an  important  advance  in  power  and  civilization  ; 
that  the  division  of  the  people  into  classes,  the  erection  of  the  so-called 
Servian  wall,  portions  of  which  are  still  in  existence,  and  the  construc- 
tion of  the  first  cloacae  date  from  their  reigns. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  actual  history  of  Rome  there  is  foimd 
to  exist  a  sharp  division  of  the  population  into  Patricians,  or  citizens 
"With  full  political  rights,  and  Plebeians,  or  free  inhabitants 
without  political  rights  (like  the  Lacedaemonian  Periceci  and  the 
Athenian  Metceci;  see  pp.  50  and  52).  The  traditional  legend  gives  no 
explanation  of  this  important  fact,  but  only  two  hints  at  one,  and  those 
contradictory.*  The  citizens  having  full  rights  are  evidently  the  de- 
scendants of  the  original  settlers,  the  victors  and  later  conquerors. 
Since,  according  to  Roman  usage,  marriages  of  equals  in  rank  con- 
ferred the  rights  of  citizenship  on  the  children,  those  having  such 
rights  called  themselves  Patricii,  i.  e.  "  Children  of  the  fathers." 
The  people  who  were  not  included  in  these  families,  but  stood  under 
their  protection,  who  were  compelled  to  have  a  protector  (Patronus), 
were  distinguished  by  the  name  Clientes  (from  cluere).  Their  de 
scendants,  increased  by  the  former  citizens  of  Latin  towns  conquered 
in  war,  formed  gradually  a  second  Roman  community,  whose  mem- 
bers were  not  citizens.  These  were  called  the  Plebeians,  the  Plebs  (or 

1  See  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Rome,  Book  I.  chap.  4.  Peter,  Rom.  Gesch. 
P  54-56)  likewise  ascribes  but  a  limited  historical  value  to  the  traditional 
history  of  the  kings. 

2  See  page  88  the  rei-^n  of  Romulus,  and  p.  89,  that  of  Ancus  Marcius.  Comp. 
Mommtieu,  Hist,  of  Rom,e^  Book  I.  chap.  5. 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  91 

plebeSj  connected  with  pleo,  plenus) ;  i.  e.  the  masses,  the  great  moh. 
As  the  majority  of  the  population  of  conquered  cities  were  compelled 
to  enter  the  plebeian  class,  whether  they  were  settled  in  or  near  Rome 
or  remained  in  their  old  homes,  it  is  incorrect  to  imagine  the  plebs 
composed  of  poor  people  entirely;  there  were  from  the  beginning 
many  wealthy  and  respected  families  among  them. 

Under  the  oldest  constitution  of  Rome,  which  is  commonly  called, 
from  the  legend,  the  Constitution  of  Romulus,  the  Patricians  alone 
formed  the  municipality  and  the  military  force,  the  populus  (con- 
nected with  populari,  to  ravage),  since  they  alone  performed  military 
service.  They  were  divided  into  curiae,  districts,  at  first  10  in  num- 
ber, after  the  union  of  the  Tities  and  Luceres  with  the  Ramnes  30 
(p.  88),  each  curia  being  divided  into  ten  families  or  gentes.  The 
assembly  (populus)  of  the  citizens  or  patricians,  called  by  the  king 
when  he  had  an  announcement  or  an  inquiry  to  make,  formed  the 
comitia  curiata.  To  this  body  citizens  under  sentence  had  the 
right  of  appeal  for  pardon  (provocatio)  ;  only,  however,  with  the 
consent  of  the  king.  The  comitia  elected  the  king,  who,  after  elec- 
tion, exercised  absolute  power,  having  to  consult  the  community  only 
when  changes  of  the  existing  law  or  the  commencement  of  an  offen- 
sive war  were  in  question.  The  Senate  (council  of  the  elders, 
seniores,  senatores)  was  an  advisatory  body,  named  by  the  king,  but 
representing  the  gentes  after  a  manner. 

This  oldest  form  of  the  community  was  essentially  altered  by  a 
reform  conducted  during  the  reign  of  the  last  dynasty,  and  which 
tradition  has  coupled  with  the  name  of  Servius  TuUius.  Military 
service  and  payment  of  the  tributum  was  thereby  made  obligatory  on 
all  land-owners,  whether  they  were  citizens  or  merely  inhabitants 
of  the  class  of  metoeci.  Every  freeholder  between  seventeen  and 
sixty  years  of  age  was  now  liable  to  service.  The  cavalry,  composed 
of  citizens,  continued  as  before,  but  there  was  added  to  it  a  force  of 
double  its  strength,  which  consisted  wholly,  or  in  great  part,  of  ple- 
beians. The  wealthiest  land-owners  were  drawn  upon  to  furnish  the 
cavalry.  No  regard  at  all  was  paid  to  political  or  class  differences 
in  making  up  the  infantry,  but  the  kind  of  armor  to  be  furnished  by 
the  warriors  was  regulated  in  accordance  with  a  property  classifica- 
tion.    This  is  the 

Servian  classification,^  for  military  service  and  taxation, 
of  Patricians  and  Plebeians  according  to  their  property  (Cen- 
sus). 

A.  Cavalry  (Equites). 
6  pure   (?)  patrician,  12  plebeian  (and  patrician)   centuries  ;  in  all 
1800  horse,  all  of  the  first  class. 

1  The  census  was  not  expressed  in  money  until  the  time  of  Appius  Claudim 
«p.  c.  312).    Leighton,  Hist,  of  RomOf  p.  22,  n.  5.     [Trans.] 


92  Ancient  Histortf.  b.  g. 


B.  Foot-Soldiers  (Pedites). 

Class.  Number  of  Centuries.     Property  in  Asses. i  Armor..  Weapona 

'80C.  with20jugera  100,000         galea,   clipeus,  oc- 

reae,  lorica 
20  C.  with  I  as  much  75,000         galea,         scutum, 


~l 


ocreae 
20  C.  with  i  as  much  50,000         galea,  scutum 

20  C.  with  I  as  much  25,000  scutum 

28  C.  with  i  (1-10)  as  12,000         J  tio 

much  fundsB 


It  appears  from  the  number  of  centuries  (i.  e.  companies)  in  the 
different  classes,  that  the  division  of  the  land  at  that  time  was  such 
that  more  than  half  the  farms  contained  20  jugera  or  more,  and  a 
farm  of  that  size  was  considered  the  standard. 

In  the  five  classes  :  168  centuries  of  foot-soldiers,  each  of  100  men  = 
16,800  men  ;  i.  e.  4  legions  of  4200  men  each,  2  legions  juniores  (first 
levy,  17-46  years  old,  for  service  in  the  field)  and  2  legions  seniores 
(second  levy,  47-60  years  old,  for  garrison  service).  To  be  added  are 
3  centuries  of  fabri  (pioneers),  tubicines  and  comucines  (musicians), 
2  centuries  accensi  velati  (unarmed  substitutes),  2  centuries  prole- 
tarii  and  capite  censi,  making,  with  the  cavalry,  193  centuries.  As 
the  population  increased  the  number  of  centuries  was  not  enlarged, 
but  the  separate  divisions  were  strengthened  by  the  addition  of  new 
recruits,  without  doing  away  entirely  with  the  standard  number. 

This  new  military  body,  arranged  in  classes  and  centuries,  was 
henceforward  consulted  by  the  king  in  regard  to  offensive  wars  as  the 
army  had  been  when  divided  into  curiae.  This  was  at  first  the  only 
privilege  which  the  new  citizens  shared  ;  all  other  rights  were  reserved 
to  the  comitia  curiata,  wliich  consisted  exclusively  of  patricians. 
It  was  not  until  later  (at  the  beginning  of  the  Republic)  that  the 
new  arrangement  of  the  community  acquired  political  importance, 
and  that  a  new  popular  assembli/,  the  comitia  centuriata,  de- 
veloped out  of  the  new  military  organization.  The  reform  ascribed 
to  Servius  had  originally  a  purely  military  character.  It  gave  the 
Plebeians  at  first  scarcely  any  rights,  but  only  burdens ;  it  opened  the 
way,  however,  whereby  they  became  true  citizens.  The  iiiliabitants 
who  were  not  land-owners,  be  they  clientes  or  foreign  metoeci,  were 
henceforward  distinct  from  the  land-owning  plebs.  The  inhaliitants 
who  owned  no  land  were  called,  after  the  money  which  they  had  to 
pay  for  protection,  aerarii.^ 

For  purposes  of  conscription  the  city  and  township  were  divided 
into  four  wards  (Tribus),  so  that  each  legion  contained  the  same 
number  of  recruits  from  each  ward.  Every  4,  later  every  5  years  a 
new  census  was  taken,  which  closed  with  a  sacrifice  for  purificatiou 
(lustrum),  whence  in  later  times  lustrum  denoted  a  space  of  five 
years. 

1  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Rome,  Book  I.  chap.  6.     Livius,  I.,  42  and  foil. 

2  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Rome,  Book  I.  chap.  6. 


B.  c.  Romnn  History.  93 


SECOND  PERIOD. 

Struggles  between  Patricians  and  Plebeians,  Subjugation 
of  Italy  Proper,  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Punic  Wars 
(510-264). 

510  (?) .    Expulsion  of  the  Tarquins,  Rome  a  Republic, 

According  to  Roman  tradition,  the  consuls  for  the  first  year  of  the 
republic  were 

509  (?).  Lucius  Junius  Brutus  and  L.  Tarquinius  Collatinus. 
The  latter,  it  is  said,  being  related  to  the  exiled  royal  family, 
soon  fell  under  suspicion,  and  was  replaced  by  L.  Valerius  Popli- 
cola,  the  first  Consul  suffectus,  to  whom  tradition  ascribes  the 
lex  Valeria  de  provocatione  (Ne  quis  magistratus  civem  Romanum 
adversus  provocationem  (p.  91)  neceret  neve  verberaret).  On 
the  sapae  authority,  the  first  dictator  (p.  94)  was  Titus  Lartius 
(501,  against  the  Sabines).  The  Grecian  historian  Polybius  calls  the 
consuls  of  the  first  year 
509  (?).    Lucius  Junius  Brutus  and  Marcus  Horatius.^ 

We  know  absolutely  nothing  which  is  historically  authenticated 
about  the  details  of  this  revolution.  This  alone  is  certain,  that  the 
arbitrary  rule  of  the  last  king  brought  about  his  expulsion  and  the 
banishment  of  the  whole  gens  Tarquinia.  (The  family  sepulchre  has 
been  discovered  in  Ccere,  in  Etruria).  The  fear  lest  the  common- 
wealth should  be  transformed  into  a  tyranny  seems  to  have  united 
the  patricians  and  plebeians  for  a  short  time. 

We  are  better  informed  about  the  nature  of  the  constitutional 
change,  since  on  this  point  inferences  can  be  drawn  from  the  institu- 
tions which  we  find  in  existence  in  liistoric  times.  The  change  in  the 
constitution  was,  as  far  as  this  is  possible  in  a  revolution,  conservative 
in  character.  The  sovereign  reigning  during  life  was  replaced  by 
two  rulers  holding  office  for  a  year,  taken  from  the  patricians.  They 
were  called  at  first  Praetores,  Judices,  or  Consules ;  later,  the  lattei 
name  only  was  applied  to  them.^  They  exercised,  generally,  regal 
power:  Imperium  (i.  e.  sovereignty  in  war  and  peace);  auspicia  publica 
(i.  e.  supplication  of  the  gods  in  behalf  of  the  state) ;  convening  the 
popular  assembly  and  the  senate;  taking  the  census;  appointment  of 
senators  and  the  two  patrician  qucestors.  The  latter,  whose  office  was 
established  during  the  time  of  the  kings,  exercised  the  functions  of 
criminal  police,  and  soon  acquired  the  administration  of  the  state 
treasury  under  the  supervision  of  the  consuls.  The  consuls  were 
assigned  12   lictores  as  a  public  indication  of  their  official  power. 

i  Polybius,  III.  22.  The  statement  of  Polybius,  that  the  first  treaty  be- 
tween Rome  and  Carthage  fell  in  the  first  year  of  the  Republic,  is  disputed  by 
Mommsen  ( /?o?re.  Chronologie  bis  auf  Ccesar,  2  Ed.  p.  320),  but  is  strongly 
defended  by  Kissen  {Jahrbiicher  fiir  Philologie,  1867),  and  others. 

2  The  derivation  of  consul  and  prcetor  is  doubtful.  Consul  denotes  either 
"  administrator  of  the  state  "  {qui consulit  reipvbiicce),  or  merely  colleague.  Proe' 
tor  denotes  "general"  (qui  prceit  exercitui,  like  the  German  Herzng)^  or  one 
who  presides  over  the  state  (qui pi^aeit,  praeest  reipublicae).  See  Marquaxdt 
Mommsen,  Rom.  Alterthiimer,  II.  p.  71  f. 


94  Ancient  History,  B.  c. 

According  to  the  lex  Valeria  de  provocatione  ^  (509),  all  citizens 
had  right  of  appeal  from  sentences  of  death  pronounced  by  the  con- 
suls, which  were  not  delivered  according  to  military  law,  to  the  peo- 
ple, even  against  the  will  of  the  consuls;  and  this  appeal  was  not 
to  the  old  "  populus,"  composed  of  patricians,  but  to  the  comitia 
centuriata,  the  assembly  of  the  new  military  and  political  com- 
munity founded  by  the  Servian  constitution  (p.  92). 

The  comitia  centuriata  acquired,  moreover,  in  consequence  of  the 
violent  alteration  of  the  constitution,  the  right  to  elect  the  consuls, 
or  rather,  according  to  old  Homan  interpretation,  the  right  of  desig- 
nating them  to  the  consul  who  presided  over  the  election,  who  there- 
upon appointed  them  (creare).  The  comitia  centuriata  acquired 
also  the  right  of  accepting  or  rejecting  bills  laid  before  it,  but 
the  six  patrician  centuries  of  equites  retained  the  important  right  of 
voting  first  on  any  proposed  measures. 

The  Senate,  formerly  consisting  of  patricians  exclusively,  was 
now  enlarged,  or  rather  brought  up  to  its  legal  number,  by  the  ad- 
mission of  plebeians  from  the  equites,  i.  e.  the  wealthy.  Hence  the 
formula:  Patres  [et]  conscripti. 

The  nature  of  the  changes  which  the  comitia  curiata  (p.  91) 
underwent  in  consequence  of  the  revolution  is  much  disputed;  it  is 
certain  only  that  it  soon  sank  into  complete  insignificance.  Accordmg 
to  the  view  which  is  most  commonly  received,  it  retained  at  first  the 
right  of  approving  the  elections  or  resolves  of  the  comitia  centuriata, 
a  privilege  expressed  by  the  formula  patres  (i.  e.  patricii)  auc- 
tores  fiunt.2  Others  understand  the  expression  patres  to  apply  to 
the  senatores,  and  claim  the  right  of  approval  mentioned  above  for 
the  Senate.^ 

At  a  time  of  special  danger  the  consuls  were  replaced  by  an  ex- 
traordinary official,  the  dictator,  or  magister  populi,  who  was  not 
elected,  but  appointed  by  one  of  the  consuls  (dictatorem  dicere) 
without  the  participation  of  the  citizens.  (Practically,  however,  the 
Senate  commonly  played  an  important  part  in  the  selection.)  As 
soon  as  danger  was  over  the  dictator  resigned  his  office  (dictatura 
se  abdicare),  wliich  he  could  not  hold  longer  than  six  months  in  any 
event.  The  dictator  appointed  his  magister  equitum  (master  of 
the  horse);  the  sign  of  his  power,  which  was  thoroughly  royal,  was 
24  (?)  lictors.  Appeal  from  his  decisions  was  allowed  only  in  cases 
where  it  had  been  permitted  against  the  king  (p.  91). 

1  "The  habeas  corpus  act  of  the  Romans."  Ijelghton,  Hist,  of  Rome, 
p.  63.'  [Trans.] 

2  Becker,  Bom.  Alth.  11.  3,  p.  183,  u.     Schwegler,  Rd7n.  Gesch.  II.  160. 

3  According  to  Momiusen  {Hist,  of  Rome,  I.  264),  all  new  citizens,  that  is, 
nil  land-owning  plebeians  were  in  consequence  of  the  revolution  (510)  admitted  to 
the  comitia  curiata,  and  the  old  body  of  citizens,  or  tho,  patricians,  thereby  lost  the 
right  of  debating  and  deciding  iov  jJolitical  purposes,  in  an  assembly  apart  from 
the  rest  of  the  citizens.  This  opinion  is  opposed  by  other  scholars,  who  mairi' 
tain  that  plebeians  were  first  admitted  to  the  comitia  curiata  toward  the  end  of  the 
Republic.  Mommsen  thinks  that  the  right  of  approval  belonged  to  the  smaller 
puvely  patrician  senate,  while  the  larger  senate,  increased  by  the  addition  of 
plebeian  consciipti,  was,  during  the  first  years  of  the  Republic,  an  advisoi-^ 
TOuncil  for  the  consuls. 


B.  c,  Roman  History.  95 

509.     According  to  the  Roman  legend  a  conspiracy  of  young  pa^- 
tricians  was  discovered  in  Rome,  which  purposed  the  restora^ 
tion  of  the  monarchy.     Execution  of  Brutus'  son. 
508.    Unsuccessful  war   of  the  Romans   against  the  Etruscan  king 
.Porsena  of  Clmium.     The  Romans  were  defeated,  and  com- 
pelled to  purchase  peace  by  a  surrender  of  territory  and  com- 
plete disarmmg.     Roman  story  of  Horatius  Codes,  the  brave 
defender  of  the  bridge  over  the  Tiber,  of  the  heroic  courage 
of  Mucins  Sccevola  (i.  e.  left-handed  ;  the  well-known  story  is 
probably  only  an  attempt  to  explain  the  name),  and  Clcelia,  in 
Livius  II.  9-13.     When  the  Etruscans  advanced  further  into 
Latium  they  were  defeated  by  the  Latins  and  their  allies  from 
lower  Italy  before  Aricia,  and  could  not  maintain  themselves 
(On  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber.     In  consequence  of  this  Etrus- 
can defeat,  Rome  seems  to  have  freed  itself  from  the  dis- 
graceful peace  imposed  upon  it,  and  to  have  gradually  re- 
gained its  former  powerful  position. 
496  (?).     Tradition  of  a  great  victory  of  the  Romans  over  the  Latins 
by  the  small  lake  Regillus,  near  Tusculum,  won  by  the  dictator, 
Aulus  Postumius,  with  the  aid  of  the  Dioscuri  (Livius  II.  19). 
The  inner  history  of  the  Roman  community  for  this  period  deals 
with  two  contests,  one  political  and  one  social.     I.  Contest  of  the 
patricians,  who  gradually  developed   into  an  hereditary  nobility, 
against  the  new  citizens,  or  plebeians.     The  latter,  who  could,  it  is 
true,  become  senators  (conscripti),  but  were  excluded  from  the  offices 
of  state  and  from  the  priesthood,  aimed  at  complete  political  equality. 
Since  the  offices  of  state  in  Rome,  as  among  the  ancients  generally, 
were  administered  without  pay  (hence,  honores,  officers  of  honor),  it 
was  essentially  the  wealthier  plebeian  families  alone  who  were  mter- 
ested  in  this  contest.     11.    The   social   contest  between  the  well- 
to-do  property-owners    and  the   owners   or   renters  of  small 
farms,  who  were  growing  poorer,  or  had  been  deprived  of  their  pos- 
sessions. 

The  use  of  the  ager  publicus,  i.  e.  the  public  land,  acquired  by 
conquest  (comprising  both  cultivated  land  and  pasture),  belonged 
legally  to  the  patricians  only.  In  fact  the  senate  made  exceptions  in 
favor  of  the  rich  plebeian  houses  which  had  become  members;  the 
small  plebeian  land-owners  and  renters  were  strictly  excluded  from 
the  privilege.  Very  seldom,  on  occasion  of  new  conquests,  a  dis- 
tribution of  land  was  made  among  the  poor  plebeians,  but  the  greater 
part  of  the  state  domain  was  leased  to  the  patrician  land-owners  for  a 
moderate  rent,  which  was,  probably,  hardly  ever  regularly  collected, 
and  these  estates  were  soon  treated  as  private  property.  Gradually 
the  tillage  of  the  large  farms  was  given  over  to  slaves,  and  the  ple- 
beian tenants  were  thereby  driven  from  their  holdings.  The  plebeian 
owners  of  small  peasant  holdings  sank  into  a  condition  of  the  great- 
est misery,  through  frequent  military  service,  taxation,  excessive  in- 
terest on  loans,  and  the  cruel  Roman  law  of  debt,  which  placed  the 
person  and  property  of  the  debtor  in  the  creditor's  hands.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  there  were  repeated  uprisings  and  refusals  to  perform 
military  service,  wliich,  in  495,  was  overcome  only  by  the  appomtmer ' 


96  Ancient  History.  B.  c. 

of  a  dictator.  Finally,  when  the  patricians  refused  to  grant  the  prom- 
ised alleviations,  and  continued  their  ill  treatment  of  those  who  be- 
came their  slaves  through  debt  (nexi),  the  plebeian  soldiers  in  the 
victorious  army,  as  they  were  returning  home,  turned  aside,  under  the 
leadership  of  plebeian  military  tribunes,  to  a  small  hill  on  the  Anio 
(later  called  Mons  Sacer),  and  threatened  to  found  a  plebeian  city  in 
that  fertile  region  (three  miles  from  Rome).     This  is  the  so-called 

494  (?)/  Secession  of  the  Plebeians  to  the  Sacred 
Mount  {secessio  plehis  in  montem  sacrum),  which  compelled 
the  patricians  {Menenius  Agrippa,  fable  of  the  belly  and  the 
members)  to  make  sincere  concessions.  After  abrogation  of 
the  oppressive  debts, 

494  (?).  Creation  of  the  tribunate  (tribuni  plebis)  and 
the  plebeian  sediles. 

The  tribunes  of  the  people  (at  first  2  (?),  then  5,  finally  10), 
were  always  chosen  from  the  plebs.^  They  were  inviolable  (sacro- 
sancti).  They  had  the  right  of  protection  (jus  auxilii)  for  every 
plebeian  against  injustice  on  the  part  of  an  official.  This  privilege 
developed  into  an  extensive  right  of  intercession  (Jus  intercessionis) 
against  every  administrative  or  judicial  act,  with  the  exception  of  the 
imperium  militare,  —  that  is  to  say,  against  the  dictator  and  against  the 
consul  when  he  was  more  than  a  mile  from  the  city.  From  the  first 
the  tribunes  of  the  people  exercised  judicial  functions,  convened  the 
assemblies  of  the  plebeians,  and  proposed  criminal  sentences  for  their 
consideration.  Later  (448),  the  tribunes  were  admitted  to  the  senate, 
where,  by  their  veto,  they  could  deprive  any  resolution  of  the  senate 
{senatus  consultus)  of  its  legislative  force,  and  reduce  it  to  a  mere  ex- 
pression of  opinion  (senatus  auctoritas).  The  two  eediles  of  the 
people  (cediles  plebis)  assisted  the  tribunes,  and  superintended  the 
business  of  the  markets.  Their  name  was  probably  derived  from 
the  temple  (cedes)  of  Ceres,  where  they  preserved  the  official  docu- 
ment which  decreed  the  establishment  of  the  plebeian  magistracy. 

During  this  time  (according  to  some  authorities,  not  until  later) 
occurred  the  establishment  of  the  important  comitia  tributa.  In 
this  assembly  the  citizens  voted  according  to  wards  or  tribus;  not, 
however,  the  four  wards  of  the  Servian  constitution  (p.  92),  but  ac- 
cording to  a  later  (perhaps  495)  division  into  20  tribus,  to  which 
was  added  the  Crustuminian  tribus  (494),  making  21,  and  the  num- 
ber gradually  rose  to  35.  It  is  probable  that,  down  to  the  time 
of  the  legislation  of  the  decemvirs,  plebeians  only,  after  that 
time,  however,  the  whole  body  of  land-owning  inhabitants,  both  patri- 
cians and  plebeians,  voted  in  the  comitia  tributa.^     In  this  comitia 

1  Cf.  Momuisen,  Hist,  of  Rome,  I.  279. 

2  It  is  commonly  assmned  as  probable  that  up  to  he  lex  Piiblilia  (472)  the 
tribunes  were  elected  in  the  comitia  centuriata,  and  approved  by  the  comitia 
curiata.  According  to  the  testimony  of  Dionysius  (IX.  41)  anil  Cicero  (pro 
Corn.),  they  were  chosen  by  the  curiata;  according  to  Mcnunsen's  view  (p.  94, 
note),  this  denotes  that  they  were  at  first  elected  b}'  the  plebeians  assembled  bj 
curice. 

3  See  the  different  opinions  in  Becker,  Rom.  Alther.,  II.  1,  p.  175  and  399. 


B.  c.  Roman   History.  97 

each  trihus  had  one  vote,  which  was  decided  by  the  majority  of  voters 
in  the  trihus.     Compared  with  the  comitia  centuriata,  therefore,  the 
ascendency  of  the  wealthy  was  done  away  with,  as  was  also  the  privi- 
lege, enjoyed  by  the  nobility,  of  throwing  their  votes  first. 
493.      In  the  consulate  of  Spurius  Cassius,  renewal  of  the  eternal 
alliance  between  Rome  and  the  Latin  league  on  a  basis  of 
equality.      Only  gradually  did  Rome  acquire  again  the  he- 
gemony over  the  Latins.     Continual  disputes  with  Etruscans, 
Sabines,  ^qui,  Volscians.      Continuation  of  the  contests  be- 
tween patricians  and  plebeians ;  the  institution  of  the  tribu- 
nate proving  to  be  the  organization  of  civil  strife  and  anarchy. 
An  attempt  was  soon  made  to  abolish  the  tribunate  by  the 
patrician 
491.     Cn.  (C.  ?)  Marcius,  called  Coriolanus  (from  the  storm  of 
Corioli),  who,  during  a  famine,  proposed  to  grant  the  plebeians 
grain  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  only  on  condition  that  they 
gave  up  the  tribunate.     When  summoned  by  the  tribunes  be- 
fore the  comitia  tributa,  Coriolanus  declined  to  appear;  being 
banished  in  his  absence,  he  went  to  the  Volscians,  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  story,  led  their  troops  against  Rome,   but,  at  the 
rebuke  of  his  mother,  Veturia,  and  the  entreaties  of  his  wife, 
Volu7nnia,  gave  up  the  war  against  his  native  city  (Livius, 
11.40). 
487.      The  Hernici  invaded  the  Roman  territory.     Being  defeated  by 
the  consul  Aquillius,  and,  in  the  next  year,  by  the  consul  Spur- 
rius  Cassius,  the 
486.     Hernici  joined  the  Latin  league. 

486.     Spurius  Cassius  Viscellinus   ( Vecellinus  ?),  consul  for  the 
third  time,  brought  forward  the  first  agrarian  law.     He  pro- 
posed to  divide  a  part  of  the  public  lands  among  needy  plebeians 
and  Latins  ;  the  rest  to  be  actually  leased  for  the  profit  of  the 
public  treasury.     The  patricians  and  wealthy  plebeians  joined 
forces  against  Spurius  Cassius  ;  the  lower  classes  were  dissat- 
isfied that  the  Latins  should  also  receive  land  and  abandoned 
him.     After  the  close  of  his  term  of  office  he  was  sentenced 
and  executed. 
479.     Withdrawal  of  the  gens  Fabia  and  their 
477.      destruction  by  the  Etruscans  at  the  brook  Cremera. 
473.      Murder  of  the  tribune  of  the  people,  Gnceus  Genudus,  who  had 

ventured  to  call  two  consuls  to  account. 
471.     Law  carried  by  the  tribune  of  the  people,  Volero  Publilius, 
to  the  effect  that  the  plebeian  magistrates  should,  in  future,  be 
elected  by  the  comitia   tributa  (lex   publilia:  ut  magistratus 
plebei  comitiis  tributis  creentur,  p.  96). 
463.     Plague  in  Rome  and  throughout  Italy, 

462.     Motion  of  the  tribune  of  the  people,  C.   Terentilius  Arsa,  for 
the  appointment  of  a  body  of  ten  men  to  reduce  the  laws  to  a 
written  code.     Violent  opposition  of  the  patricians. 
160.     Surprise  of  the  Capitol  by  Htrdonius  at  the  head  of  some  polit- 
ical refugees  (Livius  III.  15). 
Renewal  of  civil  discord.    In  order  to  satisfy  the  plebeians,  the  num- 
7 


98  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

ber  of  tribunes  of  the  people  was  raised  from  5  to  10  (457)  ;  in  the 
following  year  the  Mons  Avent'mus  was  divided  into  building  lots^ 
which  were  distributed  among  the  poor  citizens.  Dictatorship  of 
/,.  Quinctius  Cincinnatus,  who  rescued  an  army  which  had  been  sur- 
rounded by  the  Mqui  (Livius  III.  26).  A  compromise  was  reached 
in  regard  to  the  codification  of  the  laws,  whereby  three  ambassadors 
were  sent  to  Greece  to  bring  back  copies  of  the  Solonian  laws  and 
others  (454).     After  their  return 

451.  Decemvirs,  a  body  of  ten  men,  were  chosen  from  the 
patricians  (Decemviri  consulari  imperio  legibus  scribundis),  and 
the  consulate,  tribunate,  and  right  of  appeal  were  for  the  time 
suspended.  The  code  of  laws  drawn  up  by  the  decemvirs  was 
accepted  by  the  people,  engraved  on  copper  tables,  and  set  up 
in  the  forum.     As  an  appendix  seemed  necessary, 

450.  Decemvirs  were  appointed  again,  three  being  plebeians,  who 
added  two  more  tables.  Henceforward  the  law  of  the  city  and 
county  of  Rome,  according  to  which  the  consuls  were  to  ex- 
ercise their  judicial  functions,  was  known  as  the  la.vrs  of  the 
twelve  tables  (Leges  duodecim  tabularum).  By  their 
exposure  the  patrician  administration  was  henceforth  sub- 
jected to  the  control  of  public  judgment.  Instead  of  giving 
place  to  the  regular  magistrates  after  the  completion  of  the 
two  supplementary  tables  the  decemvirs  remained  in  office 
during  the  succeeding  year  (449).  An  attempt  of  the  mod- 
erate aristocracy,  headed  by  the  Valerii  and  Horatii,  to 
compel  the  abdication  of  the  decemvirs,  was  unsuccessful. 
The  latter,  under  Appius  Claudius,  the  head  of  the  extreme 
party  of  the  nobles,  acquired  the  preponderance  in  the  state. 
At  first  the  people  submitted  and  acquiesced  in  a  levy  for  the 
war  against  the  Sabines  and  Volscians.  The  oppression  of  the 
decemvirs,  especially  of  Appius  Claudius.-  murder  of  the  former 
tribune  of  the  people,  Siccius  Dentatus,  and  the  attack  on  the 
liberty  and  honor  of  the  betrothed  of  the  former  tribune  L. 
Icilius,  Virginia,  whom  her  own  father  Virginius  stabbed 
in  the  forum,  brought  about  an  uprising  (Liv.  III.  44  foil.). 
The  plebeian  soldiers  occupied  the  Aventine  and  the  Sacred 
Mount.  Valerius  and  Horatius  managed  a  compromise,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  decemvirs  abdicated.  Appius  Claudius 
and  Spurius  Oppius  disembowelled  themselves  in  prison,  the 
others  were  sent  into  exile.  It  is  impossible  to  decide  what 
part  of  this  romantic  story  is  historical.  It  seems  certain  that 
the  consulate  and  tribunate  were  reestablished.  The  power  of 
the  nobility  was  further  weakened  by  the 

H:S.  Laws  of  the  consuls  Valerius  and  Horatius  (leges  Horatice)  • 
1.  The  resolves  (plebisclta)  of  the  comitia  tributa  were  given 
equal  force  with  those  of  the  comitia  centuriata  (ut  quod  tribu- 
tim  plebs  jussisset  populum  teneret).  2.  Every  magistrate,  in- 
cluding therefore,  the  dictator,  was  obliged,  in  future,  to  allow 
appeals  from  his  decision  (ne  quis  ullum  magistratum  sine  provo- 
catione  crearet,  qui  crcasset,eumjusfasqueessetoccldi).  3.  Reeog- 


B.  c.  Roman   History,  99 

nition  of  the  inviolability  of  the  tribunes  of  the  people,  and  ex- 
tension of  the  same  privilege  to  the  sediles  (ut  qui  trihunis 
plebis,  (Edilihus  nocuisset^  ejus  caput  Jovi  sacrum  esset).  About 
the  same  time  (447)  t^vo  quaestors  were  appointed  whose  pe- 
culiar charge  was  the  military  treasury  (making  in  all  4  qusest- 
ors,  see  p.  93) ;  they  were  patricians,  but  were  appointed  by  the 
comitia  tributa,  wherein  both  patricians  and  plebeians  voted 
henceforward,  if  not  before  (p.  96).  In  421  the  qusestorship 
was  opened  to  the  plebeians.  Moreover,  the  tribunes  of  the 
people  acquired  the  right  of  taking  auspices,  and  were  admitted 
to  the  senate,  though  at  first  required  to  occupy  a  bench  near 
the  door. 
445.  La^w  of  the  tribune  Canuleius  legalizing  marriage  between 
patricians  and  plebeians  {lex  Canuleia  de  conuhio :  ut  conubia  ple- 
bei  cum  patribus  essent).  The  children  inherit  the  rank  of  the 
father.  The  motion  brought  forward  by  this  tribune  that  the 
consuls  might  be  chosen  from  the  plebeians  (ut  papula  patestas 
esset,  seude  plebe  seu  de  patribus  vellet,  consules  faciendi),  was  vio- 
lently opposed  by  the  nobility.  A  compromise  was  effected, 
and  it  was  decreed  that  instead  of  consuls 

444.  military  tribunes  (6)  with  consular  power  (tri 
buni  militum  consulari  potestate) 
should  be  appointed,  and  that  to  this  office  plebeians  could  be 
elected.  At  the  same  time  creation  of  a  new  patrician  office, 
that  of  censor.  The  two  censors  were  elected  in  the  comitia 
centuriata,  at  first  for  5  (4  ?)  years,  after  434  for  18  months,  but 
every  fifth  year  only,  so  that  the  office  was  vacant  3^  years  out 
of  every  five.  Functions  of  the  censors :  1.  Taking  the  census 
every  5  (4  ?)  years  (after  every  lustrum),  and  compiling 
the  lists  of  citizens  and  taxes;  appointment  of  senators  (lectio 
senatus)  and  the  equites  (recognitio  equitum).  2.  Preparation 
and  publication  of  the  budget,  management  of  the  state  prop- 
erty, farming  the  indirect  taxes  (vectigalia),  superintendence 
of  the  public  buildings.  3.  Supervision  of  the  public  morality 
(regimen  morum).  The  duties  and  privileges  included  under 
the  latter  head  gave  the  office  great  moral  and  political  im- 
portance in  the  next  century  (Notatio  censoria). 

439.  Spurius  Mcelius,  a  rich  plebeian,  who,  during  a  famine,  distrib- 
uted grain  at  a  low  price,  was  accused  of  aiming  at  royai 
power,  and  was  slain  by  C  Servilius  Ahala,  the  master  of  the 
horse  of  the  octogenarian  dictator,  L.  Quinctius  Cincinnatus. 

405-396.     Siege  of  Veii, 

the  history  of  which,  like  that  of  the  previous  wars  with  the 
Etruscans,  has' been  much  ornamented  by  tradition.  The  long 
continuance  and  obstinacy  of  the  war  with  Veii  is  proved  by 
the  fact  that  then  for  the  first  time  the  campaigns  were  not 
interrupted  during  the  winter.  The  result  was,  that  the  citi- 
zens who  served  in  the  army  now  for  the  first  time  received 
pay  from  the  public  treasury  (i.  e.  out  of  the  taxes  on  the 
public  lands). ^     Capture  and  destruction  of  Veii  by  the 

I  Ijeighton,  Hist,  of  Borne,  p.  70,  note  1.  [Trans. 


100  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

dictator,  M.  Furius  Camillus.     The  fall  of  Veil  marks  the 
beginning  of  the  decline  of  the  Etruscan  power,  which  was 
hard  pressed  at  the  same  time  by  the  Latins  in  the  south,  Celts 
(^Gauls)  from  beyond  the  Alps  in  the  north,  and  from  the  sea 
by  the  Sicilian  and  Italian  Greeks,  especially  the  SyracusanSy 
whose  attacks  had  endured  upward  of  a  century. 
391.      Camillus  went  into  exile  in  consequence  of  a  complaint  of  in- 
justice in  the  division  of  the  booty  from  Veii. 
Latium  invaded  by  the  Gauls  in  consequence  of  Roman  ambas- 
sadors having  taken  part,  in  the  war  of  the  Etruscans  of  Clusium^ 
against  the  Gauls.     The  Gauls  demanded  that  the  ambassadors  (the 
three  Fabii)  should  be  delivered  to  them,  to  which  the  senate  agreed. 
The  proposal  was,  however,  rejected  by  the  citizens. 

390  (July  18).     Battle  of  the  Allia, 

a  brook,  which  falls  into  the  Tiber  eleven  miles  north  of 
Rome.  Utter  defeat  and  rout  of  the  Romans  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tiber,  whereby  the  city  was  left  defenceless. 
Abandoned  by  the  citizens  (the  Mons  Capitolinus  alone  contin- 
ued to  be  occupied),  Rome  was  taken,  plundered,  and  burnt  by 
the  Gauls  under  their  Brennus,  i.  e.  military  ruler.  Slaughter 
of  the  senators.  Unsuccessful  attempt  to  surprise  the  Capitol. 
The  geese  of  Juno.  M.  Manlius  Capitolinus.  After  a  seven 
months'  siege  of  the  fortress,  the  withdrawal  of  the  Gauls  was 
purchased  with  gold.  Legend  (a  later  invention)  of  an  expul- 
sion of  the  enemy  by  a  victory  of  CamiUus,  who  surprised  the 
haughty  Brennus  (  Vce  victis  !)  in  the  forum,  while  the  gold  was 
bemg  weighed  (!).  Return  of  the  inhabitants.  The  plan  of 
emigrating  to  Veii  broken  up  by  Camillus.  Hasty,  but  irregu- 
lar, reconstruction  of  the  city,  which  soon  regained  its  old 
power,  after  the  jEqui,  the  Volsdans,  and  the  Etruscans,  who 
had  taken  up  arms  again,  had  been  defeated  by  Camillus. 

Equalizatiou  of  the  old  orders.     Origin  of  the  new  nobility. 

Recommencement  of  the  civil  contests  against  the  patricians:  1,  by 
the  plebeian  aristocracy  to  get  admission  to  the  considate;  2,  by  the 
poor,  indebted  plebeians  to  obtain  a  reform  of  the  laws  of  debtor  and 
creditor,  and  a  share  of  the  public  lands.  The  exertions  of  those 
tribunes  who  were  friendly  to  the  poorer  classes  were  often  neutral- 
ized by  the  opposition  of  their  colleagues  who  represented  the  inter- 
ests of  the  plebeian  aristocracy.  The  patrician  M.  Manlius  Capi- 
tolinus, who  had  released  plebeian  debtors  at  his  own  expense,  was 
accused  of  aiming  at  royal  power,  declared  guilty  of  high  treason, 
and  thrown  from  the  Tarpeian  rock  (384).  A  Qompromise  was  finally 
agreed  upon  between  the  plebeian  aristocracy  and  the  plebeian  com- 
mons, whose  results  were  seen  in  the 

376.  La-ws  proposed  by  C.  Licinius  and  Lucius  Sextius,  trib- 
unes of  the  people  (rogationes  Licinice).  The  first  two  were 
designed  to  secure  the  poorer  classes  a  material  alleviation: 
the  third  to  give  the  plebeian  aristocracy  the  long-wished-for 
equality  with  the  patricians. 


B.  C.  Roman  History.  101 

I.  Relief  of  the  debtors  by  the  deduction  of  interest  already 
paid  from  the  principal;  the  rest  to  be  paid  within  three  years  in 
three  installments  (ut,  deducto  eo  de  capite  quod  usuris  pernumeratum 
esset,  id  quod  superesset  triennio  cequis  portionibus  persolveretur). 

II.  No  one  should  possess  more  than  500  jugera  of  the  public 
lands  (ne  quis  plus  quam  quingenta  jugera  agri  publid^  possideret). 

III.  Abolition  of  the  tribuni  milituni  consulari  potestate.  One,  at 
least,  of  the  two  consuls  must  be  chosen  from  the  plebeians  (ne 
trihunorum  militum  comitia  Jierent  consulumque  utiqae  alter  ex  plebe  crea- 
retur). 

After  a  long  contest,  and  after  the  appointment  of  Camillus  to  the 
dictatorship  had  failed  to  accomplish  anything, 

367.     The  Licinian  laws  were  passed. 

366.  L.  Sextius  Lateranus,  colleague  of  the  tribune  Licinius,  first 
plebeian  consul.  At  the  same  time  one  of  the  three  great 
colleges  of  priests  (decemviri  [formerly  rfwom'n]  sacris  faciundis) 
was  opened  to  the  plebeians. 

In  order  to  retain  at  least  the  administration  of  the  judicial  de- 
partment in  the  hands  of  their  order,  the  patricians  procured  the 
establishment  of  a  new  patrician  magistracy,  the  praetorship.  The 
praetor  (since  243,  one  praetor  urbanus,  and  one  praetor  inter  cives  et 
peregrinos;  since  227,  four;  since  197,  six  praetors)  had  the  jurisdiction 
{dare  sc.  judicium,  dicere,  sc.  sententiara,  addicere,  sc.  rem),  and  was 
the  vicegerent  of  the  consuls  during  their  absence.  At  the  same  time  a 
new  (Bdile  was  appointed,  called,  to  distinguish  him  from  the  plebeian 
officer  of  that  name,  the  curule  aedile ;  this  office  was,  however,  soon 
(probably  since  364;  certainly  since  304)  made  accessible  to  the  ple- 
beians, and  patrician  and  plebeian  curule  aediles  were  elected  for 
alternate  years.  The  duties  of  the  two  aediles  curules  were:  1.  to 
manage  the  ludi  Romani ;  2.  to  supervise  the  markets  and  the  street- 
police,  and  to  preside  in  the  police  courts  connected  therewith. 

Although  after  the  passage  of  the  Licinian  laws  the  patricians  contin- 
ued their  opposition  to  the  political  equalization  of  the  orders,  and 
even  succeeded  several  times  in  electing  two  patrician  consuls  in  open 
violation  of  the  third  Licinian  law,  all  public  offices  were,  neverthe- 
less, opened  to  all  Roman  citizens,  in  rapid  succession :  the  dictatorship 
356  (the  office  of  magister  equitum  before  the  adoption  of  the  Lici- 
nian laws  368),  the  censorship  actually  351,  legally  338,  the  prcetorship 
337,  the  colleges  of  pontijices  and  augures  (the  number  of  members  in 
each  being  increased  to  nine)  300,  by  the  lex  Ogulnia.  The  patrician 
order  thereupon  ceased  to  exist  as  a  legally  privileged  caste,  and  con- 
tinued only  as  a  social  order  or  rank. 

A  new  nobility  (optimates,  nobiles)  was  gradually  developed  in 
political  life,  composed  of  those  patrician  and  plebeian  families  which 
had  for  the  longest  time  retained  possession  of  the  chief  public  offices 
(summi  honores).  These  families  regarded  every  citizen  who  obtained 
office,  but  did  not  belong  to  their  set,  as  an  upstart  (homo  novus).   The 

1  The  wordpuhlici  is  lacking  in  the  text  of  Livius  (VF.  35).  But  it  is  clear 
that  the  law  could  have  referred  to  public  land  on'vy.  Cf.  Niebuhr,  Hist,  of 
Rome  111.  11;  and  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Rome,  I.  304  foil. 


102  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

new  nobility  could  not,  however,  separate  itself  so  sharply  from 
the  common  people  as  the  patrician  order  had  done,  but  increased 
its  ranks  constantly  from  the  most  promising  portion  of  the  lower 
classes. 

Through  the  equalization  of  the  plebeian  aristocracy  with  the  pa- 
tricians, the  office  of  tribune,  which  was  generally  in  the  hands  of 
the  most  distinguished  plebeian  families,  lost,  for  a  time  at  least,  its 
revolutionary  and  anarchic  character.  The  tribunes  of  the  people 
soon  obtained  not  only  seats  and  votes  in  the  senate,  but  also  the 
right  to  convene  it.  Growing  importance  of  the  senate,  which  from 
this  time  on  was  the  principal  executive  body  governing  the  state. 
Since  the  establishment  of  the  republic  the  senators  had  represented 
both  orders  (p.  94).  They  acquired  their  membership  neither  by 
the  accident  of  birth,  nor  by  the  direct  choice  of  the  people.  The 
censors  (p.  99)  filled  vacancies  in  the  senate  principally  from  the 
numbers  of  those  citizens  which  had  occupied  the  office  of  qusestor 
(p.  99)  or  a  higher  office.  Their  age  was  at  least  30  years  ;  prob- 
ably a  property  qualification  was  soon  required.  Being  appointed 
for  life,  but  subjected  every  four  (5)  years  to  a  new  lectio  of  the 
censors,  who  could  expel  unworthy  members,  the  Roman  senators 
were  independent  of  a  fickle  public  opinion.  To  the  wise  and  ener- 
getic conduct  of  the  senate  Rome  chiefly  owed  the  great  growth  of 
her  power  which  took  place  in  the  near  future. 

As  formerly,  the  comitice  exercised  the  rights  of  sovereignty  proper, 
especially  the  comitia  centuriata  and  the  comitia  tributa,  in 
wliich  all  citizens,  patricians  and  plebeians  alike,  were  included  (p.  9G), 
while  the  right  of  approval  vested  in  the  patrician  comitia  curiata 
(or  the  narrower  patrician  senate,  p.  94)  became  an  empty  form. 
Here  belong  two  of  the  three  laws  of  the  plebeian  dictator,  Pub- 
lilius  Philo  (leges  Puhlilice),  of  the  year  338  :  1.  A  vote  of  the 
comitia  tributa  shall  have  the  force  of  law  without  having  been  ap- 
proved by  the  comitia  curiata  (ut  plehiscita  omnes  Quirites  tenerent). 
2.  Laws  presented  to  the  centuries  shall  be  approved  beforehand  (ut 
legum,  quce  comitiis  centuriatis  ferrentur,  patres  ante  initum  suffragium 
auctores  fierent).  3.  One  censor  must  be  a  plebeian  (ut  alter  ubique  ex 
plebe  censor  crearetur).  The  same  Publilius  Philo  became  the  firsc 
plebeian  praetor  in  337. 

In  the  year  312  the  censor  Appius  Claudius  included  the  inhab- 
itants of  Rome  who  were  not  freeholders  in  the  tribes  which  they  pre- 
ferred, and  in  the  centuries  according  to  their  property.  This  far- 
reaching  and  actually  revolutionary  change  in  the  comitia  centuriata 
and  tributa  was  altered  in  a  conservative  sense  by  the  censor  Q.  Fa- 
bius  Rullianus  (Maximus)  in  the  year  304.  As  regards  the  comitia 
tributa,  those  freemen  who  were  not  freeholders,  and  those  freed- 
men  (libertini)  whose  property  in  land  was  valued  at  less  than  30,000 
sestertes  (about  $1500^,  were  divided  among  the  four  city  wards 
(tribus  urbance),  which  now  became  the  last  in  rank  instead  of  the 
first.  The  country  wards  (tribus  rusticce),  the  number  of  which  had 
by  the  year  241  risen  from  17  to  31  (making  the  whole  number  of 
the  tribes  35,  p.  96),  were  reserved  for  freemen  who  were  freeholders, 
and  for  freedmen  having  larger  landed  properties.     In  the  comitia 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  103 

centuriata,  where  the  wealthy  memhers  had  already  acquired 
many  privileges,  equality  of  the  freemen  who  were  and  those  who 
were  not  freeholders  was  secured  ;  but  the  freedmen,  with  excep- 
tion of  those  of  the  lirst  two  classes,  were  entirely  shut  out  from  the 
centuries.  1 

The  Licinian  laws  had  naturally  only  ameliorated,  not  radically 
cured,  the  desperate  condition  of  the  poor  and  indebted  plebeians. 
The  law  of  the  consul  Poetelius  (lex  Poetelia),  passed  in  326  or 
313,  secured  to  every  insolvent  debtor  who  should  transfer  his  prop- 
erty to  the  creditor  his  personal  freedom  (ne  quis  ceris  alieni  causa 
nectatur,  utique  bona  tantummodo  ohnoxia  sint).  By  these  and  other 
ameliorations,  and  by  the  ever-increasing  foundation  of  colonies  of 
citizens  and  division  of  public  lands  among  the  poor,  in  consequence 
of  successful  wars,  the  social  question  was  for  a  short  time  forced 
into  the  background. 

At  this  time  occurred  the  alteration  in  the  Servian  constitution  of 
the  army.2     Division  of  the  new  legion  into  30  maniples,  each  con- 
taining 3  centuries.     Arrangement  in  order  of  battle  in  three  lines 
(hastati,  principes,  triarii).      The  assignment  of    arms  according  to 
property  classification  was  abolished.     Long  lances  (hasta)  were  re- 
served for  the  third  line,  the  first  and  second  line  receiving  in  their 
stead  the  pilum,  a  short  spear,  adapted  both  for  thrusting  and  hurl- 
ing.    A  short  cut  and  thrust  sword  was  used  by  all. 
367-349.     Four  wars  with  the  Gauls  who  had  permanently  settled 
in  upper  Italy  (henceforward  known  as  Gallia  Cisalpina),  and 
thence  made  frequent  inroads  into  central  Italy.     In  the  Jirst 
war  single  combat  between  T.  Manlius  Torquatus  and  a  gi- 
gantic Gaul ;  in  the  second,  the  first  triumph  of  a  plebeian 
consul.     The  fourth  war  was  ended  by  a  great  defeat  inflicted 
upon  the  Gauls  in  the  Pomptine  region  by  the  consul  M.  Fu- 
rius   Camillus,  the  younger.      Single   combat   of  M.  Valerius 
Corvus  with  a  Gaul. 
362.   Story  of  a  chasm  opened  in  the  forum  closed  by  the  sacrifice 

of  M.  Curtius. 
362-358.     War  with  the    Hernici  and  the    revolted  Latin    cities 
(especially  Tibur),  ending  in  the  renewal  of  the  old  league 
between  Rome  on  the  one  part  and  the  Latins  and  Hernici  on 
the  other;  whereby  both  people  were  more  strictly  subjected 
to  the  Romans  than  before. 
358-351.     Wars  with  the  Etruscan   cities  Tarquinii,  Caere,  and 
Falerii  (victory  of  C.  Marcius  Rutilius,  the  first  plebeian  dicta- 
tor, 356),  which  led  to  the  reduction  of  the  whole  of  south- 
ern Etruria  under  Roman  supremacy. 
348.     (First  ?)  treaty  of  commerce  between  Rome  and  Carthage,^ 

the  text  of  which  has  been  preserved  by  Polybius  (III.  22). 
350-345.     War  with  the  Volsoii,  who  were  defeated  in  346  at  Satri- 
cum,  and  the  Aurunci.     The  power  of  both  peoples  was  com- 
pletely broken.     The  Roman  legions  forced  their  way  south' 

1  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Rome,  Book  II.  chap.  3. 

2  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Home,  Book  II.  chap.  8,  and  Peter,  1.3  222  foil. 

3  See  p.  93,  note  1. 


104  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

ward  without  stay.     This  great  development  of  Rome's  power 
brought  about  the 

343-266.    wars  with  the  Samnites,  the  other  Italians,  and 

the  Greek  cities  of  Italy. 
Result :  Subjugation  of  all  Italy  to  the  Rvhkon  and  Macra,  under 

the  supremacy  of  Rome. 

343-341.    First  war  with  the  Samnites. 

Cause :  The  Sidici  in  Teanum  and  the  Campanians  in  Capua,  both 
Sanmite  tribes  who  liad  emigrated  from  their  home,  asked  aid  of  the 
Romans  against  their  relatives,  the  Samnites  of  the  mountains, 
who  had  formed  a  confederacy  in  Samnium  proper,  whence  they  con- 
tinually ravaged  the  plain  (Campania),  with  new  swarms. 

According  to  the  Roman  tradition,^  their  armies  gained  three  vic- 
tories in  Campania  over  the  Samnites  :  victory  of  M.  Valerius  Cor- 
vus  on  Mount  Gaurus  (near  Cumse)  ;  victory  of  A.  Cornelius  Cossus, 
after  his  army  had  been  rescued  by  P.  Decius  Mus,  a  military  trib- 
une ;  finally,  victory  of  both  Roman  armies  at  Suessula.  The  war  was 
ended  by  a  treaty,  whereby  Rome  received  Capua,  the  Samnites 
Teanum.  The  Samnites  were  induced  to  conclude  this  treaty  by  a 
war  with  Tarentum,  the  Romans  by  the 

340-338.     Great  Latin  War. 

The  Latins  rebelled  against  the  hegemony  of  Rome  and  demanded 
complete  equality  with  the  Romans.  One  consul  and  half  the  senate 
ware  to  be  Latins.  Capua  (m  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  optimates) 
and  the  Volscii  were  allied  with  the  Latins. 

Victory  of  the  (Roman  and  Samnite  ?)  armies  over  the  Latins  and 
Campanians  in  the  neighborhood  of  Vesuvius  under  the  consul  T. 
Manlius  Imperiosus.  Execution  of  the  young  son  of  the  consul,  who 
against  his  father's  command  had  fought  with  the  Latin  commander 
and  defeated  liim.  P.  Decius  Mus  sacrificed  his  life  for  the  safety  of 
his  army.  Decisive  battle  at  Trifanum  (between  Mintumce  and 
Suessa)  ;  victory  of  the  consul  Manlius  over  the  Latins  and  Cajnpa- 
nians. 

Dissolution  of  the  Latin  League,  which  became  a  mere  relig- 
ious association  for  the  celebration  of  festivals.  Isolation  of  the 
Latin  cities  from  one  another.  Commercium  and  connubium  between 
them  were  proliibited.  Most  of  the  cities  received  Roman  citizen- 
ship without  suffrage,  i.  e.  they  became  subjects.  Several  were 
obliged  to  cede  land,  which  was  divided  among  Roman  citizens  ;  others 
were  converted  into  Roman  colonies  (p.  109),  e.  g.  Antium.  The 
orator's  stand  in  the  forum  Romanum  was  ornamented  with  the  bows 
of  the  old  ships  of  this  city  (hence  rostra).  The  Roman  power  in  the 
territories  of  the  Volscii  and  in  Campania  was  strengthened  by  the 
settlement  of  colonies  of  Roman  citizens.  Capua  and  other  cities 
became  dependent  Roman  communities  (p.  109). 

1  Livius,  VII.  29  foil.  See  this  tradition  criticised  bv  Mommsen,  Eist.  oj 
Rome,  1.  365,  note. 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  105 

326-304.     Second  war  with  the  Samnites  and  the  other 
Italians. 

Cause  :  Encroachments  of  the  Romans  on  the  Liris,  especially  the 
transformation  of  Fregellce  into  a  Roman  colony,  and  the  capture 
of  Palceopolis  (twin  city  of  Neopolis),  by  Q.  Publilius  Philo,  the 
first  pro-consul. 

Alliance  of  the  Romans  with  the  ApuUans  and  Lucanians  and,  in 
the  course  of  the  war,  with  the  Sabellian  cities  south  of  the  Volturnus 
{IVola,  Nuceria,  Herculaneunif  Pompeii) ^  who  at  first  sided  with  the 
Samnites. 

The  Romans  had  the  advantage  in  the  first  years  of  the  war,  and 
crossed  Samnium  to  Apulia,  plundering  as  they  went  ;  but  in  321 
the  consuls  Sp.  Postumius  and  T.  Veturius,  hastening  from  Campania 
to  the  assistance  of  the  Apulian  city  Luceria,  were  surrounded  by  the 
Samnites  under  Gavius  Pontius  in  the  Caudine  Pass  {furculce 
CaudincB),  near  the  present  Arpaio,  and  compelled  to  capitulate, 
swear  to  a  treaty  of  peace,  and  give  600  Roman  equites  as  hostages. 
The  whole  Roman  army  was  sent  under  the  yoke.  The  Roman 
senate  refused  to  approve  the  treaty,  and  delivered  the  consuls  to  the 
Samnites,  who  refused  to  receive  them. 

The  Samnites  conquered  Luceria  in  Apulia  and  Fregellce  on  the 
Liris.  By  desperate  exertions  the  Romans  got  the  upper  hand  again. 
In  319  the  Roman  consul  L.  Papirius  Cursor  reconquered  Luceria, 
released  the  Roman  hostages,  and  sent  the  Samnite  garrison  under 
the  yoke.  The  war  went  on  during  the  succeeding  years  with  chang- 
ing fortune  ;  nevertheless,  the  Romans  subdued  their  revolted  allies 
and  subjects,  and  punished  the  leaders  in  the  revolt  with  death.  They 
defeated  the  Samnites  at  Capua,  drove  them  out  of  Campania  com- 
pletely, and  reconquered  Fregellce.  Settlement  of  new  colonies  (p.  109). 
Construction  of  a  great  military  road  from  Rome  to  Capua,  through 
the  Pomptine  marshes,  the  Via  Appia,  part  of  which  still  remains. 
(Begun  under  the  censor  Appius  Claudius,  312). 

After  312,  when  the  40  years'  peace  with  the  Etruscans  expired,  the 
Etruscan  cities  took  part  in  the  war  against  Rome.  Soon  the  whole 
of  Etruria,  which  was  still  independent,  was  in  arms  against  the 
destroyer  of  Italian  liberty.  Siege  of  the  Roman  border  fortress, 
Sutrium.  The  victorious  advance  of  the  consul  Q.  Fabius  Rullianus 
through  the  Cimmian  forest,  and  his  victory  at  the  Vadimonian 
lake  (310)  caused  the  powerful  cities  of  Perusia,  Cortona,  Arretium, 
to  withdraw  from  the  coalition  against  Rome,  and  effected  after 
308  a  provisional  truce  throughout  Etruria.  The  Umhrians,  Pi- 
centini,  Marsians,  Frentanians,  Pcelignians,  who  had  joined  the  Ital- 
ian coalition,  continued  the  war,  and  were  ultimately  joined  by  the 
Hernicans.  The  fortune  of  war  for  a  short  time  favored  the  Sam- 
nites and  their  allies,  but  the  Romans  soon  acquired  a  decided  ascen- 
dency. L.  Papirius  Cursor  defeated  the  Sanniites  in  a  great  battle 
(309).  Nuceria,  the  last  Campanian  town  in  alliance  with  the  Sam- 
nites, was  attacked  by  the  Romans  by  land  and  sea,  and  forced  to 
surrender.  First  appearance  of  a  Roman  war  fleet.  The  con- 
sul L.  Postumius  invaded  Samnium  from  the  Adriatic  Sea  ;  another 


106  Ancient  History.  B.  c. 

Roman  army  advanced  from  Campania.  A  decisive  victory  of  the 
Romans  and  the  capture  of  Bovianum  (305),  the  capital  of  the 
Samnite  league,  ended  the  war.  The  Samnites  begged  for  peace,  and 
with  their  Sabellian  allies  obtained  a  renewal  of  the  old  treaties  and 
equality  with  Rome. 

Foundation  of  numerous  Roman  colonies  and  several  military  roads  ; 
the  Hemican  league  was  dissolved  ;  the  Volscians  and  jEquians  were 
obliged  to  receive  Roman  citizenship  without  suffrage.  Construction 
of  two  great  military  roads  from  Rome  :  the  northern  (later  called 
Via  Flaminia)  extended  to  Namia  (Nequinum)  ;  the  southern  (later 
Via  Valeria)  extended  by  way  of  Carsioli  to  Alba  Fucentia  (i.  e.  on 
lake  Fucinus),  the  key  to  the  territory  of  the  Marsi. 

298-290.     Third  war  against  the  Samnites  and  the  other 
Italians. 

Cause :  The  Samnites  succeeded  in  bringing  men  of  their  party  into 
power  throughout  Lucania,  and  concluded  a  league  with  the  Lucanians 
in  order  to  risk  a  final  struggle  for  the  independence  of  Italy.  New 
rising  among  the  Etruscans. 

The  consul  L.  Cornelius  Scipio  (whose  sarcophagus,  with  an  old 
Latin  inscription,!  discovered  in  1780,  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  Vati- 
can Museum)  forced  the  Lucanians  to  abjure  their  alliance  with  Sam- 
nium.  297,  victory  of  Rullianus  at  Tifernum;  victory  of  P.  Decius  Mus 
at  Maluentum.  In  296  the  desperate  exertions  of  the  Samnites  en- 
abled them  to  place  three  armies  in  the  field  :  one  to  defend  their 
own  country,  one  for  Campania,  while  the  third  was  conducted  by  its 
commander  Gellius  Egnatius  throvigh  the  Marsian  and  Umhrian  lands 
to  Etruria.  This  prevented  the  Etruscans  from  concluding  the  peace 
which  they  had  negotiated  with  Rome  and  conjured  up  the  old  coali- 
tion of  the  Italians,  which  was  now  joined  by  Gallic  tribes.  Great  prep- 
parations  in  Rome.  The  consuls  Q.  Fabius  Rullianus  and  P.  Decius 
Mus  advanced  to  Umbria  with  60,000  men,  where  in  295  the  deci- 
sive battle  of  Sentinum  was  fought,  and  by  the  devotion  of  P.  De- 
cius Mus  (Livius,  X.  28)  after  a  long  contest  ended  in  favor  of  the 
Romans.  Dissolution  of  the  army  of  the  coalition,  the  Gauls  scat- 
tered, the  Samnites  returned  to  Samnium,  the  Umbrians  submitted, 
the  Etruscans  asked  for  peace  in  the  next  year  (294).  The  war  lasted 
in  Samnium  four  years  longer  with  varying  fortune.  In  293  the  Sam- 
nites suffered  a  severe  defeat  at  Aquilonia  from  L.  Papirius  Cursor 
and  Spurius  Carvilius.  In  292  the  Samnites  gained  their  last  victory 
under  the  command  of  Gavius  Pontius  the  younger. 

Finally  the  Sanmites  concluded  peace  with  the  consul  M\  Curius 
Dentatus,  as   it  seems,  without  ceding   territory ;   but   the  Romans 

1  This  inscription,  which  it  is  conjectured  from  linguistic  reasons,  was  en- 
graved some  time  after  the  death  of  Scipio,  was  :  — 

Cornelius  Lucius  Scipio  Barbdtus 

Gnnivod pntre  prof/ndtus  fortis  vir  sapiensque 

quoiiis  forma  virtutvi  pmisuma  (  parissinia)  y«ii 

co'nsol  censor  auHUs  queifuit  apud  vos 

Taurasid  Cisnuna  Sdmnio  cepit 

cubigit  omne  Loucdnam  qpsidesque  abdoucit. 


B.  C.  Homan  History.  107 

thereby  gained  a  chance  to  strengthen  their  power  in  the  rest  of 
Italy. 

This  was  accomplished  by  the  foundation  of  new  colonies  which 
should  serve  as  checks  on  the  Italians,  especially  MirUumoe  and  Sin- 
uessa  in  the  territory  of  the  Auruncans,  Hatria  in  Picenum,  Venusia 
in  Apulia.  The  Sabines  were  obliged  to  become  subject  to  Rome, 
after  a  short  and  feeble  resistance.  At  this  time,  after  the  Samnite 
wars,  the 

286  (?).     Hortensian  law  (lex  Hortensia)  was  passed.    Thereby 
it  was  settled  that  all  decrees  of  the  comitia  tributa  should 
be  binding  on  all  citizens.     This  was  accomplished  by  the 
dictator  Hortensius  after  a  dangerous  uprising  of  the  plebeians, 
who  had  been  unable  to  come  to  terms  with  the  opposite  party 
in  regard  to  a  reduction  of  debts,  and  had  withdrawn  to  the 
Janiculus  (last  secessio  plehis).     About  this  time  questions  of 
peace  and  alliance  began  to  be  submitted  to  the  comitia  tri- 
buta. 
By  the  lex    Mdenia    the  second  Publilian  law  (that  the  curiae,  or 
the  narrow  patrician  senate,  should  assent  beforehand  to  the  resolves, 
see  p.  102)  was  extended  to  the  elections  which  took  place  in  the 
comitia  ceuturiata.     Nevertheless,  the  real  importance  of  the  public 
assemblies  was  declining  ;  they  became  more  and  more  instruments 
in  the  hands  of  the  presiding  officers.    After  a  short  truce  in  Italy,  in 
consequence  of  the  peace  with  the  Samnites,  there  broke  out  a 

285-282.     vrar  between  Rome  and  a  new  Italian  coalition. 

Canse  :  The  inhabitants  of  Thurii  being  attacked  by  the  Lucanians 
and  Bruttians,  sought  help  from  the  Romans.  Alliance  of  the  Lucan- 
ians and  Bruttians  with  the  Etruscans,  Umbrians,  and  Gauls  of  north- 
em  Italy.  The  annihilation  of  a  Roman  army  at  Arretium  by  Senonian 
\nercenaries  of  the  Etruscans  was  terribly  avenged  by  the  Romans. 
The  Gallic  tribe  of  the  Senones  was  in  part  slaughtered,  in  part 
driven  from  its  home  in  Urabria.  A  victory  of  the  Romans  over  the 
aorth  Italians  and  their  Gallic  allies  by  Lake  Vadimonium  (283), 
and  another  at  Populonia  (282),  inclined  the  Gauls  to  peace.  After 
a  victory  of  the  consul  C.  Fabricius  over  the  Lucanians  at  Thurii  the 
non-Dorian  Greek  cities  joined  the  Romans.  Locri,  Croton,  and  Thurii 
received  Roman  garrisons.     This  advance  of  the  Romans  led  to  the 

282-272.    War  with  TarentTim. 

Special  cause:  Old  treaties  with  Tarentum  prohibited  Roman 
ships  of  war  from  passing  the  promontory  of  Lacinium.  A  Roman 
war  fleet  on  its  way  to  the  Umbrian  coast  anchored  in  the  harbor  of 
Tarentum.  The  people,  incited  by  demagogues  in  the  assembly,  at- 
tacked the  vessels,  and  captured  five,  whose  crews  were  either  put  to 
death  or  sold  into  slavery.  A  Roman  embassy  which  demanded  rep- 
aration in  Tarentum  was  insulted. 

A  Roman  army  advanced  into  the  Tarentine  territory.  The  Taren- 
tines  called  to  their  assistance  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  a  renowned 
general  and  leader  of  mercenaries,  who  had  long  meditated  the  plan 
of  conquering  for  himself  and  the  Hellenic  nation  a  new  empire  in  the 


108  Ancient  History.  b.  o. 

west.  Pyrrhus  at  first  sent  Milon  with  3000  Epirotes  to  Tarentum 
(281)  ;  he  himself  landed  in  Italy,  the  following  year,  with  an  army 
of  25,000  men  {Epirotes,  Macedonians,  Greeks,  etc.)  and  twenty  ele- 
phants. The  war  between  Pyrrhus  and  the  Romans  was  a  contest  of 
an  army  of  mercenaries  against  miUtia,  of  a  military  monarchy  against 
the  government  of  a  senate.  Strict  discipline  maintained  by  the  king 
in  Tarentum  ;  the  theatres  were  closed,  the  death  penalty  imposed  on 
evasion  of  military  service.  Great  preparations  at  Rome  ;  even  the 
proletarii,  generally  free  from  military  service,  were  enrolled.  One 
Roman  army  was  sent  to  Etruria,  the  main  army  to  lower  Italy.  In 
the 

280.     Battle  of  Heraclea,  near  the  Siris, 

the  Romans  were  defeated,  after  a  struggle  whose  result  was  long 
doubtful,  by  the  phalanx  and  the  elephants.  Great  losses  of  Pyrrhus. 
The  Bruttians,  Lucanians,  and  Samnites  joined  the  king.  The  offer 
of  peace  made  by  Pyrrhus  to  the  Romans  through  Cineas  was 
haughtily  rejected  by  the  senate.  Speech  of  the  blind  consular  Ap~ 
pius  Claudius.  Pyrrhus  advanced  as  far  as  Anagnia  in  Campania,  but 
there  halted  and  returned  to  lower  Italy,  as  two  Roman  armies  took 
the  field  against  him,  and  the  allies  of  the  Romans  remained  faithful. 
Roman  embassy  (C.  Fabricius)  sent  to  Pyrrhus  to  treat  for  an  ex- 
change of  prisoners.  In  the  following  year  the  two  armies,  each 
numbering  with  the  allied  troops  70,000  men,  met  in  the  bloody 
279.     Battle  of  A(u)soulum, 

in  Apulia,  which  lasted  two  days,  and  in  which  Pyrrhus  was 
victor,  but  again  suffered  enormous  loss. 
The  Syracusans,  who,  since  the  death  of  Agathocles  (289,  p.  20), 
had  been  hard  pressed  by  the  Carthaginians,  called  for  aid  upon 
Pyrrhus,  who  gladly  gave  heed  to  the  request,  but  left  a  garrison  in 
Tarentum.  Offensive  and  defensive  alliance  of  Rome  and  Car- 
thage (279) ;  a  Carthaginian  fleet  appeared  off  the  coast  of  Ital^, 
but  soon  returned  to  Sicily.  The  Roman's  conduct  of  the  war  in 
Italy  was  at  first  feeble,  owing  to  their  great  losses,  but  they  soon 
captured  all  the  cities  on  the  south  coast  excepting  Tarentum  and 
Rhegium:  After  two  years'  absence  (p.  20),  Pyrrhus  again  landed 
in  Italy.  He  started  to  assist  the  Samnites,  who  were  hard  pressed 
by  the  Romans,  but  was  completely  defeated  in  the 
275.     Battle  of  Beneventum. 

1300  prisoners  and   4  elephants   fell   into  the  hands  of  the 
victors.      Despairing  of    success  against  Rome,  Pyrrhus   re- 
turned to  Epirus,  leaving  a  garrison  in  Tarentum.     Not  until 
after  the  death   of   Pyrrhus,    which    took   place    in    272   at 
Argos,  did  Milon  surrender  the  city  and  fortress  of  Tarentum 
to  the  Romans,  on  condition  of  free  departure.     The  Taren- 
tines  were  obliged  to  deliver  up  their  arms  and  ships,  and 
destroy  their  walls,  but  retained  their  own  municipal  admin- 
istration. 
After  the  fall  of  Tarentum,  subjugation  of  the  Lucanians,  Sam- 
nites, and  Bruttians.  All  were  compelled  to  cede  portions  of  their  ter- 
ritories and  to  receive  colonies  (see  below).     In  270  capture  of  Rhe" 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  10^ 

gium,  which  had  heen  for  ten  years  in  the  hands  of  Campanian  muti- 
neers, who  were  now  punished  with  death.  In  268  the  Picentini  were 
defeated  and  a  large  number  of  them  transferred  to  Campania.  The 
subjugation  of  Italy  to  the  Rubicon  and  Macra  was  completed  by  the 
defeat  of  the  Sallentini  in  Calabria,  266.  As  regards  the  relation  of 
the  conquered  towns  to  Rome  we  must  distinguish: 

I.  Municipal  cities  (municipid),  i.  e.  communities  having  Roman 
citizenship  without  suffrage  and  with  no  claim  to  a  public  office  at 
Rome  (sine  suffragio  etj'ure  honorum).  They  had  the  burdens  but  not 
the  privileges  of  Roman  citizens.  Some  places  were  permitted  to 
keep  the  administration  of  their  municipal  affairs  under  officials  of 
their  own  choosing  ;  in  others  the  municipal  constitution  was  entirely 
abolished. 

II.  Colonies  (colonicE),  i.  e.  Roman  strongholds  and  fortresses. 
Many  conquered  towns  had  to  cede  a  part  of  their  land,  which  was 
then  divided  among  poor  Roman  citizens,  who  retained  aU  their  rights 
of  citizenship,  and  thenceforward  formed  the  ruling  class  in  the  col- 
onies, like  the  patricians,  while  the  old  population  was  reduced  to 
inhabitants  having  no  political  rights.  The  Latin  colonies  are  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Roman  colonies;  the  former  owed  their  establish- 
ment to  the  Latin  League,  but  had  been  further  developed  after  its 
dissolution,  in  that  the  senate  distributed  lands  among  Latin  or 
Roman  citizens,  who  renounced  their  Jus  suffragii  et  honorum.  In  the 
municipalities,  as  in  the  colonies,  the  jtirisdiction  was  in  the  hands  of 
a  prefect  {proefectus  iuri  dicundo)  appointed  by  the  prcetor  urbanus 
(p.  101). 

III.  Allies  (socii,  civitates  foederata),  whose  relation  to  Rome  was 
regulated  by  treaty,  who  had  for  the  most  part  their  own  administra- 
tion and  jurisdiction,  and  were  freed  from  service  in  the  legion,  but 
were  obliged  to  furnish  auxiliary  troops  or  ships. 

THIRD  PERIOD. 

Punic  Wars.     From  the  Beginning  of  Rome's  universal  Em- 
pire, to  the  Destruction  of  Carthage  and  Corinth. 

(264-146). 

264-241.     First  Punio  War.     Contest  over  Sicily. 

For  the  earlier  history  of  the  Punic  people  (Carthaginians)  see 
p.  16,  etc. 

Cause  of  the  war :  The  ill-feeling  which  had  long  existed  between 
Rome,  the  first  land  power,  and  Carthage,  the  first  sea  power,  of  the 
west,  and  which  had  only  been  waived  for  a  moment  during  the  at- 
tack of  Pyrrhus,  who  represented  the  Hellenic  states  which  were 
hostile  to  both  powers  (pp.  76  and  108).  Since  311  the  Romans  had 
endeavored  to  form  a  fleet  of  war.  About  this  time  establishment 
at  Rome  of  two  commanders  of  the  fleet  (duumviri  navales),  later  (267) 
of  4  qucBstors  of  the  fleet  (qucestores  classici). 

Special  cause  :  The  Mamertines,  i.  e.  men  of  Mars,  formerly 
Campanian  mercenaries  in  the  pay  of  Agathocles  (p.  20),  had  seized 
the  city  of  Messana  and  put  the  male  population  to  death.   They  were 


110  Ancient  History.  B.  c. 

besieged  by  king  Hiero  II.  of  Syracuse.  Part  of  their  number  sought 
aid  from  ^he  Carthaginians,  another  part  from  the  Romans.  The 
Roman  senate  hesitated  ;  the  assemblies  resolved  to  grant  the  assist- 
ance asked  {^IQo).  A  Roman  fleet,  consisting  principally  of  the  ships 
of  the  south  Italian  allies,  and  the  advance  guard  of  the  army,  arrived 
in  Rhegium.  Meanwhile  the  Mamertines  had  admitted  Carthagin- 
ian ships  to  the  harbor  and  received  a  Carthaginian  garrison  in  the 
citadel.  The  Roman  advance  guard  crossed  the  strait,  occupied  Mes- 
sana,  and  drove  the  garrison  from  the  citadel.  The  Carthaginians 
declared  war. 

264.  A  Carthaginian  fleet  besieged  the  Romans  in  Messana.  The 
consul  Appius  Claudius  Caudex  crossed  the  strait  with  the 
main  body  of  the  army  and  relieved  Messana.  Unsuccessful 
attempt  to  take  Syracuse.  The  consul  returned  to  Italy, 
leaving  a  garrison  m  Messana. 
263.  Two  Roman  armies  crossed  to  Sicily.  Victory  of  the  consul 
M.  Valerius  Maximus,  called  Messalla,  over  the  Carthaginians 
and  Syracusans.  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse,  deserted  the  Cartha- 
ginians and  joined  the  Romans,  who  advanced  to  the  south 
coast  of  Sicily. 
262.  Agrigentum  captured  by  the  Romans,  after  defeat  of  a 
Carthaginian  army  under  Hanno,  advancing  to  its  relief.  The 
Romans  resolved  to  construct  a  large  fleet.  They  built  the 
first  five-decker  1  (penteris)  after  the  model  of  a  stranded 
Carthaginian  ship. 
260.  First  naval  expedition  of  the  Romans  against  Lipdra,  with 
17  ships,  had  an  unfortunate  end,  the  whole  squadron  with  the 
consul  Cn.  Cornelius  Scipio  being  captured  by  the  Carthagin- 
ians. Immediately  afterwards,  however, 
260.  First  naval  victory  of  the  Romans  under  C.  Duilius  at 
Mylae,  west  of  Messana.  Boarding  bridges.  Special  hon- 
ors paid  to  Duilius.  Columna  rostrata  in  the  Forum.  The  war 
was  continued  in  the  following  years  with  changing  fortune  ; 
the  Carthaginians  under  Hamilcar  maintained  themselves  in 
the  western  portion  of  the  island. 
257.     Drawn  battle  at  sea,  off  the  promontory  of  Tyndaris. 

The  Roman  senate  decided  to  attempt  a  landing  in  Africa.  A 
fleet  of  330  ships  under  the  consuls  M.  Atilius  Regulus  and  L.  Man- 
lius  Volso  sailed  for  the  southern  coast  of  Sicily,  where,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Himera,  the  troops  were  taken  on  board.  A  Carthaginian 
fleet  of  350  vessels  attempted  to  stop  the  expedition,  but  in  the  great 
256.     Naval  battle  of  Ecnomus  (south  coast  of  Sicily) 

it  was  completely  defeated.  What  was  left  of  the  Carthagin- 
ian fleet  took  up  position  before  Carthage  to  protect  the  city.  The 
Roman  consuls  landed  to  the  east  of  the  city  at  Clupea  and  laid  waste 
the  Carthaginian  territory.  Manlius  returned  to  Italy  with  half  the 
army;  Regulus  remained  with  15,000  men.  The  Carthaginians  being 
defeated  sued  for  peace.  Regulus  demanded  the  cession  of  Sicily 
and  Sardinia,  surrender  of  prisoners  and  all  vessels  of  war  except  one, 

1  Not  the  first  ship  of  war  ;  the  Romans  had  long  had  vessels  of  war  and 
three-deckers,  see  pp.  105,  107,  109. 


B.  C.  Roman   History.  Ill 

and  acknowledgment  of  Rome's  supremacy.  Stung  by  these  inso- 
lent demands,  the  Carthaginians  resolved  upon  most  energetic  prepa- 
rations, and  levied  troops  in  Greece,  whence  numerous  bands  of  mer- 
cenaries, and  among  them  the  Spartan  Xauthippus,  went  to  Africa. 
The  Carthaginian  army  being  thus  greatly  strengthened  (the  ele-. 
phants  numbered  100), 
255.     Regulus  was  defeated  at  Tunes 

and  captured.  A  part  of  the  Roman  army  escaped  to  Clupea. 
The  senate  at  once  sent  a  fleet  to  Africa,  which,  after  gaining  a  naval 
victory  over  the  Carthaginians  at  the  promontory  of  Hermes,  took  ou 
board  the  Roman  army,  which  was  surrounded  at  Clupea  ;  but  on  the 
return  voyage  three  fourths  of  the  ships  were  lost  in  a  storm.  The 
Carthaginians  reopened  the  war  in  Sicily,  landing  in  Lilybseum  under 
Hasdrubal,  son  of  Haimo.  The  Romans  built  a  new  fleet. 
254.  Capture  of  Panormus  by  the  Romans.  In  the  following 
year  (253)  the  Roman  fleet  crossed  to  Africa  and  laid  waste 
the  coast.  On  the  return  voyage  from  Sicily  to  Italy  it  was  almost 
annihilated  by  a  storm.  The  Roman  senate  declined  to  continue  the 
naval  warfare.  On  land  the  Romans  gained  the 
251.     Victory  of  Panormus 

over  Hasdrubal  under  the  consul  Caecilius  Metellus,  who  at 
his  triumph  in  Rome  exliibited  over  100  elephants. 
The  story  of  the  embassy  of  Regulus  to  Rome  falls  in  the  period 
subsequent  to  this  victory.  It  is,  like  the  story  of  the  cruelties 
inflicted  upon  him  by  the  Carthaginians,  probably  an  invention  of  a 
later  time.  The  Romans  renewed  the  naval  war.  They  besieged 
Lilyhcmm  in  vain.  The  consul  P.  Claudius  Pulcher  in  the 
249.     Sea-fight  at  Drepanum 

defeated  by  the  Carthaginians.  Capture  of  a  great  number 
of  Roman  ships.  After  two  more  Roman  fleets  had  been  destroyed 
by  storms  on  the  south  coast  of  Sicily,  the  Romans,  for  the  second 
time,  abandoned  naval  warfare. 

248-242.  Campaign  by  land  on  the  south  side  of  Sicily.  The  Car- 
thaginian general  Hamiloar,  called  Barak  or  Barcas  (i.  e. 
lightning)  not  only  defended  himself  for  6  years  successfully  against 
the  Romans,  first  on  Mt.  Eircte  (Monte  Pellegrino,  near  Palermo),  then 
on  Eryx,  but  also  annoyed  the  Italian  coasts  by  privateers.  Through 
the  contributions  of  rich  patriots  at  Rome,  a  new  fleet  was  finally 
built  entirely  at  private  cost.  With  this  fleet  the  consul  C.  Lutatiua 
Catulus  won  the  decisive 
241.     Victory  at  the  ^gatian  Islands 

(opposite  Lilybseum),  over  the  Carthaginian  fleet  under  Hanno. 
Peace :  I.  The  Carthaginians  gave  up  all  claims  to  Sicily.  II. 
They  paid  3200  talents  (J!$4,000,000)  war  indemnity  in  ten  years. 
The  larger  western  part  of  Sicily  became  the  first  Roman  prov- 
ince ;  the  smaller  eastern  ^  part  continued  under  the  supremacy  of 
Syracuse,  which  was  allied  with  Rome. 

-  The  territory  of  Syracuse,    Acrce,  Leontini,   Megdra.   Helorum,   Netunif 
Tauromenium.    Corap.  Marquardt-Mommsen,  Edm.  Alth.,  IV.  91. 


112  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

243  (?).     In  this  period,  probably,  occurred  the  democratic  reform 

of  the  constitution  of  the  centuries,  concerning  the  de- 
tails of  which  but  little  is  known  with  certainty.  Only  this  is  clear  : 
that  the  right  of  first  vote  was  taken  from  the  centuries  of  equites 
and  that  henceforward  the  century  which  should  cast  the  first  vote 
(centuria  prcerogativa) *was  determined  by  lot.  It  is  probable  that  the 
centuries  from  now  on  formed  a  subdivision  of  the  wards  (tribus).  It 
is  further  probable  that  the  number  of  centuries  was  increased;  per- 
haps an  equal  number  of  centuries  (i.  e.  voting  bodies)  was  estab- 
lished for  each  class  (p.  92),  and  in  this  manner  the  preponderance 
of  the  first  class  was  abolished. ^ 
238.     The  Romans  made  use  of  an  insurrection  of  the  mercenaries 

and  Libyan  subjects  against  Carthage  to  extort  from  the  Car- 
thaginians the  cession  of  Sardinia.  This  island  was  at  a  later  time 
united  with  the  island  of  Corsica  (formerly  Etruscan,  afterwards 
conquered  by  the  Romans)  to  form  one  province.  For  the  present 
the  Romans  were  satisfied  with  the  occupation  of  the  coasts. 
229-228.     War  with  the  Illyrians  of  Scodra,  brought  about  by  the 

piracies  and  acts  of  violence  committed  by  these  tribes,  and 
their  refusal  to  make  the  reparation  demanded  by  the  senate.  A 
Roman  fleet  of  200  ships  soon  brought  the  lUyrian  pirates  to  terms, 
and  compelled  the  queen  Teuta,  the  guardian  of  her  son,  to  accept 
the  following  conditions  :  release  of  all  Grecian  cities  from  her  sway, 
abandonment  of  piracy,  limitation  of  navigation,  and  payment  of  a 
tribute.  The  Greeks  attested  their,  gratitude  to  the  senate  by  admit- 
ting all  Romans  to  the  Isthmian  games  and  the  Eleusinian  mysteries 
(p.  44).  The  lasting  result  of  the  war  was  the  firm  establishment  of 
Roman  superiority  in  the  Adriatic  Sea  and  supremacy  over  Corey ra^ 
Apollonia,  Epidamnus,  and  some  neighboring  tribes.  In  219  the  re- 
newal of  the  war  led  to  the  subjugation  of  a  part  of  lUyria  by  L. 
jEmilius  Paullus. 
225-222.     Subjugation  of  Cisalpine  Gaul 

brought  about  by  a  dangerous  invasion  of  the  Gallic  tribes 
inhabiting  the  plains  of  the  Po  (except  the  Cenomani)  joined  by 
numerous  bands  of  transalpine  Gauls.  The  Celts  entered  Etruria 
70,000  strong  and  advanced  upon  Rome.  The  Romans  sent  two 
consular  armies  against  them,  which  were  reinforced  by  a  third. 
Surrounded  by  these  forces  the  Gauls  were  defeated  and  annihilated 
in  the 
225.  Battle  of  Telamon, 

south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Umbro.  The  consul  C.  Atilius 
Regulus  fell,  10,000  Gauls  and  one  of  their  military  leaders  were 
captured,  nearly  all  the  rest  fell  or  killed  themselves.  The  Romans 
entered  Gallia  Cispadana,  and  the  inhabitants,  the  Boii,  submitted. 
The  Romans  crossed  the  Po,  with  severe  losses  (223),  and  defeated 
the  Insubres.  After  two  more  victories  in  the  following  year  (222) 
the  consul  Cn.  Scipio  captured  Mediolanum,  the  capital  of  the  In- 
subres, and  Comum.  To  strengthen  their  power  the  Romans  founded 
the  fortresses  of   Placentia,   Cremona,   and    Mutina.     The   military 

1  Becker,  Rom.  Alterth.  II.3,  p.  9,  foil. 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  113 

road  tc  Spoletium  was  extended  across  the  Apennines  to  the  Adri- 
atic Sea,  and  along  the  coast  to  Ariminum  (ViaFlaminia).  Further 
measures  for  the  firmer  establishment  of  their  power  in  Cisalpine 
Gaul  were  interrupted  by  the 

218-201.     Second  Punic  ^War.^ 

Causes  :  Envy  of  the  Romans,  excited  by  the  new  prosperity  of 
Carthage,  springing  from  her  recent  acquisitions  ui  Spain,  and  the 
efforts  of  the  party  of  the  Barcse  to  take  revenge  on  Rome. 

Special  causes  :  The  conquests  of  Hamilcar  Barcas  in  south- 
ern and  western  Spain  (236-228)  being  successfully  pursued  after 
his  death  by  his  son-in-law  Hasdrubal,  the  Romans  concluded  a  treaty 
with  the  Grecian  cities  Zacynthus  or  Saguntum,  north  of  Valenciaf 
and  Emporice,  now  Ampurias,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  com- 
pelled the  Carthaginians  to  promise  to  neither  attack  these  cities  nor 
cross  the  Ebro  with  the  purpose  of  making  further  conquests. 
After  the  murder  of  Hasdrubal  (221)  the  army  chose  the  son  of 
Hamilcar  Barcas,  Hannibal,  then  28  years  old,  for  their  general. 
In  order  to  make  war  unavoidable  even  against  the  will  of  the 
Carthaginian  government,  Hannibal  conquered  and  destroyed  Sagun- 
tum (219)  after  a  brave  resistance  of  the  inhabitants  for  eight  months. 
A  refusal  to  deliver  up  Haimibal  as  demanded  by  a  Roman  embassy 
in  Carthage  was  followed  by  a  declaration  of  war  on  the  part  of  the 
Romans. 

The  plan  of  the  Romaas  to  land  their  main  army  in  Africa,  while  a 
second  army  should  engage  the  Carthaginian  troops  in  Spain,  was 
thwarted  by 
218.     Hannibal's  daring  expedition  to  Italy 

by  land.2  Leaving  a  sufficient  number  of  troops  in  Spain, 
Hannibal  crossed  the  Pyrenees  with  50,000  foot,  9000  horse,  and  37 
elephants,  traversed  Gaul  not  far  from  the  coast  by  way  of  Narho 
(Narbonne)  and  Nemausus  (Nimes).  The  Roman  consul  P.  Cor- 
nelius Scipio,  who  had  stopped  at  Massilia  on  the  voyage  to  Spain, 
heard  of  Hannibal's  march,  but  his  attempt  to  prevent  the  Cartha- 
ginians from  crossing  the  Rhodanus  (Rhone)  with  a  division  of  his 
army  came  too  late  ;  the  Carthaginian  army  had  already  passed  the 
river  above  ^yem'o  (Avignon).  Cavalry  skirmish.  The  Roman  consul 
sent  his  brother  Cn.  Scipio  with  the  main  part  of  the  army  to  Spain, 
while  he  himself  returned  with  a  small  force  to  northern  Italy 
(Pisce).  Hannibal  marched  up  the  Rhone  to  Vienna,  then  turned 
eastward  through  the  territory  of  the  Allohroges  and  Cen^rones,  where 
he  forced  a  way  with  great  loss,  crossed  the  Alps,  still  fighting,  by  the 
pass  of  the  Little  St.  Bernard,  and  after  indescribable  exertions 
and  severe  losses  reached  the  valley  of  the  Dora  Baltea  with  about 
26,000  men  and  a  few  elephants.  In  upper  Italy  a  small  Roman 
army  was  engaged  with  the  revolted  Gauls.  Hannibal  defeated  the 
consul  Scipio^  who  had  gone  on  before  with  the  cavalry  and  light- 
armed  foot  soldiers,  in  the 

1  Also  called  the  Hnnnihalic  War  {Bellum  Hnnnibnlicum). 

2  See  Kiepert,  Atlas  Ant.  Tab.  VII.  and  X.  The  topographical  ques* 
tions  have  been  settled  by  the  Englishmen   Wickham  and  Cramer. 

8 


114  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

218.     Cavalry  engagement  on  the  Ticinus,  a  northern  branch  of 
Sept.    the  Po.     The  wounded  consul  was  rescued  by  his  seventeen- 
years-old   son,  the  future  "Africanus."      Reinforced  by  the 
Gauls,  Hannibal  defeated  in  the 
218.   Battle  of  the  Trebia,  a  southern  branch  of  the  Po,  the  other 
Dec.     consul,  Tib.  Sempronius  Longus,  who  had  been  hastily  recalled 
from  Sicily  before  the  commencement  of  his  African  expedi- 
tion, and  now  commanded   the   united    Roman    armies  ;  the 
remnant  of  the  Roman  force  threw  itself  into  the  fortresses 
Placentia  and  Cremona. 
In  northern  Italy  Hannibal  organized  the  national  insurrection  of 
the  Cisalpine  Gauls  ;  over  60,000  joined  his  army.     In  Rome  two 
new  consular  armies  were  placed  in  the  field  for  the  next  campaign. 
One  under  Cn.  Servilius  took  the  Via  Flaminia  to  Ariminum  in  Um- 
bria,  the  other  under  C.  Flaminius  the  Via  Cassia  to  Arretium  in 
Etruria,  to  meet  a  possible  attack  by  the  Carthaginians.     After  Han- 
nibal had  released  without  ransom  all  prisoners  belonging  to  the 
Roman  allies,  and  by  their  influence  had  incited  all  Italy  to  desert 
Rome,  he  crossed  the  Apennines,  and  marched,  unexpectedly  to  the 
Romans,  through  the  swampy  regions  about  the  Amo.     Severe  losses. 
Hannibal  himself  lost  an  eye.     By  this  march  he  flanked  the  Roman 
defensive  position.     The  consul  Flaminius  followed  him  in  all  haste, 
and  allowed  himself  to  be  decoyed  by  Hannibal  into  a  narrow  pass. 
In  the 

217.  Battle  of  Lake  Trasimene,  between  Cortona  and  Perusia, 
the  Roman  army  was  partly  slaughtered,  partly  made  pris- 
oner (in  all  30,000  men).  Terror  at  Rome.  Preparations  for  the 
defence  of  the  city,  destruction  of  the  bridges  oyer  the  Tiber.  Ap- 
pointment of  Q.  Fabius  Mazimus  as  dictator.  Hannibal,  how- 
ever, did  not  march  upon  Rome,  but  passed  the  fortress  of  Spoletium 
after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  surprise  it,  traversed  Umbria  across 
the  Apennines  to  Picenum  and  the  Adriatic  Sea.  There  he  rested  his 
army,  reorganized  it  after  the  Italian  system,  and  established  com- 
munication with  Carthage  by  sea.  Then  he  advanced  southward. 
His  hope  that  the  Sabellian  tribes  would  join  him  was  not  ful- 
filled ;  most  of  the  cities  closed  their  gates  upon  him. 

After  the  dictator  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  had  united  his  2  new  legions 
with  the  army  of  Ariminum,  he  followed,  at  a  discreet  distance,  the 
Carthaginian  army,  which  went  through  Samnium  to  Apulia,  and 
passed  by  Luceria  to  Arpi.  Fabius  avoided  a  pitched  battle  (hence 
his  nickname  Cunctator,  delayer),  but  tried  successfully  to  weaken 
the  Carthaginian  army  by  numerous  skirmishes.  Hannibal  crossed 
the  Apennines  again,  and  went  through  Samnium  to  Capua,  which 
he  tried  in  vain  to  seduce  from  Rome.  The  dictator  followed  and 
obstructed  the  Carthaginian  march  on  the  Voltumus,  where  Hamiibal 
gained  the  pass  by  a  stratagem  only  (Livius,  XXII.  16).  After  he 
had  severely  harried  the  Sabellian  tribes,  Hannibal  returned  to 
Apulia. 

Meantime  the  military  conduct  of  Fabius  Maximits  had  so  dis- 
pleased the  Roman  populace  that  they  entrusted  one  half  the  army 
to  the  independent  command  of  M.  Minitcivts,  master  of  the  horse. 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  115 

who  had  had  a  fortunate  skirmish  with  the  Carthaginians,  as  a  second 
dictator.^  Tlie  new  dictator  attacked  Hannibal,  but  was  defeated,  and 
only  saved  from  complete  aimihilation  by  the  first  dictator,  Fahius 
Maximus. 

The  consuls  for  216  were  the  veteran  general  L.  ^milius  Paul- 
lus,  elected  by  the  optimates,  and  the  incompetent  C.  Terentius 
Varro,  elected  by  the  popular  party  for  the  purpose  of  taking  the 
offensive  against  Hannibal  with  an  army  of  86,000  Romans  and  allies. 
On  the  day  when  he  had  the  decisive  vote  in  the  council  of  war,  Varro 
imprudently  attacked  the  Carthaginians,  who  held  an  advantageous 
position.     The  Romans  suffered  in  the 

216.  Battle  of  Cannae  (in  Apulia,  on  the  Aujidus),  the  most  terri- 
ble defeat  they  ever  experienced  ;  70,000  fell  (among  them 
more  than  eighty  men  of  senatorial  rank  and  the  consul  L.  JEmilius 
Paullus)  ;  the  rest  were  captured  or  dispersed.  Varro,  with  a  small 
troop,  escaped  to  Canusiura. 

In  the  same  year  the  legion  which  had  been  sent  to  Cisalpine  Gaul 
was  almost  entirely  destroyed.  The  secession  of  Capua,  the  Sam- 
nites,  Lucanians,  and  many  cities  of  lower  Italy  from  the  Roman 
alliance  was  the  immediate  consequence  of  the  battle  of  Cannse. 

Admirable  conduct  of  the  Roman  senate.  The  time  of  mourning 
for  the  families  of  the  fallen  was  limited  to  thirty  days.  Hannibal's 
ambassadors,  who  offered  to  exchange  prisoners,  were  refused  entrance 
to  the  city.  A  new  army  was  formed  by  a  levy  of  the  youngest  men 
and  all  who  could  bear  arms,  even  slaves;  they  were  armed  in  part 
out  of  the  ancient  spoils  from  the  temples.  M.  Claudius  Marcel- 
lus,  who  had  approved  himself  in  the  Gallic  war,  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  new  army,  which  jomed  the  remnants  of  the  army  of 
Carnife.  A  second  army  was  conducted  by  the  dictator  M.  Junius. 
The  Romans  successfully  defended  Naples,  Cumce,  and  Nola. 

Carthage  formed  an  alliance  with  Philip  V.  (III.)  of  Macedonia, 
and  Hieronymus,  the  grandson  and  successor  of  Hiero,  of  Syracuse. 
Hannibal  went  into  winter  quarters  at  Capua. 

215.  The  fortune  of  war  turned  in  favor  of  the  Romans.  Q.  Fabius 
Maximus,  Tib.  Sempronius  Gracchus,  the  consuls,  and  M.  Clau- 
dius Marcellus,  pro-consul,  led  three  Roman  armies.     In  the 

215.     Battle  of  Nola, 

Marcellus  defeated  Hannibal,  who  retired  to  Apulia.  Hannibal 
was  obliged  to  assume  the  defensive,  since,  with  the  exception  of  4000 
men,  he  received  no  support  from  Carthage.  The  dispatch  of  rein- 
forcements from  Spain  was  prevented  by  the  successful 

218-211.  War  of  the  Romans  against  the  Carthaginians  in 
Spain. 

The  Romans,  under  P.  Scipio  and  Cn.  Scipio,  defeated  Hasdrubal, 
Hannibal's  brother,  on  the  Iberus  (Ebro),  crossed  this  river,  and  pene- 
trated the  Carthagiman  territory  as  far  as  the  Bcetis  (Guadalquivir). 
There  they  defeated  the  Carthaginians  in  two  encounters  at  Illiturgi 

I  Established  bv  an  inscription  found  in  1862.  See  Mozrunsen,  Rom.  Geich,^ 
1.6,  p.  599,  note.  ' 


116  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

and  Intibili,  and  maintained  themselves  in  southern  Spain,  until  212, 
in  spite  of  varying  fortune.  At  the  same  time  they  were  pressing  the 
Carthaginians  in  Africa  through  their  ally,  Syphax,  king  of  western 
Numidia.  The  alliance  with  Philip  of  Macedon  likewise  brought  no 
help  to  Hannibal.     The 

214-205.     First  Macedonian  war 

was  successfully  conducted  by  the  Romans  with  scanty  forces. 
The  irresolute  Philip  did  not  dare  to  fulfil  his  promise  to  Hannibal  of 
landing  in  Italy,  In  211  the  Romans  brought  about  a  league  of  Gre- 
cian states  against  Philip,  under  the  lead  of  the  .Stolians,  which  was 
joined  by  lUyrian  and  Thracian  chiefs,  and  even  by  King  Attains  of 
Pergamus.  The  war  was,  on  the  whole,  unfavorable  to  Philip.  In 
206  peace  was  concluded  between  Philip  and  the  Romans,  against  the 
wishes  of  the  latter;  but  it  was,  nevertheless,  accepted  by  the  senate. 

The  alliance  with  Syracuse  proved  also  of  no  use  to  Hannibal,  as 
the 

214-210.  War  in  Sicily  (Siege  of  Syracuse)  was  decided  by 
Marcellus  in  favor  of  the  Romans.  After  the  destruction  of 
the  Carthaginian  army  of  relief  under  Hamilcar,  by  defeat  and 
disease  in  the  swampy  lowlands  of  the  Anapus, 

212.  Syracuse  Tvas  captured  and  plundered,  in  spite  of  a  brave 
resistance  (Archimedes). 

In  Italy  Haimibal  gained  possession  of  Tarentum  through  treachery 
(212),  and  laid  siege  to  the  citadel  of  that  city  by  land  and  sea.  Death 
of  Tib.  Sempronius  Gracchus  in  Samnium.  Hannibal  advanced  to 
Campania  and  compelled  the  Romans  to  raise  the  siege  of  Capua, 
after  which  he  defeated  two  Roman  armies  in  Lucania  and  Apulia, 
but  retired  to  Tarentum.     The  Romans  again  laid  siege  to  Capua. 

In  Spain  the  war  took  an  unfavorable  turn  for  Rome  in  this  same 
year,  212.  Both  Scipios  were  defeated  and  killed  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians and  their  ally,  Massinissa,  son  of  the  king  of  eastern  Nu- 
midia (king  himself  in  208).  The  Romans  were  driven  back  over  the 
Ebro. 

211.  Hannibal  attacked  the  Roman  army  before  Capua.  He  was 
repulsed,  and  in  order  to  force  the  Romans  to  raise  the  siege 
he  marched  through  Samnium  to  the  territory  of  the  ^qui  on  the 
later  Via  Valeria,  past  Tibur,  across  the  Anio,  directly  upon  Rome,  and 
encamped  a  mile  from  the  city  (Hannibal  ante  portas  /).  Finding  the 
Romans  prepared  for  defence,  he  retired,  after  ravaging  the  neigh- 
borhood, to  lower  Italy,  without  having  gained  his  end. 
211.     Capua  surrendered  to  the  Romans, 

who  visited  a  terrible  punishment  upon  the  city.  Fifty-three  citi- 
zens were  beheaded,  many  sold  into  slavery  ;  the  community  was  de- 
prived of  the  right  of  self-government.  Hannibal's  attack  on  Rhe- 
gium  and  on  the  citadel  of  Tarentum  having  miscarried,  his  Italian  allies 
abandoned  him,  and  tried  to  make  their  peace  with  the  Romans. 
ViO.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  son  and  nephew  of  the  brothers  who  fell  iu 
Spain,  and  now  25  years  old,  was  sent  to  Spain  with  proeou' 
aular  powers  (Livius,  XXVI.  18). 


p.  c.  Roman  History.  117 

In  Italy  Hannibal  gained  a  victory  over  the  proconsul  Cn.  Fulvius 
at  Herdonea.     In  Sicily  the  Romans  captured  Agrigentum,  slaugh- 
tering the  Carthaginian  garrison  and  selling  the  populace  as  slaves, 
and  reduced  the  whole  island  under  their  power.     In  Spain  Scipio 
crossed  the  Ebro  (209)  and  conquered  Neio  Carthage. 
209.  M.  Marcellus,  having  been  defeated  in  an  encounter  with  Han- 
nibal, gained  a  victory  over  him  in  a  second  battle  on  the  fol- 
lowing day.     Q.  FaUus  Maximus  captured  Tarentum ;  30,000 
Tarentines  were  sold  as  slaves.     Hannibal  retired  to  Meta- 
pontum. 
208.  Marcellus  fell  in  a  cavalry  skirmish  at  Venusia.      Great  ex- 
haustion of  Rome  and  its  allies  in  consequence  of  the  war  in 
its  own  country,  now  in  its  tenth  year. 
In  Spain  Scipio  (208)  pressed  victoriously  southward,  but  fought 
a  drawn  battle  at  Bcecula  with  Hasdruhal,  and  was  unable  to  prevent 
him  from  crossing  the  Pyrenees  on  his  way  to  his  brother  Hannibal. 

Arrived  in  upper  Italy  (207),  Hasdrubal  was  successful  in  inciting 
the  Cisalpine  Gauls  to  arms.  Great  preparations  in  Rome  (23  legions) 
to  prevent  his  union  with  Hannibal,  who  was  advancing  to  meet  him 
through  Lucania  and  Apulia.  The  consul  M.  Livius  Salinator  was 
sent  against  Hasdrubal,  the  consul  C.  Claudius  Nero  against  Hannibal. 
Drawn  battle  at  Grumentum  in  Lucania,  between  Nero  and  Hannibal  y 
the  latter  broke  through  the  enemy,  marched  to  Apulia,  and  encamped 
by  Canusium.  Nero,  who  had  followed  him,  left  a  part  of  the  army 
to  watch  Hannibal,  while  with  the  rest  he  joined  his  colleague  by 
means  of  forced  marches.  The  two  consuls  defeated  Hasdrubal  in 
the  bloody 

207,  Battle  of  Sena  gallica,  not  far  from  the  river  Metaurus. 
Death  of  Hasdrubal.  On  receipt  of  the  news  of  this  defeat 
(the  Romans  threw  the  head  of  Hasdrubal  among  the  Cartha- 
ginian pickets),  Hannibal  retired  to  Bruttium.  In  Spain 
victory  of  Scipio  at  Bcecula  over  Hasdrubal,  son  of  Gisgo. 
206.  After  completing  the  expulsion  of  the  Carthaginians  from  Spain 
by  the  capture  of  Gades  (Cadiz),  and  after  concluding  a  secret 
alliance  with  Massinissa,  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  returned  to  Rome. 
For  the  following  year 
205.  Scipio  was  elected  consul,  and  made  preparations  in  Sicily 
for  an  African  expedition.  Mago,  the  youngest  brother  of 
Hannibal,  landed  at  Genoa  with  the  remnants  of  the  Spanish 
army  of  the  Carthaginians,  and  called  the  Ligurians  to  arms. 
At  once,  the  Romans  levied  three  armies  against  him. 
204.  Scipio  landed  in  Africa.  Massinissa,  who  had  been  driven 
from  his  throne  by  the  Carthaginians,  and  by  Syphax,  husband 
of  HasdrubaVs  daughter  Sophonisbe,  now  their  ally,  joined 
Scipio. 
203.  Scipio  defeated  Hasdrubal,  son  of  Gisgo,  and  Syphax  by  a  night 
attack,  and  threatened  Carthage.  Unsuccessful  negotiations 
for  peace.  The  Carthaginians  recalled  Hannibal  and  Mago 
from  Italy.  The  latter  died  on  the  passage.  Hannibal  em- 
barked at  Croton,  having  previously  massacred  the  Italian  sol- 
diers who  refused  to  accompany  him.  After  fruitless  personal 
negotiations  between  Scipio  and  Hannibal  the 


118  Ancient  History.  B.  a 

202.    Decisive  battle  of  Zama 

was  fought,  wherein  the  Carthaginian  army  was  defeated  and 
annihilated.  Hannibal  escaped  to  Hadrumetum. 
201.  Scipio  granted  the  Carthaginians  peace  on  the  following  con- 
ditions :  1.  Surrender  of  their  Spanish  possessions  and  of  all 
Mediterranean  islands  still  under  their  control.  2.  Transfer  of  the 
kingdom  of  Syphax  to  Massinissa.  3.  Payment  of  a  yearly  tribute 
of  200  talents  ($250,000)  iov  fifty  years.  4.  Surrender  and  destruc- 
tion of  all  ships  of  war  except  ten.  5.  No  war  to  be  undertaken 
without  the  permission  of  Rome.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  who  received 
the  cognomen  of  Afrioanus,  celebrated  his  triumph  in  Rome  with  a 
splendor  never  before  witnessed  {Syphax). 

The  Italian  allies  of  Hannibal  were  in  part  sentenced  to  cede  large 
portions  of  their  territory,  in  part  reduced  to  subjects  of  Rome,  de- 
prived of  their  independence  and  their  right  to  bear  arms  (peregrini 
dediticii).     Foundation  of  numerous  Roman  colonies  in  Lower  Italy. 

In  consequence  of  another  general  rising  of  the  Cisalpine  Gauls  and 
the  Ligurians, 

200-191.  Upper  Italy  was  again  subjugated  after  a  severe  strug- 
gle. Although  the  peoples  of  Transpadane  Gaul  retained 
their  tribal  constitutions  they  soon  became,  with  few  exceptions,  com- 
pletely Latinized.  This  took  place  still  more  quickly  among  the  Cis- 
padane  Gauls  after  the  leading  tribe,  the  Boiif  had  been  almost  exter- 
minated in  war.  Numerous  colonies  were  in  part  founded,  in  part 
reorganized.     Via  ffimilia  from  Ariminum  to  Placentia. 

Spain  was  regarded  as  a  Roman  province  after  205.  It  was 
divided  into  :  1.  Hispania  citenovy  later  Tarraconensis ;  and  2.  Hispa- 
nia  ulterior,  or  Bcetica  and  Lusitania.  The  country  was,  however,  dur- 
ing this  period,  and  a  part  of  the  next,  commonly  in  a  state  of  war. 
In  195  the  consul,  M.  Porcius  Cato,  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
Spaniards,  and  decreed  a  universal  disarmament.  The  insurrections 
soon  began  again.  A  victory  of  the  praetor  L.  jEmilius  Paullus  (189), 
and  another,  still  more  important,  gained  by  the  prsBtor,  C.  Calpur- 
nius,  over  the  Lusitanians  (185),  induced  quiet  for  a  time  in  Hispania 
ulterior.  The  victories  of  Q.  Fulvius  Flaccus  (181)  and  Tiberius  Grac- 
chus (179-178)  partially  subdued  the  Celtiberians  of  Hispania  citerior. 

200-197.     Second  Macedonian  War. 

Cause:  A  Macedonian  force  of  mercenaries  sent,  as  the  senate 
maintained,  by  king  Philip,  had  fought  at  Zama  against  the  Romans. 
King  Attains  of  Pergamus,  the  inhabitants  of  Rhodes  and  Athens  be- 
sought assistance  from  the  Romans  against  King  Philip  V.  (HI.) 
of  Macedonia,  who,  in  alliance  with  Antiochus  III.  was  warring  with 
Egypt  and  also  grievously  troubling  the  supplicants. 

In  the  autumn  of  200  the  Romans  landed  at  Apollonia,  in  lUyria, 
under  P.  Sulpicius  Galba.  The  Roman  fleet  guarded  Piraeus  and 
threatened  Euboea.  Philip  was  repulsed  before  Athens,  and  driven 
from  Central  Greece.  The  Romans,  who  were  joined  in  199  by  the 
^tolians  and  afterwards  by  the  Achceans,  carried  on  the  war  witk 
varying  fortune,  but  without  result,  until  (198)  the  consul,  T.  Quinc- 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  119 

tius  Flamininus,  took  command  of  the  army.     He  subdued  Epirus, 

got  into  the  rear  of  Philip's  strong  position,  and  defeated  the  king 

in  the 

197.  Battle  of  Cynoscephal89  (Kvi/o?  K€<^aAat,  in  Thessaly). 
Peace :  Philip  was  obliged  to  give  up  the  hegemony  of 
Greece,  and  in  general  all  possessions  outside  of  Macedonia 
proper,  and  to  pay  1000  talents  ($1,250,000)  in  ten  years.  He 
was  to  maintain  no  more  than  5000  soldiers  and  five  ships  of 
war,  and  not  to  carry  on  war  beyond  his  own  borders  without 
the  consent  of  Rome.  During  the  Isthmian  games,  T.  Quinc- 
tius  Flamininus  proclaimed,  under  general  rejoicing,  the  de- 
cree of  the  Roman  senate  declaring  the  Greek  states  free 
and  independent.  The  majority  joined  the  Achaean  league. 
The  Romans  limited,  without  destroying,  the  power  of  Nabis^ 
tyrant  of  Sparta,  hoping  thus  to  counterbalance  the  Achaean 
league. 

l95.  At  Carthage  a  democratic  reform  of  the  constitution  was  car- 
ried out  by  the  influence  of  Hannibal.  The  oligarchs  defamed 
Hannibal  before  the  Roman  senate,  which  demanded  that  he  be 
delivered  to  the  Romans.     Hannibal  fled  to  the  East. 

192-189.    War  with  Antiochus  III.,  of  Syria. 

Cause :  Interference  of  the  king  of  Syria  in  Grecian  afiPairs,  and 
of  the  Romans  m  Asiatic  politics  ;  reception  of  Hannibal  at  the  court 
of  Antiochus. 

Antiochus,  deceived  by  the  ^tolians  who  had  fallen  out  with  Rome, 
and  promised  to  join  him  with  all  the  Greek  cantons  as  allies,  began 
the  war,  without  listening  to  the  advice  of  Hannibal,  by  landing  in 
Thessaly  on  the  Gulf  of  Pagasse,  whence  he  went  to  Euboea.  Most  of 
the  Greeks,  especially  the  Achaean  league,  remained  true  to  the  Ro- 
mans, who  were  also  joined  by  Philip  of  Macedon,  Eumenes  of  Perga- 
mus,  and  Rhodes.  Antiochus  occupied  the  pass  of  Thermopylae. 
Landing  of  the  consul,  Manius  Acilius  Glabrio,  in  Epirus  (191)  and 
march  to  Thessaly.  The  former  consul,  M.  Porcius  Cato,  conqueror 
of  the  Spaniards,  who  served  as  military  tribune  in  the  Roman  army, 
surprised  the  iEtolians  on  the  mountain  path  of  Ephialtes,  while  the 
consul  captured  the  pass  itself  and  scattered  the  army  of  Antiochus, 
who  escaped  to  Chalcis  with  a  few  soldiers,  and  there  took  ship  for 
Ephesus.  The  Romans  besieged  the  iEtolians  in  Naupactus ;  their 
fleet,  under  C.  Livius,  defeated  that  of  Antiochus  at  Chios.  In  the 
following  year  (190)  a  fleet  from  Rhodes  defeated  a  fleet  of  the  king, 
under  the  command  of  Hannibal,  at  the  mouth  of  the  EurymedoUf 
and  somewhat  later  the  Roman  fleet,  with  that  of  Rhodes,  won  a 
naval  victory  at  Myonnesus. 

A  Roman  army,  nominally  under  the  command  of  the  consul, 
L.  Cornelius  Scipio,  but  really  under  his  brother,  P.  Cornelius  Scipio 
Africanus,  marched  through  Macedonia  and  Thrace,  crossed  the  Hel- 
lespont, and  defeated  Antiochus  in  the 

190.     Battle  of  Magnesia  on  the  Sipyluc, 

not  far  from  Smyrna,  whereupon  the  king  concluded  peace  in 


120  Ancient  History.  B.  c. 

the  following  year  :  1.  Surrender  of  all  European  possessions,  and  of 
his  Asiatic  possessions  as  far  as  the  Taurus.  2.  Payment  of  15,000 
EuboBan  talents  ({$19,125,000)  within  twelve  years.  3.  Surrender  of 
Hannibal,  who,  however,  escaped.  This  peace  struck  the  kingdom  of 
the  Seleucidse  from  the  list  of  great  powers.  The  Roman  senate 
having  resolved,  for  the  present,  not  to  acquire  any  immediate  pos- 
sessions in  Asia,  divided  the  ceded  territory  among  its  allies,  Eumenes 
of  Pergamus,  and  Rhodes,  and  proclaimed  itself  the  protector  of  the 
Greek  cities  of  Asia  against  the  Galatians  (189,  Expedition  of  Cn. 
Manlius  Voho),  and  regulator  of  the  political  relations  of  Asia.  In 
Greece  the  ^tolians  were  conquered  and  subjugated,  the  other  can- 
tons retained,  for  the  present,  their  independence.  Internecine  quar- 
rels continued  among  the  Greeks,  and  the  Roman  senate  was  in  all 
cases  appealed  to  as  arbitrator.  Philip  of  Macedonia  received  but 
scanty  remuneration  for  his  services  in  the  war  against  Syria. 
183  (?).     Death  of  Hannibal.     He  poisoned  himself  at  the  court  of 

Prusias,  king  of  Bithynia,  by  whom  he  saw  himself  betrayed. 
Death  of  his  conqueror,  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Africanus,  at  Linternum, 
whither  he  had  retired  after  he  and  his  brother,  Lucius,  had  been  ac- 
cused by  M.  Porcius  Cato  of  having  been  bribed  by  Antiochus. 
180.     The  lex  annalis  of  the  tribune,  L.  Villius,  established,  besides 

a  military  service  of  ten  years,  a  fixed  age  for  all  the  curule 
offices :  sediles,  37  years  ;  prsetor,  40 ;  consul,  43.  Since  the  fijst 
Punic  war  the  expenses  of  the  great  games  were  no  longer  borne  by 
the  public  treasury,  but  by  the  sediles,  which  at  once  closed  the  office 
to  all  who  were  not  men  of  property.  The  higher  offices  of  state, 
and  the  position  of  senator,  became  more  and  more  decidedly  privi- 
leges of  the  nobility  (p.  102). 

171-168.  Third  Macedonian  war.  Destruction  of  the 
Macedonian  monarchy. 

Cause  :  The  plan  of  Philip  V.  (III.),  to  revenge  himself  on  the 
Romans,  and  to  regain  the  old  borders  of  Macedonia,  was  carried 
forward  by  his  son  and  successor,  Perseus,  the  murderer  of  his 
brother  Demetrius,  who  favored  Rome.  King  Eumenes  of  Pergamus 
informed  the  senate  of  the  preparations  of  Perseus. 

During  the  first  three  campaigns,  weak  and  unsuccessful  conduct  on 
the  part  of  the  Roman  generals,  combined  with  injustice  and  cruelty 
against  the  allied  Acliseans  and  Epirotes,  who  were  thereby  forced  to 
actual  desertion.  At  last  L.  iBmilius  Paullus,  son  of  the  consul  who 
fell  at  Cannse  (p.  115),  obtained  the  chief  command.  He  restored  dis- 
cipline in  the  Roman  army,  drove  back  the  Macedonians,  and  defeated 
Perseus  in  the 

168     Battle  of  Pydna. 

Sept.  11,000  Macedonians  were  captured,  20,000  perished.  '  Perseus 
fell  into  the  power  of  the  Romans  (in  Samothrace).  Splendid  triumph 
of  JBmilius  Paullus.  The  spoils  brought  to  Rome  were  so  im- 
mense that  henceforward  the  citizens  were  relieved  from  the  tributum. 
Dissolution  of  the  kingdom  of  Macedonia,  which  was  transformed 
into  4  confederacies  dependent  upon  Rome,  neither  the  right  of  emi- 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  121 

gration  nor  of  intermarriage  (commercium  et  connuhium)  being  allowed 
them.  Genthius,  king  of  Illyria^  who  had  been  an  ally  of  Perseus,  be- 
ing soon  conquered  (168),  that  country  was  divided  into  3  tributary 
districts  with  federal  constitutions.  Epirus  was  cruelly  punished,  70 
towns  being  plundered  and  destroyed,  150,000  Epirotes  sold  as  slaves. 
The  Greek  cantons,  friend  and  foe  alike,  were  reduced  to  the  condi- 
tion of  subject  clients.  1000  Achaeans  of  high  standing,  among  whom 
was  the  historian  Polyhius,  were  carried  to  Rome  for  examination 
(167),  and  detained  without  trial  16  years  in  Italian  cities  under  sur- 
veillance. The  old  allies  of  the  Romans,  Eumenes  of  Pergamus  and 
Rhodes,  who  had  attempted  to  hold  the  position  of  mediators  during 
the  war,  were  chastised  and  all  the  possessions  of  the  latter  on  the 
mainland  taken  away.  In  a  war  which  broke  out  between  Syria  and 
Egypt  the  senate  interfered  as  guardian  of  both  powers.  The  Ro- 
man ambassador,  C.  Popilliua  Lcenas,  arrogantly  and  insultingly  or- 
dered Antiochus  IV.,  king  of  Syria,  to  retire  from  before  Alexandria. 
He  drew  a  line  aroimd  the  king  with  his  staff,  and  bade  him  decide 
before  he  stepped  from  the  circle.     (Polybius,  xxix.  27.) 

149-146.     Third  Punic  War. 

Cause  :  The  Carthaginians,  whose  commerce  and  maritime  power 
had  begun  to  increase,  having  been  unable  to  procure  from  Rome 
any  reparation  for  several  losses  of  territory  wliich  they  had  sustained 
at  the  hands  of  Massinissa,  finally  took  up  arms  themselves.  The 
Roman  senate,  on  the  instigation  of  M.  Porcius  Cato  ("  Ceterum 
censeo  Carthaginem  esse  delendam  ")  declared  this  a  breach  of  the 
peace. 

Two  Roman  armies  landed  at  Utica.     Humble  submission  of  the 
Carthaginians,  who  at  the  command  of  the  consul  delivered  up  their 
war-ships  and  weapons.     But  when  ordered  to  abandon  their  city  and 
make  a  new  settlement  ten  miles  from  the  sea,  the  Carthaginians  re- 
solved on  a  desperate  resistance.     With  the  greatest  sacrifices  on  the 
part  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  Carthage,  without  regard  to  rank,  age 
or  sex,  new  equipments  were  provided.     Weapons  were  manufac- 
tured day  and  night.     A  new  fleet  was  built  in  the  inner  harbor.    An 
attack  of  the  Romans  was  repulsed.     Siege  of  Carthage. 
147.     P.  Cornelius  Scipio  .aEImilianus  (son  of  ^milius  PauUus, 
adopted  son  of  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Africanus  (Major),  assumed 
the  command.     He  shut  off  the  city  completely  on  both  the 
land  and  sea  side. 

146.     Capture  and  destruction  of  Carthage. 

Street  fight  lasting  six  days,  and  a  conflagration  which  lasted 

seventeen  days. 
The  remaining  inhabitants  were  sold  into  slavery.  The  coast  land 
from  the  river  Tusca,  opposite  the  island  of  Galatha  (Galita),  to 
Thence,  on  the  Syrtis  minor,  was  made  a  Roman  province  under  the 
name  Africa,  with  the  capital  at  Utica.  The  rest  of  the  country  fell 
for  the  present  to  xhe  allied  kingdom  of  Numidia.  Splendid  tri^ 
nmph  of  Scipio,  who  received  the  name  of  Africanus  (Minor). 
148-146.     Fourth  Macedonian  War. 


122  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

against  Andriscus,  who  gave  himself  out  as  Philippus,  brother  of  Peiv 
seus  (Pseudo-Philippus),  and  incited  the  Macedonians  to  rise  against 
the  Roman  rule.  He  was  defeated  in  two  battles  and  captured  by 
Q.  Ccecilius  Metellus.  Macedonia  became  a  Roman  province 
(146). 

146.    Achsean  "War. 

Cause  :  Return  of  300  Achseans  from  Italy,  after  an  imprisonment 
of  16  years  (p.  121).  The  anti-Roman  party  was  thereby  strengthened 
in  all  cities.  Incited  by  Critolaus  and  Diceus,  the  Achsean  league  be° 
gan  war  with  Sparta,  with  whom  the  Romans  took  sides.  The  senate 
pronounced  the  dissolution  of  the  League. 

Victory  of  Metellus  over  Critolaus  at  Scarphea  in  Locris.  Diceus 
summoned  all  who  could  bear  arms  together  on  the  Isthmus,  and 
armed  12,000  slaves.  He  was  defeated  by  the  consul  L.  Mummius 
in  the 

146.    Battle  of  Leucopetra. 

Corinth,  the  chief  city  of  the  Achsean  league,  was  occupied 
by  Mummius  without  a  blow.  The  art  treasures  were  sent  to  Rome, 
and  the  inhabitants  were  sold  as  slaves.  The  territory  of  the  city 
was  in  part  given  to  Sicyon,  in  part  transformed  into  Roman  public 
land. 

Corinth  destroyed  at  the  command  of  the  senate. 

The  other  Greek  cities  were,  for  the  most  part,  mildly  treated,  and 
allowed  to  retain  their  autonomy  (their  own  administration  and  juris- 
diction), but  in  such  a  way  that  they  were  subordinated  to  the  governor 
of  Macedonia  and  had  to  pay  tribute  to  Rome.  Not  until  later  (p. 
80),  it  seems,  did  Greece  become  a  Roman  province  with  the  name 
Achaia. 

At  the  close  of  this  epoch  Rome  possessed  eight  provinces 
1.  Sicilia  (241).     2.  Sardinia  (238),  with  Corsica.     3.  Hispania  cite- 
rior  (205).     4.  Hispania  ulterior  (205).     5.  Gallia  Cisalpina  (191?), 
6.  Illyricum  (168).    7.  Africa  (140).    8.  Macedonia  (146),  and  Greece 
{Achaia). 

The  first  four  provinces  were  at  first  governed  by  praetors,  so 
that,  counting  the  prcetor  urhanus  and  the  prcetor  inter  cives  et  peregn- 
nos  (p.  101)  who  always  stayed  in  Rome,  there  were  six  prsetors 
elected  every  year.  Later,  however,  it  was  decreed  that  all  six  (after 
Sulla,  8)  prsetors  should  remain  in  Rome  during  their  year  of  office, 
4  (6)  to  preside  over  the  standing  courts  (qucestiones  perpetuce).  Of 
these  the  first,  for  cases  of  extortion  (de  repetundis),  was  established  in 
149  by  the  lex  Calpurnia ;  to  this  were  added  down  to  the  time  of 
Sulla  (p.  132)  courts  having  jurisdiction  over  fraud  in  obtaining 
office  (de  ambitu),  over  high  treason  (de  maiestate),  over  embezzle- 
ment (de  peculatu).  Sidla  created  courts  for  the  trial  of  cases  of 
murder  and  poisoning  (de  sicariis  et  venefciis)  of  forgery  of  wills  and 
of  counterfeiting  (defalso). 

For  the  year  succeeding  their  year  of  office  the  praetors  went  as 
pro-praetors  to  the  provinces  which  had  fallen  to  them  by  lot 
The  proprsetors  received,  as  a  rule,  however,  only  those  provinces 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  123 

which  were  considered  quiet,  and  which  could  be  administered  with- 
out any  considerable  military  force.  Those  which  were  still  the 
scene  of  warfare  were  assigned  to  one  of  the  consuls  in  office,  or  to  a 
proconsul,  the  consul  of  the  preceding  year  having  his  term  of 
command  prolonged  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war  (imperium  proro- 
gare)  or  an  ex-consul  (yir  consularis)  or  an  ex-praetor  (vir  prcetorius) 
being  appointed  proconsul.  Tims  the  provinces  were  at  a  later 
period  distinguished  into  proconsular  and  proprcetorial. 

The  organization  of  a  province  was  commonly  entrusted  to  the  gen- 
eral who  had  conquered  it,  and  a  commission  of  ten  senators.  Many 
cities  in  the  provinces  retained  their  own  jurisdiction  and  municipal 
government  (civitates  liberce),  in  consequence  of  a  treaty  concluded 
with  the  Roman  people  (foedus,  hence  civitates  fcederatce),  or  of  a  law 
(lex)  or  decree  of  the  senate  (senatus  consultum).  The  taxes  of  the 
provinces  were  generally  let  to  tax-farmers  (puUicani),  mostly  Ro- 
man citizens  of  the  equestrian  order  (ordo  equester)  many  of  whom 
also  did  business  in  the  provinces  as  bankers  (negotiatores).^ 

In  153  the  term  of  service  for  the  consulate  began  in  January  for 
the  first  time,  and  this  soon  became  the  rule.  Especially  noteworthy 
in  this  epoch  is  the  practical  disappearance  of  the  dictatorship. 
The  last  dictator  with  military  power  was  appointed  after  the  battle 
of  Cannse  (216),  and  the  last  nominated  for  municipal  business  was 
in  202.  After  this,  in  times  of  peculiar  danger,  the  senate  conferred 
dictatorial  power  on  the  consuls,  by  the  formula  :  "  The  consuls  shall 
take  measures  for  the  public  good  according  to  their  discretion." 
(Videant  consules  ne  quid  detrimenti  respublica  capiat),  which  some- 
what resembles  a  modern  proclamation  of  martial  law  or  state  of  siege. 

FOURTH  PERIOD. 

Firm  Establishment  of  the  Universal  Power  of  Rome.     Pe- 
riod of  the  Civil  Wars  (146-31). 

143-133.     Numantine  War. 

Continuance  of  hostilities  in  Spain.  War  in  Lusitania  against 
Viriathus,  147-139,  ended  only  by  the  latter's  murder.  The  war  in 
northern  Spain  centred  around  the  fortified  city  of  Numantia,^ 
which  was  vainly  besieged  by  Metellus,  and  then  by  several  incapable 
generals,  who  utterly  neglected  the  discipline  of  the  army.  Finally 
P.  Cornelius  Scipio  ^mUianus  Africanus  (Minor)  received  the  com- 
mand. He  restored  discipline,  and,  after  an  investment  of  fifteen 
months'  duration,  starved  the  city  into  submission.  Desperate  de- 
fence. 

133.     Surrender  and  destruction  of  Numantia. 

Scipio  iEmilianus  received  the  surname  of  Numanticus.     After  the 
fall  of  Numantia  all  Spain,  excepting  the  mountain  tribes  of  the  north, 
was  reduced  under  Roman  government. 
135-132.     First  servile  war. 

Insurrection   of  the  slaves  in   Sicily,  who   were   terribly  ill- 
treated,  under  the  Syrian  Eunus,  who  called  himself  king  AntiochuSi 

1  Marquardt-Mommsen,  Bom.  Alt.  IV.  338  foil,  and  377  foil. 
\    2  The  present  Gar-ray,  an  hour's  walk  north  of  Soria  on  the  DuerCo 


124  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

and  fought  a  long  time  successfully  against  the  Roman  armies,  main- 
taining himself  in  Henna  and  Tauromenium,  but  was  finally  captured 
and  executed,  together  with  a  great  number  of  the  insurgents. 

133-121.     Civil  disturbances  under  the  Gracchi, 

excited  by  the  political  and  social  reforms  urged  througli  revo^ 
lutionary  means  by  the  brothers  Tiberius  Gracchus  and  Caius 
Gracchus. 
Constant  increase  in  the  number  of  great  estates  worked  by  slaves 
(Latifundia).     The  number  of  slaves  in  Italy  was  immensely  mcreased 
by  the  successful  wars,  and  by  a  most  extensive  slave  trade,  especially 
with  eastern  Asia.     The   order  of  free  peasants  and  renters  was 
thereby  greatly  reduced,  while  there  was  formed  in  the  capital  a 
numerous  rabble  without  property  or  occupation,  who  lived  on  bribes 
and  gifts  of  grain.    Bad  government  of  the  ojofma^es  (p.  101).     Fam- 
ily cliques  which  took  exclusive  possession  of  all  public  offices  and 
places  in  the  senate. 

Tib.  Sempronius  Gracchus  (163-133),  son  of  the  plebeian  con- 
sul of  the  same  name  (through  his  mother,  Cornelia,  grandson  of  the 
victor  of  Zama,  p.  118),  when  tribime  of  the  people  proposed  the 
reenactment  of  the  Licinian  agrarian  law  (p.  101)  which  had 
long  been  forgotten,  with  this  alteration,  that  besides  the  500  jugera, 
250  jugera  of  public  land  should  be  allowed  for  every  two  sons,  and 
that  damages  should  be  paid  for  all  buildings  erected  on  land  wliich 
had  to  be  given  up.  Opposition  of  the  tribune  M.  Octavius,  who  had 
been  gained  over  by  the  senate,  and  whom  Tib.  Gracchus  caused  to  be 
deposed  by  an  unconstitutional  popular  decree.  The  agrarian  law 
was  accepted  by  the  people  ;  its  execution  was  entrusted  to  Tib. 
Gracchus,  his  father-in-law  Appius  Claudius,  and  his  brother  C. 
Gracchus. 

133.  Death  of  Attalus  III.,  king  of  Pergamus,  who  left  his  kingdom 
and  his  treasures  to  the  Romans. 
Tib.  Gracchus  proposed  in  the  popular  assembly,  contrary  to  the 
common  usage,  according  to  which  the  senate  had  the  disposal  of  this 
inheritance,  to  divide  the  treasures  of  Pergamus  among  the  new  land- 
owners, in  order  that  they  might  procure  the  necessary  equipment. 

Preparation  of  further  popular  laws  of  political  tendency;  shorten- 
ing of  the  time  of  military  service  ;  extension  of  the  right  of  appeal, 
etc. 

Tib.  Gracchus  tried,  contrary  to  the  constitution,  to  secure  the  election 
to  the  tribunate  for  the  following  year.  The  election  was  forcibly 
stopped  by  the  senate.  Tib.  Gracchus  and  300  of  his  followers 
were  killed  by  the  optimates,  armed  with  clubs  and  chair-legs,  and 
led  by  the  consul,  P.  Scipio  Nasica. 

129.  After  the  defeat  of  Aristonicus,  a  pretender  to  the  throne  of 
the  Attalidfe,  by  Perpcrna,  Pergamus  became  a  Roman  prov- 
ince under  the  name  of  Asia. 
133-129.  The  division  of  the  public  lands  was  partially  carried  out 
as  decreed.  The  struggle  between  the  democracy  and  the 
optimates  continued.  The  leader  of  the  latter  party,  P.  Scipio 
^milianus,  husband  of  Sempronia,  the  sister  of  the  Gracchi, 


B.  c.  Roman   History.  125 

who  had  successfully  opposed  the  proposals  of  the  democratic 
129.  tribune,  C.  Carho^  found  dead  in  his  bed  (murdered  ?). 
125.  The  democratic  consul,  M.  Fulvius  Flaccus,  who  had  unsuc- 
cessfully proposed  to  give  the  right  of  citizenship  to  all  Ital- 
ians, was  sent  by  the  senate,  which  wished  him  out  of  the  way,  to 
assist  the  Massiliotes  against  the  Gauls,  by  whom  they  were  hard 
pressed.  He  laid  the  foundation  of  Koman  supremacy  in  Transalpine 
Gaul.  The  immediate  purpose  of  this  occupation  was  the  establish- 
ment of  communication  by  land,  between  Italy  and  Spain.  In  123  the 
proconsul,  Sextius,  founded  the  colony  of  Aquce  Sextice  (Aix).  Gallia 
Narbonensis,  so  called  after  the  colony  Narbo  Martins  founded 
in  121,  a  Roman  province.  In  123  the  Balearic  Islands  were  sub- 
jected to  Rome. 

123.  Caius  Sempronius  Gracchus,  for  two  years  quaestor 
in  Sardinia,  returned  to  Rome  against  the  will  of  the 
senate,  and  was  elected  tribune,  of  the  people. 

Surpassing  his  brother  in  talent,  force  of  character,  and  passionate 
energy,  C.  Gracchus  not  only  took  up  again  the  latter 's  social  reforms, 
but  also  brought  forward,  one  after  another,  a  series  of  proposals 
looking  to  a  revolutionary  alteration  of  the  constitution.  Had  they 
been  completely  adopted,  these  umovations  would  perchance  have 
substituted  for  the  existing  aristocratic  republican  government  the 
rule  of  one  man  under  the  form  of  a  democracy.  Whether  C.  Grac- 
ehus  desired  such  a  power  for  himself  is,  however,  very  doubtful.  By 
the  regular  distribution  of  grain,  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  C.  Grac- 
chus attempted  to  make  the  proletarii  of  the  capital  his  willing  tool 
in  coercing  the  comitte.  He  was  able  to  secure  in  122  his  election  to 
the  tribunate  for  the  second  time. 

The  lex  judiciaria  transferred  the  jury-duty  from  the  order  of 
senators  to  that  of  the  equites,  and  made  the  preexisting  separa- 
tion between  these  two  parts  of  the  Roman  aristocracy  still  more 
abrupt. 

Tlie  designation,  "  ordo  equester"  which  belonged  originally  to  those 
citizens  only  who  actually  did  cavalry  service,  had  been  gradually 
extended  to  all  who,  in  consequence  of  having  property  to  the  amount 
of  at  least  400,000  sesterces,  were  liable  to  such  service.  Since  129 
the  senators  were  obliged,  according  to  law,  on  entering  the  senate,  to 
leave  the  centuries  of  equites.  Hence  "  equites  "  denoted  especially 
the  members  of  the  aristocracy  of  wealth,  who  were  not  members  of 
the  senate  ;  yet  the  young  men  of  senatorial  families  continued  to 
serve  rcgidarly  in  the  centuries  of  equites. 

Encroachments  of  C.  Gracchus  on  the  administrative  privileges  of 
the  senate  by  means  of  resolves  of  the  popular  assembly.  The  lex 
provocatio  reenacted.  Colonies  sent  out  by  decrees  of  the  people  in- 
stead of  by  decrees  of  the  senate.  C.  Gracchus  himself  established 
the  colony  of  Junonia  on  the  site  of  Carthage. 

The  absence  of  the  all-powerful  tribune  from  Rome  was  utilized 
6y  the  senate,  to  secure  him  a  dangerous  opponent  in  the  person  of 
the  tribune,  M.  Livius  Drusus.  The  proposals  of  this  tribune,  in  the 
interests  of  the  lower  classes,  were  constantly  approved  by  the  senate, 
with  the  view  of  undermining  the  popularity  of  Gracchus. 


226  Ancient  History.  B.  c. 

122.     The  motion  of  C.  Gracchus  and  his  coUea^ie,  M.  Fulvius  Fiac- 
cus,  to  grant  the  Latins  all  the  rights  of  citizenship,  and  the 
other  Italians  Latin  rights,  was  defeated  by  the  united  opposi- 
tion of  the  senate  and  the  lower  classes  of  the  capital.    C.  Grac- 
chus was  not  elected  tribune  for  the  following  (third)  year. 
121.     Civil  strife  in  the  city,  occasioned  by  a  murder  committed  by 
one  of  the  supporters  of  Gracchus.     The  democratic  party  oc- 
cupied the  Aventine,  which,  being  poorly  defended,  was  stormed  by  the 
optimates.      C.  Gracchus  and  M.  Fulvius  were  slain,  along  with 
several  hundred  of  their  supporters.     Of  the  prisoners  about  3000 
are  said  to  have  been  strangled  in  prison.^     Restoration  of  the  power 
of  the  senate,  and  the  former  condition  of  things.     After  M.  Limus 
Drusus  had  removed  the  ground  rent,  and  repealed  the  law  prohibit- 
ing the  alienation  of  assignments  of  public  land,  and  thereby  given 
the  optimates   opportunity  to  repurchase  their  confiscated  lands,  a 
decree  of  the  people.  111,  converted  all  public  lands  in  possession  of 
citizens  into  the  private  property  (not  subject  to  taxation)  of  those  who 
had  formerly  enjoyed  the  usufruct. 

111-105.^    Jugurthine  war. 

Cause:  Micipsa,  Massinissa's  eldest  son,  had  decreed  in  liis  will 
that  after  his  death  his  sons,  Hiempsal  and  Adherhal,  should  reign 
over  Numidia  in  common  with  his  nephew  and  adopted  son,  Jugur- 
tha.  Quarrels  of  the  kings.  Attempt  to  actually  divide  the  king- 
dom. Jugurtha  murdered  Hiempsal  and  expelled  Adherhal,  who 
sought  protection  in  Rome.  A  commission  of  the  senate,  which  was 
bribed  by  Jugurtha,  arranged  a  division  of  the  kingdom  entirely  in 
Jugurtha's  favor.  The  latter  attacked  Adherhal  anew,  defeated  him, 
and  besieged  him  in  Cirta,  his  capital.  Without  heeding  the  interven- 
tion of  the  Roman  senate,  Jugurtha  captured  Cirta,  and  put  to  death 
Adherhal  and  the  whole  male  population  of  the  city,  including  many 
Italians.  Indignation  at  Rome,  and,  finally,  at  the  instance  of  the 
tribune,  C.  Meinmius,  declaration  of  war  against  Jugurtha. 

Jugurtha  bought  from  the  consul,  L.  Calpurnius  Bestia,  a  peace, 
which  the  senate,  upon  the  motion  of  Memmius,  refvised  to  ratify. 
Invitation  of  the  king  to  Rome.  Jugurtha  appeared  in  the  city  upon 
guarantee  of  safe  conduct,  and  gained  partisans  for  himself  by  his 
money.  When,  however,  he  connived  at  the  murder  of  Massiva,  a 
third  grandson  of  Massinissa,  in  Rome  itself,  he  was  banished  from  the 
city,  and  the  war  was  renewed. 

110-109.  The  war  was  unsuccessfully  conducted  by  the  Romans. 
Jugurtha  defeated  a  Roman  army,  sent  it  under  the  yoke,  and 
dictated  a  peace  which  was  repudiated  by  the  senate. 
109.  Q.  Metellus,  entrusted  with  the  command,  defeated  Jugurtha 
on  the  river  Muthul.  The  Romans  occupied  Numidia  with 
two  armies,  one  under  Metellus,  the  other  commanded  by  his 
legate  C.  Marius  (son  of  a  day  laborer  from  the  vicinity  of 
Arpinum). 

1  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Rome,  III.  101-130. 

2  Concerning  the  chronology  of  this  war,  see  Mommsen,  III.  p.  153,  note. 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  127 

108.  After  fruitless  negotiations,  another  Roman  victory.     Jugurtha 

withdrew  to  the  oases  of  the  desert  and  induced  the  nomads  of 
those  parts  (Gcetulce)  to  take  up  arms  against  the  Romans. 
Pursued  into  the  desert,  he  joined  forces  with  his  father-in- 
law,  Bacchus,  king  of  Mauritania. 

107.  Marius,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  aristocrats,  received 
the  consulate  and  chief  command.  He  conquered  the  Gsetu- 
lians,  repulsed  a  combined  attack  of  Jugurtha  and  Bocchus 
at  Cirta,  entered  into  secret  negotiations  with  Bocchus  through 

106-105.  his  qusestor,  L.  Cornelius  Sulla,  and  secured  the  deliv- 
ery of  Jugurtha  into  his  hands.  The  captive  king  was  led 
in  triumph  at  Rome  and  died  of  hunger  in  prison.  Numidia 
was  divided  between  5occAms  and  Gauda,  the  last  living  grand- 
son of  Massinissa. 

113-101.     War  against  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones. 

The  Germanic,  or,  according  to  others,  Celtic,  tribe  of  the 
Cimbri  (Chempho,  i.  e.  warriors  ?)  made  their  way  from  the 

113.  north  into  the  Alpine  regions,  defeated  at  Noreia,  in  Corinthia, 
the  consul  Cn.  Papirius  Carho,  turned  afterwards  westward 
towards  the  Rhine,  which  they  crossed,  and  defeated  a  Roman 

109.  army  under  M.  Junius  Silanus,  who  had  hurried  to  the  aid 
of  the  Allohroges.     Helvetian  bands  pressed  into  Gaul,  and 

107.  defeated  the  consul  L.  Cassius  Longinus  on  the  Garonne.  The 
Cimbri  traversed  Gaul  in  various  directions,  defeated  and  an- 
nihilated two  large  Roman  armies  under  Q.  Servilius  Ccepio 
105.  and  Cn.  Mallius  Maximus  at  Arausia  (Orange)  on  the  Rhone. 
Terror  at  Rome.  Violent  proceedings  of  the  democratic 
leaders  against  the  incapable  generals  of  the  optimates. 
Ccepio,  Maximus,  and  others  condemned. 
104-100.     Marius  elected  consul  five  times  in  succession. 

The  Cimbri  meantime  had  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  were  wan- 
dering aimlessly  about  among  the  Spanish  tribes.  Defeated  by  the 
Celtiberians,  they  recrossed  the  Pyrenees,  traversed  western  Gaul, 
and  gave  Marius  time  to  reorganize  the  Roman  forces  in  the  Provincia 
Narbonensis  (Provence).  Defeated  by  the  Belgians,  the  Cimbri 
tmited  with  the  Germanic  tribes  of  the  Teutones  and  ^vith  Helve- 
tian tribes  (Tougenes  and  Tigorini).  These  three  peoples  resolved 
to  enter  Italy  in  two  separate  bands.  The  greater  part  of  the 
Cimbri  and  the  Tigorini  were  to  invade  Italy  from  the  north,  while 
the  Teutones  with  the  Ambrones,  the  best  among  the  Cimbri,  and  the 
Tougenes  were  to  force  their  way  into  Italy  tlirough  southern  Gaul 
(102).  Marius  attempted  to  intercept  the  latter  band.  By  his  posi- 
tion at  the  junction  of  the  Isere  and  the  Rhone,  he  covered  the  two 
military  roads  which  at  that  time  alone  connected  Gaul  and  Italy 
{Pass  of  the  Little  St.  Bernard,  and  the  shore  road).  Futile  attempt 
of  the  barbarians  to  storm  the  Roman  camp.  They  passed  the  camp 
on  their  way  down  the  Rhone.  Marius,  following  them,  defeated 
and  annihilated  their  army  in  the 

X02.  Battle  of  Aquge  Sextiae  (Aix  in  Provence,  see  p.  125). 
The  king  of  the  Teutones,  Teutobod,  was  captured.    Thereupon 


128  Ancient  History,  B,  c. 

Marius  crossed  the  Alps  to  the  assistance  of  his  colleague 
Catulus,  whom  the  Ciiiibri,  having  reached  Italy  by  way  of 
the  Brenner  Pass,  had  discomfitea  upon  the  Adige  and  driven 
behind  the  Po.     The  two  consuls,  having  joined  forces,  ad- 
vanced across  the  Po  and  annihilated  the  Cimbri  in  the 
101.     Battle    of    Vercellae     (in   campis  Raudiis).      Triumph    of 
Marius,  who  was  hailed  by  the  multitude,  "  the  third  Romulus" 
"  the  second  Camillus." 
At  the  time  of  the  Cimbrian  war  occurred  the  complete  abolition 
of  the  Servian    military  organization,  according  to  which  military 
service  was  principally  a  tax  on  property,  but  which  had  already 
been  several  times  altered.     This  had  also  long  been  the  principle 
upon  which  the  military  service  of  the  Italian  allies  was  regulated. 
Hereafter  the  system  of  a  citizen  levy  was  supplemented  by  a  re- 
cruiting system,  principally  of  course  from  the  idle  and  lazy  portion 
of  the  population,  and  by  a  system  of  reinforcements,  whereby  cavalry 
and   light-armed   troops   were  drawn   henceforward  from  the  con- 
tingents of  subject  and  vassal  princes.      A  separate  military  order 
was  formed,  wliich  was  distinct  from  the  civil  order  and  opposed  to 
it.     The  organization  of  the  army,  the  strength  and  divisions  of  the 
legions  (henceforward  6000  men  in  10  cohorts),  also  underwent  im- 
portant changes. 

103-99.     Second  servile  insurrection   (in  Sicily)  under  Tryphon 
and  Athenion,  which   was   put  down   by  the    consul,  Manius 
AquilliuHjfiUer  a  hard  struggle. 
100.     Marius,  for  the  sixth  time  consul,  aiming  at  the  royal  power, 
joined    the   leaders    of    the   people,  the   praetor   C.    Servilius 
Glaucia  and  L.  Appuleius  Saturninus,  with  the  purpose  of  overthrow- 
ing the  constitution.     Saturninus,    having   gained  the  tribunate  by 
murder,  procured  by  violent  means  a  division  of  lands  among   the 
veterans   of   Marius.     The   consul   Q.  Metellus  went  into  voluntary 
banishment.     The  murder  of  C.  Memmius,  who  had  been  nominated 
consul  for  the  year  99,  led  to  an  actual  contest  in  the  forum  between 
the    optimates    and   the   popular   party.      Saturninus    and    Glaucia 
being  betrayed  by  their  accomplice,  Marius,  were  killed,  with  many 
of  their  followers. 

99.  Q.  Metellus  recalled  to  Rome.  Marms,  hated  by  both  parties  on 
98.  account  of  his  equivocal  conduct,  went  for  a  time  to  Asia. 
91.  Three  bills  brought  forward  by  the  tribune  M.  Livius  Dru- 
sus: 
1.  Reform  of  the  judicial  department  {lex  Judiciaria),  which  re- 
stored to  the  senate  the  places  on  the  juries  which  had  been  taken 
from  it,  at  the  same  time  enlarging  the  senate  by  the  addition  of  300 
eqnites.  2.  A  new  division  of  lands  (lex  agraria).  3.  Bestowal  of 
the  right  of  citizenship  on  the  Italians  (de  civitate  sociis  danda).  The 
first  two  proposals  were  adopted  by  the  comitife,  but  declared  null 
and  void  by  the  senate  ;  as  he  was  on  the  point  of  bringing  the  third 
before  the  people,  Drusus  was  assassinated. 

The  disappointment  of  the  Italian  allies  who  had  fixed  their  hopes 
upon  Livius  caused  the  revolt  of  nearly  all  the  Italians  excepting  the 
Latins,  most  of  the  Etruscans  and  Umbrians  and  some  southern  citieSj 
and  l«d  to  ths 


B.  c.  Itoman  History.  129 

91-88.     Marsian  or  social  war. 

The  Italians  formed  a  federal  republic  under  the  name  Italia^  gov- 
erned by  a  senate  of  500  senators  from  all  Italian  tribes.  The  capital 
was  Corfinium.     They  appointed  two  consuls  and  twelve  praetors. 

The  terrible  danger  reconciled  for  the  moment  the  parties  at  Rome, 
and  caused  the  adoption  of  energetic  measures  :  repeated  levies  of 
citizens,  and  enrollment  of  freedmen  in  the  army.     The  best  generals 
of  both  parties  offered  to  serve  under  the  consuls. 
90.       At  the  seat  of  war  in  the  norihy  Marius  fought  against  the* 
Marsians  and  the  other  Sabellian  tribes,  for  the  most  part, 
successfully.     The  Roman  consul,  Rutilius,  fell;  Cn.  Pompeius 
Strabo,  defeated  at  first,  was  afterwards  victorious.     At  the 
southern  seat  of  war  (Campania^  Samnium,  Lucania),  the  allies 
got  so  decidedly  the  better  of  the  Roman  consul,  L.  Julius 
Ccesar,  in  spite  of  the  dashing  forays  of  Sulla,  that  the  Etrus- 
cans and  Umbrians,  in  the  north,  who  had  before  remained 
faithful,  were  encouraged  to  revolt.     In  order  to  prevent  this 
a  law  was  passed 

0ranting  the  right  of  citizenship  to  the  Latins  and  to  all  districts 

among  the  above  peoples  which  had  remained  faithful  {lex 

Julia). 
89.       Successful  conclusion  of  the  war  in  the  north.      Superiority 

of  the  Roman  arms  in  the  south,  especially  under  Sulla. 
By  the  lex  Plautia-Papiria  Roman  citizensliip  was  given  to  all  Ital- 
i&,ns  who  applied  for  it  ;  they  were,  however,  included  in  8  tribes  only 
which  wete  especially  designated.  The  towns  of  Cisalpine  Gaul 
which  had  municipal  organizations  received  Latin  rights  {lex  Poni" 
peia). 
88.       By  this  concession  the  war  in  the  south  was  also  in .  the  main 

brought  to  a  close. 

88-84.     First  Mithridatic  war. 

Cause  :  Mithradates  or  Mithridates  VI.,  king  of  Pontus  (120- 
63),  had  extended  his  power  over  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Black 
Sea  {Colchis)  and  along  the  Cimmerian  Bosphorus  {Crimea,  and 
southern  Russia).  Kingdom  of  the  Bosphorus.  He  had  conquered 
Pdphlagonia  and  Cappadocia  and  had  provoked  the  interference  of 
the  senate  by  his  encroachments  on  the  client  cities  of  Rome  in  Asia 
Minor.  Already  had  Sulla,  who  was  then  proconsul  in  Cilicia,  in 
92,  taken  arms  against  him,  and  reinstated  a  king  in  Cappadocia. 
A  second  expulsion  of  this  king,  and  quarrels  of  Mithridates  with  the 
king  of  Bithynia,  who  was  supported  by  the  Roman  consul  M.  Aquil- 
liv^,  led  to  war. 

88.  Mithridates  defeated  Nicomedes,  king  of  Bithynia,  on  the  Am- 
nias,  a  branch  of  the  Halys,  defeated  the  Roman  generals,  Op- 
pius,  Cassius^  and  Aquillius  (the  latter  being  cruelly  put  to  death),  and 
drove  them  out  of  Asia  Minor.  The  Grecian  cities  of  Asia  joined 
him,  and  upon  an  order  issued  from  Ephesus,  put  to  death  in  one 
day  all  the  Italians  within  their  walls  (80,000,  or  according  to  others 
150,000). 


130  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

Sulla,  the  consul  for  88,  was  on  the  point  of  starting  for  Asia  to 
attack  Mithridates,  when  there  broke  out  the 

88-82.  Civil  war  between  Sulla  (optimates)  and  Ma- 
rius  (democrats). 
Direct  cause  :  the  revolutionary  proposals  of  the  tribune  P.  Sul- 
picius,  which  were  carried  by  the  most  violent  means,  and  particularly 
designed  to  secure  the  division  of  the  new  citizens,  Italians  and  f  reed- 
men,  among  all  the  35  tribes  (ut  novi  cives  libertinique  in  omnes  tribus 
distribuerentur) . 

88.  The  populace  under  the  control  of  demagogues  deprived  Sulla 
of  the  chief  command  and  gave  it  to  his  opponent  MariuSy 
with  proconsular  power.  Sulla  marched  with  his  army  from  Nola 
upon  Rome  and  took  the  city  by  storm.  Sulpicins  and  eleven  other 
outlaws  were  killed  upon  the  flight.  Marius  escaped  by  way  of  Min- 
turnce  to  Africa. 

Sulla  restored  the  old  order  of  voting  in  the  centuries  as  it  had 
existed  under  the  Servian  constitution,  but  had  been  given  up  in  241 
(p.  112),  and  decreed  that  in  future  the  popular  assemblies  should 
not  vote  upon  any  measure  which  had  not  previously  passed  the 
senate. 

87.     An  optimate,  Cn.  Octavius,  and  a  democrat,  L.  Cornelius  Cinna, 
were  elected  consuls.     Sulla,  as  proconsul,  took  the  command 
in  the  Mithridatic  war. 
During  Sulla's  absence   Cinna  endeavored  to  renew  the  laws  of 
Sulpicius  by  violence.     After  a  bloody  struggle  in  the  forum  he  was 
driven  out   by  the  optimates.     He   formed   an  army  in   Campania 
of  armed  bands  of  dissatisfied  Italians,  liberated  slaves,  etc.,  and 
uniting  with  the  aged  Marius,  who  had  returned  from  Africa,  with 
Q.  Sertorius  and  Cn.  Papirius  Carbo,  advanced  upon  Rome,  which  was 
compelled  to  surrender.     Revolutionary  reign  of  terror  in  the 
city.     Five  days'  slaughter  at  Marius'  command  of  all  optimates  who 
had  not  fled  (among  others  L.  and  C.  Ccesar,  M.  Antonius,  P.  Croe- 
sus, Q.  Catulus),  confiscation  of  their  property,  plundering  and  out- 
rages of  the  armed  bands. 

86.     Marius  (for  the  7th  time)  and  Cinna,  consuls  ;  Sulla  deposed 
in  his  absence.     Death  of  Marius,  over  seventy  years  old. 
L.  Valerius  Flaccus  was  made  consul  in  his  stead  and  appointed 
by  the  popular  party  to  the  command  of  the  Mithridatic  war. 
87-84.     Tyrannical  government  of  Cinna  at  Rome,  regardless  of  the 
newly  restored  democratic  constitution. 
Meantime  the  outlawed  Sulla  was  conducting  the  war  against 
Mithridates.     The  latter  had  sent  his  general  Archelaus  with  an  army 
and  fleet  to  Greece,  where  most  of  the  cities  joined  him  at  once,  par- 
ticularly Athens  under  the  government  of  Aristion. 
87.     Sulla  landed  with  30,000  men  in  Epirus,  advanced  to  Boeotia, 
drove  Archelaus  and  Aristion  out  of  the  country  and  besieged 
the  former  in  Pirceus,  the  latter  in  Athens.     He  defeated  an 
86.        army  of  relief  from  Pontus,  and  after  a  tedious  siege  captured 
March.     A'^thens.     Sulla   defeated   Archelaus,  who   had   voluntarily 
evacuated  Pirseus,  gone  by  sea  to  Bceotia,  and  joined  the  rein- 
forcements sent  by  Mithridates,  in  the 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  131 

86.    Battle  of  Chaeronea  and  in  the  next  year  in  the 
85.     Battle  of  Orchomenus,  after  which  he  went  into  winter  quar- 
ters in  Thessaly.     In  the  following  year  Sulla,  supported  by  a 
fleet  of  ships,  collected  from  Asia  Minor  and  Syria  by  Lucullus, 
marched  through  Macedonia  and  Thrace,  crossed  the  Helles- 
pont to  Asia,  and  through  the  mediation  of  Archelaus  concluded 
84.     Peace  vrith  Mithridates  in  Dardanos.     I.  Evacuation  of  the 
Roman  province  of  Asia,  restoration  of  all  conquests  made  by 
Mithridates,  and  reinstatement  of  the  kings  of  Bithynia  and  Cappa- 
docia.     II.  Mithridates  surrendered  80  ships  of  war  and  paid  3000 
talents.     After  the  conclusion  of  peace,  Sulla  turned  his  attention  to 
the  Roman  army  of  the  democratic  party  which  had  gone  to  Asia  in 
86  under  the  consul  Flaccus,  and,  after  his  murder,  had  fought  suc- 
cessfully under  Fimbria   (victory  over  the  younger  Mithridates  at 
Miletopolis).     A  part  of  the  army  having  gone  over  to  Sulla,  Fim- 
bria committed  suicide,  whereupon  the  rest  of  his  army  joined  Sulla. 
After  leaving  these  troops  behind  (milites  Flaviani,  two  legions)  under 
Xjicinius  Murena,  and  inflicting  upon  the  Grecian  cities  of  Asia  Minor 
the  immense  fine  of  20,000  talents  (J$25,000,000),  which  Lucullus  was 
to  collect,  Sulla  sailed  from  Ephesus  to  Pirceus,  went  by  land  to  Patrce, 
and  thence  by  sea  to  Italy. 

83.  Sulla  landed  with  40,000  men  in  Brundisium.  After  the  death 
of  Cinna  (84),  during  a  mutmy  in  Ancona,  where  he  intended 
to  embark  against  Sulla,  his  colleagues  Carbo,  the  younger  Marius, 
and  Sertorius  were  the  leaders  of  the  democratic  party ;  never- 
theless for  the  year  83  neither  of  them,  but  instead  two  incapable 
men,  L.  Scipio  and  C.  Norbanus,  were  elected  consuls.  Sulla,  who 
upon  landing  was  joined  by  the  23-year  old  Cn.  Pompeius  with 
an  army  of  volunteers,  formally  guaranteed  their  rights  to  the  Ital- 
ians and  marched  against  the  consuls.  He  conquered  Norbanus  on 
Mt.  Tifata  and  opened  negotiations  with  Scipio,  in  the  course  of  which 
the  entire  arm^?  of  the  latter  went  over  to  Sulla. 

82.  Sulla  rested  for  the  winter  in  Gapua,  and  fought  during  the  fol- 
lowing year  against  the  younger  Marius  and  Carbo,  who  had 
been  appointed  consuls.  At  Sacriportus  Sulla  defeated  Marius,  who 
retired  to  Prceneste,  where  he  was  surrounded  by  a  division  of  the  army 
inder  Q.  Ofella.  Sulla  perceived  this,  and  passed  rapidly  through 
Rome  to  attack  the  democrats  in  Etruria,  whither  also  a  part  of  his 
army  under  Metellus,  Pompeius,  and  Crassus  had  already  forced  its 
way  from  Picenum  and  Umbria  and  were  pressing  Carbo  hard.  On 
receipt  of  the  news  that  strong  Samnite  bands  were  advancing  to  the 
relief  of  Prseneste,  Sulla  went  back  to  Latium,  prevented  the  relief 
of  Prseneste,  and  repulsed  an  attack  of  the  Samnites  upon  Rome 
(Nov.  82).  More  than  3000  prisoners  were  slaughtered  at  Sulla's 
command.  Prseneste  surrendered,  the  younger  Marius  was  put  to 
death  by  his  slaves  at  his  own  command.  The  party  of  Marius  in 
northern  Italy  had  already  been  completely  defeated  at  Faventia. 
Carbo  and  Sertorius  fled.  Sulla  took  terrible  vengeance  upon  the  con- 
quered cities  and  towns  of  Italy.  The  party  of  Marius  in  Spain  was 
defeated  at  a  later  time  by  C.  Annius  and  Valerius  Flaccus  ;  in  Sicily 
and  Africa  it  was  defeated  by  Pompeius,  whom  Sulla  allowed  to  tri- 
umph, and  saluted  with  the  surname  of  Magnus. 


132  Ancient  History.  B.  c 

82.     Sulla  had  himself  appointed  dictator  in  Rome  for  an  un- 
limited time,  for  the  sake  of  reorganizing  the  commonwealth 
(dictator  reipublicce  constituendce,  a  power  analogous  to  that  of  the  de- 
cemvirs). 

Reactionary  Reign  of  Terror.  Proscription  list'i  of  the  evil 
minded  (lex  de  proscribendis  malis  civibus).  The  number  of  the  out- 
lawed, on  whose  death  a  reward  was  set,  and  whose  property  was 
confiscated  amounted  to  4700.  Allotments  of  lands  to  the  veterans 
of  Sulla  and  establishment  of  military  colonies  with  full  right  of 
citizenship  in  the  territories  of  cities  of  the  hostile  party,  whose 
right  of  citizenship  was  abrogated.  Liberation  of  10,000  slaves  be- 
longing to  the  proscribed  citizens,  and  bestowal  upon  them  of  the 
right  of  citizenship  (the  so-called  Cornelians). 
83-81.     Second  Mithridatic  War, 

conducted  by  the  propraetor  Murena  (p.  131),  who  occupied 
Cappadocia,  which  Mithridates,  in  spite  of  the  peace,  had  not  com- 
pletely evacuated,  and  invaded  Pontus,  where  he  was  defeated  by 
Mithridates  and  obliged  to  withdraw.  The  war  ended  in  a  treaty 
which  was  a  renewal  of  the  first  peace. 

Attempt  at  a  conservative  aristocratic  reform  of  the  government 
ill  Rome,  by  a  series  of  laws  originated  by  Sulla  (leges  Comelice). 
Reorganization  of  the  senate  which  had  siiffered  severely  from  the 
proscriptions  of  the  civil  wars.  It  was  now  enlarged  in  an  unprece- 
dented manner  by  the  addition  of  300  members  to  be  chosen  by  the 
comitia  tributa.  Admission  to  the  senate  became  a  prerogative  of  the 
qusestorship.  Henceforward  20  qucestors  were  annually  elected  by 
the  comitia  tributa.  Abolition  of  the  censors'  privilege  of  revising 
the  roll  of  the  senate  every  five  years,  and  consequently  introduction 
of  the  irremovability  of  the  senators.  Thus  the  senate,  for  a  short 
time,  was  indirectly  chosen  by  the  people,  and  acquired  a  representa- 
tive character.  The  places  in  the  juries  which  C.  Gracchus  had 
transferred  to  the  equites  (p.  125)  were  restored  to  the  senate. 
The  privileges  of  the  senate  were  further  increased  ;  it  acquired,  in 
particular,  the  right  of  prolonging  the  term  of  office  of  proconsuls 
and  propraetors,  and  of  removing  them.  The  comitice  lost  the  power 
of  electing  the  priests,  which  had  been  given  them  in  104,  the 
priestly  colleges  receiving  again  the  right  of  filling  their  own  vacan- 
cies. On  the  other  hand  Sulla  gave  up  the  Servian  order  of  voting, 
the  restoration  of  which  had  been  attempted  in  88.  Powers  of  the 
tribunes  of  the  people  reduced,  misuse  of  the  right  of  interpellation 
punished  with  heavy  fines,  the  right  of  the  tribunes  to  mitiate  roga- 
tions subjected  to  the  approval  of  the  senate  ;  it  was  also  decreed  that 
acceptance  of  the  tribunate  conveyed  incapacity  for  accepting  higher 
offices.  Reorganization  of  the  department  of  justice,  increase  of  the 
perpetual  courts  (qucestiones  perpetuce).  Henceforward  8  pi-setors. 
Criminal  legislation  (lex  de  sicariis,  de  falsa,  etc.). 
81.    Sulla  permitted  the  election  of  consuls,  but  continued  to  conduct 

the  government  under  the  title  of  dictator.     For  the  year 
80.    He  caused  himself  and  liis  companion  in  arms,  Q.  Metellus,  to 
to  be  elected  consuls,  and  so  bridged  the  way  to  oonstitutional 
government. 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  133 

79.  Sulla  volraitarily  abdicated  the  dictatorship  and  retired  to 

private  life. 
78.   Death  of  Sulla,  probably  in  consequence  of  a  hemorrhage.^ 
78-77.     Attempt  of  M.  JEmilius  Lepidus  (consul  with   Q,  Lutatiuo 

Catulus,  78)  and  the  Marian  M.  Junius  Brutus,  to  violently 
overthrow  the  work  of  Sulla.  Lepidus,  on  his  way  from  Etruria  to 
Rome  at  the  head  of  an  army,  was  defeated  on  the  Campus  Martins 
by  Catulus ;  defeated  a  second  time  at  Cosa,  he  fled  to  Sardinia, 
where  he  fell  sick  and  died,  Brutus  was  forced  by  Pompeius  to  sur- 
render at  Mutina,  ajad  was  afterwards  put  to  death. 

80-72.   War  against  Sertorius, 

who  in  83  had  been  allotted  Lusitania  and  Spain  as  Ais  prov- 
ince. He  had  been  driven  out  (82)  by  Sulla's  generals,  and,  after 
leading  a  roving  life  as  an  adventurer  along  the  coasts  of  Spain  and 
Africa,  returned  to  Lusitania,  Here  this  party  leader,  alike  distin- 
guished as  statesman  and  general,  had  founded  an  independent  sov- 
ereignty. Q.  Metellus  and  even  Cn.  Pompeius  waged  for  a  long  time 
unsuccessful  war  against  him.  He  formed  an  alliance  with  Mithn- 
dates,  but  was  murdered,  in  72,  by  his  subordinate  Perpema.  The 
latter  was  defeated  and  executed  by  Pompeius. 

73-71.  War  of  the  Gladiators  and  (third)  Servile 
War. 

Bands  of  gladiatots  who  had  escaped  from  a  gladiatorial  school  at 
Capua  occupied  Vesuvius  imder  command  of  two  Gauls  and  the 
Thracian  Spartacus,  and  from  this  vantage-ground  plundered  and 
burned  throughout  the  neighborhood.  .Reinforced  by  numerous 
slaves  they  grew  to  an  army,  and  defeated  four  Roman  armies  in 
succession.  Spartacus,  who  wanted  to  leave  Italy,  was  forced  by  his 
companions  to  remain.  He  marched  upon  the  capital.  Terror  in 
Rome.  The  praetor  M.  Licinius  Crassus  received  the  chief  com- 
mand. The  insurgents  refrained  from  attacking  Rome  and  wandered 
about  Italy  ravaging  and  plundering.  Crassus  defeated  them  in  two 
battles,  in  the  second  of  which,  on  the  Silarus,  Spartacus  fell,  fight- 
ing valiantly.  The  remnants  of  the  bands  were  annihilated  by  Pom- 
peius, who  was  returning  from  Spain. 

In  70  the  consuls  M.  Licinius  Crassus  and  Cn.  Pompeius  Mag- 
nus restored  to  the  tribunate  the  privileges  whioL  it  had  lost  under 
Sulla  (p.  132).  The  Aurelian  law  {lex  Aurelia),  passed  during  their 
consulate,  repealed  the  enactment  of  Sulla  that  tlie  jurors  should  be 
taken  exclusively  from  the  senators  ;  henceforth  one  third  should  be 
senators,  two  thirds  men  of  the  equestrian  census  (of  these  one  half 
should  be  taken  from  the  so-called  tribuni-cerarii).  Already,  in  72, 
the  privilege  of  the  censors,  of  revising  the  roll  of  the  senate,  which 
Sulla  had  abolished,  had  been  restored  (p.  132),  and  probably  five 
years  became  again  the  length  of  the  censors'  term  of  office.  64 
senators  were  expelled  from  the  senate  by  the  censors  Gellius  and  Len- 
tulus. 

1  He  did  not  die  of  the  so-called  Phthiriasis.  Cf.  Mommaen,  Hist,  of  Rovn^ 
III.  p.  390. 


134:  Ancient  History.  B.  c. 

78-67.    War  against  the  pirates. 

The  result  of  the  neglect  of  the  Roman  marine  since  the  destruc- 
tion of  Carthage,  and  of  the  oppression  of  the  Roman  governors  in 
Asia  was  a  constant  increase  of  piracy.  There  gradually  grew  up 
an  organized  pirate-community,  whose  principal  seats  were  Crete  and 
Ciltcia.  The  pirates  controlled  the  entire  Mediterranean  as  far  as 
the  columns  of  Hercules,  and  captured  the  vessels  which  were  convey- 
ing grain  to  Rome. 
78.   War  had  been  waged  with  the  pirates  since  78,  at  first  under  the 

proconsul  of  Asia,  P.   Servilius,  who  destroyed  many  pirate 
75.        cities,  and  in  the  year  75  took  possession  of  Isauria,  Pamphylia, 

Pisidia,  for  Rome,  under  the  name  of  Cilicia,  and  afterwards 
74.        under  the  praetor  M.  Antonius,  who  possessed  most  extensive 

powers,  but  accomplished  little,  and  in  71  died  at  Crete  after 

being  defeated  by  the  Cretans. 
68.   Metdlus  after  a  long  contest,  subdued  Crete  (province  since  67), 

whose  inhabitants  lived  for  the  most  part,  upon  piracy.     As 

piracy  still  continued, 
67.   Pompeius  received,  on  the  motion  of  Gabinius  (lex  Gabinia)^  for 

three  years  unlimited  command  over  the  whole  Mediterra- 
nean and  its  coasts  for  fifty  miles  inland  ;  the  public  treasuries  and 
resources  of  all  the  provinces  and  client  states  were  placed  uncondi- 
tionally at  his  disposal.  In  three  months  Pompeius,  in  two  short  cam- 
Saigns,  completedly  cleared  first  the  western^  then  the  eastern, 
lediterranean  of  pirates,  captured  3000  vessels,  put  to  death  10,000 
pirates,  destroyed  their  fortresses,  captured  20,000  men,  and  settled 
them  in  the  interior  of  the  country.  (Construction  of  Pompeiopolis  in 
Cilicia.) 

74-64.    Third  Mithridatio  war. 

Cause  :  Strained  relations  between  the  Romans  on  the  one  side,  and 
Mithridates  of  Pontus  and  his  son-in-law,  Tigranes  of  Armenia,  on 
the  other.  Tlie  latter  took  possession  of  the  kingdoms  of  Cappadocia 
and  Syria.  When  Nicomedes  III.,  of  Bithynia,  likewise  son-in-law  of 
Mithridates,  bequeathed  his  kingdom  to  Rome,  and  Bithynia  was 
made  a  Roman  province,  Mithridates  declared  war  and  occupied  Bi- 
thynia. 

74.  The  conduct  of  the  war  was  entrusted  to  the  two  consuls  L.  Lu- 
cullus,  who  was  to  enter  the  kingdom  of  Pontus  through  Phry- 
gia,  and  M.  Aurelius  Cotta,  who  sailed  with  the  fleet  for  the 
Propontis.  Mithridates  defeated  the  latter  by  land  and  sea  at 
Chalcedon  and  laid  siege  to  Cyzicus,  which  was  relieved  by  Lu- 
cuUus,  who  hastened  from  the  south. 
73.  Mithridates  was  forced  to  retreat  with  great  loss.  LucuUus  as 
proconsul  conducted  the  war  successfully  at  sea  ;  then  took  the 
offensive  on  land,  crossed  the  Halys  (Kisil  Irmak),  traversed 
Pontus,  defeated  Mithridates  at  Cabira,  and  drove  the  king 
completely  out  of  his  kingdom.  He  took  refuge  with  his  son- 
in-law,  Tigranes,  while  Lucullus,  after  a  tedious  siege,  cap- 
72-70.  tured  the  trading  cities  Heraclea^  Sinope,  Amisus,  and  occupied 
Armenia  Minor. 


B.  C.  Roman  Hutory.  135 

Without  waiting  for  authority  from  the  senate,  LueuUus  opened 
war  upon  Tigranes,  crossed  the  Euphrates  into  Armenia  proper,  de- 
feated Tigranes  m  the  famous 

69.     Battle  of  Tigranocerta, 

captured  that  city,  and  then  turned  against  the  two  kings  who 
had  now  joined  forces.  LucuUus  forced  the  passage  of  the  Euphrates 
(68)  by  a  second  successful  encounter  with  the  enemy,  crossed  the 
river  here  in  its  upper  course  for  the  second  time,^  marched  through 
the  Armenian  plateau  toward  Artaxata,  the  residence  of  Tigranes, 
but  was  compelled  by  a  mutiny  among  his  soldiers  (P.  Clodius,  broth- 
er-in-law of  Lucullus)  to  begin  a  retreat  over  the  Tigris  to  Mesopo- 
tamia, long  before  he  had  reached  Artaxata.^ 

Lucullus  took  Nisibis  by  storm,  but  was  obliged  to  cross  to  the 
right  bank  of  the  Euphrates  again  to  rescue  a  division  of  the  army 
which  had  been  cut  oft'  (67).  Meantime  Mithridates  returned  to  Pon- 
tus  and  defeated  a  Roman  force  under  Triarius  at  Zela  (Ziela). 
New  mutinies  in  the  army  of  Lucullus,  who  was  at  the  same  time  in- 
formed that  he  was  slandered  at  Rome,  that  he  had  been  recalled,  and 
the  consul  M\  Acilius  Glabrio  appointed  in  his  stead.  Glabrio  went  to 
Asia,  but  in  consideration  of  the  difficult  position  of  affairs,  did  not 
assume  conmiand.  Luft.:Uus  conducted  the  Roman  army  by  a  mas- 
terly retreat  back  to  Asia  Minor. 

Mithridates,  having  not  only  reconquered  Pontus,  but  also  com- 
menced to  ravage  Bithynia  and  Cappadocia,  a  law  was  passed  at  the 
instance  of  the  tribune  of  the  people,  C.  Manilius  (Cicero's  oration, 
pro  imperio  Cn.  Pompeii,  or  pro  lege  Manilia),  entrusting 

^56.     Cn.  Pompeius  -with  the  command  in  Asia  "with  unlimited 
povrers. 

Unfriendly  meeting  of  Lucullus  and  Pompeius  at  Danala  in  Gralatia. 
After  concluding  a  treaty  with  the  Parthians,  whom  he  guaranteed 
possession  of  Mesopotamia,  Pompeius  opened  the  campaign  partly 
with  new  troops,  drove  Mithridates  out  of  Pontus,  and  defeated  him 
in  the 

66.  Battle  by  night  on  the  Lycos  (Yeshil  Irmak),  near  the  future 
Nicopolis  in  Armenia  minor.  Abandoned  by  Tigranes,  Mithri- 
dates fled  to  Colchis.  Pompeius  followed  as  far  as  the  Phasis,  return- 
ing then  to  Armenia,  where  his  ally,  the  king  of  the  Partliians,  had 
meantime  made  an  inroad.  At  Artaxata  Tigranes  gave  himself  up 
to  Pompeius,  who  permitted  him  to  keep  Armenia  proper  for  his 
own  kingdom,  but  took  from  him  all  his  conquests,  Syria,  Phoenicia, 
Cappadocia,  and  imposed  upon  him  a  fine  of  6000  talents. 
65.  After  an  expedition  northward,  where  he  fought  successfully 
with  the  Caucasian  tribes,  Pompeius  for  the  second  time  aban- 
doned the  pursuit  of  Mithridates,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  Tauric, 
Chersonese  (Crimea),  and  went  to  Pontus,  and  thence  to  Syria. 

1  Cf.  Kiepert,  Atlas  Anfiquus,  Tab.  III. 

2  The  second  victory  of  Lucullus  was  not  gained  near  JHaxata.  CI 
Monunsen,  Hist,  of  Rome,  IV.  p.  70. 


136  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

64r-63.     Organization  of  the  Roman  possessions  in  Asia,  under  Pom- 
peius.      New   Provinces :    1.   Pontus,   comprising   Bithynia 
(already  treated  as  a  province  since  74),  the  coast  of  Faphlagonia, 
and  the  western  part  of  Pontus  proper,  along  the  coast.     The  rest 
of  the  kingdom  of  Mithridates  was  given  to  vassal  kings.     2.  Syria, 
comprising  at  first  only  the  coast  from  the  gulf  of  Issus  to  Damascus, 
afterwards  considerably  enlarged.     3.  Cilicia,  reorganized  by  Pom- 
peius,  although  it  had  been  a  province  in  name  since  75.     It  included 
Pamphylia  and  Isauria  (p.  134).     These  Asiatic  provinces  were  much 
cut  up,   and   surrounded   by:    (a)   territories   of  autonomous  cities  J 
(6)  princely  and   priestly  sovereignties   under   Roman  supremacy. 
The  most  distinguished  of  the  vassal  kings  of  Rome  in  the  east  were 
the  king  of  Cappadocia,  and  Deiotarus^  king  of  Galatia  (p.  78).     In 
Palestine,  after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple,  Pompeius 
restored  Hyrcanus,  who  had  been  driven  out  by  his  brother,  as  high- 
priest  and  civil  governor,  but  made  him  tributary  to  Rome. 
63.     Mithridates,  who  had  busied  himself  with  gigantic  schemes  of 
a  land  expedition  to  Italy,  killed  himself  at  Panticapceum,  in 
the  Tauric  Chersonese,  in  consequence  of  the  revolt  of  his  son, 
Pharnaces.     Upon  receipt  of  tins  news  Pompeius  returned  to 
Pontus.    He  confirmed  Pharnaces  in  possession  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Bosphorus. 
61.     Return  of  Pompeius  to  Italy.     He  dismissed  his  army  at  Brun- 
disium,  and  entered  Rome  as  a  private  citizen.     Magnificent 
triumph,  lasting  two  days. 

66-62.     Conspiracy  of  Catiline. 

Union  of  the  democrats  and  the  anarchists.  Leaders  of  the  demo- 
crats: M.  Crassus  and  C.  Julius  Caesar  (bom  102  ?,  son-in-law  of 
Cinna,  outlawed  by  Sulla,  afterwards  pardoned,  67  quaestor  in  Spain, 
65  sedile,  63  pontifex  maximus).  Leader  of  the  anarchists:  It.  Ser- 
gius  Catilina,  ex-prsetor,  one  of  Sulla's  executioners.  The  demo- 
crats dreaded  the  reconciliation  of  Pompeius,  whose  military  dictator- 
ship was  the  work  of  their  own  hands,  with  the  optimates.  Hence 
they  sought  to  overthrow  the  existing  government  before  the  return 
of  Pompeius,  by  a  violent  revolution,  while  the  anarchists,  in  part  pro- 
letarians, in  part  young  men  of  honorable  families  who  were  sunk  in 
debt,  hoped  for  plunder  and  confiscation  of  property. 

The  first  conspiracy,  in  66,  according  to  which  the  consuls  for  G5 
were  to  be  murdered,  and  Crassus  made  dictator,  and  CcEsar,  master 
of  the  horse,  failed  of  execution  through  the  indecision  of  some  partici- 
pants. At  the  close  of  the  year  64,  it  was  again  renewed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  securing  the  election  of  L.  Catilina  and  C.  Antonius  (also  a 
former  follower  of  Sulla)  at  the  consular  elections  for  63,  by  the  in- 
fluence of  Coisar  and  Crassus,  who  were  to  remain  in  the  background. 
Antonius  alone  was,  however,  actually  elected;  his  colleague  for  63 
was  M.  Tullius  Cicero,  a  favorite  lawyer  and  orator,  belonging  to 
no  party  unreservedly  (born  106,  75  quaestor  in  Sicily,  70  prosecutor 
of  VerreSy  69  sedile,  66  praetor  urbanus).  The  latter  resigned  before- 
hand to  Antonius,  who  was  deep  in  debt,  the  lucrative  governorship 
of  Macedonia,  thereby  detaching  him  from  the  conspirators. 


B.  C.  Roman  History.  137 

Formation  of  an  insurgent  army  in  Etruria,  under  C.  Manlius,  a 
comrade  of  Catiline;  at  Rome  organization  of  the  conspirators,  who, 
at  a  given  signal,  were  to  fire  the  city,  and  thereby  produce  imiversal 
confusion.  Plan  of  Catiline  to  murder  liis  competitors  at  the  con- 
sular election  for  62,  and  the  consul,  Cicero,  who  would  preside  over 
the  election.  Cicero,  informed  of  this  by  his  spies,  denounced  the 
conspiracy  in  the  senate,  appeared  on  the  day  of  the  election  sur- 
rounded by  numerous  armed  guards,  and  defeated  the  election  of 
Catiline.  The  latter's  plan  of  having  Cicero  surprised  and  murdered 
in  his  own  house  was  also  betrayed  and  failed. 
63.  Nov.  8.  First  speech  of  Cicero  against  Catiline 
delivered  in  the  senate. 

Catiline  left  the  city,  and  betook  himself  to  the  army  of 
Manlius  in  Etruria. 
Nov.  9.    Second    speech  of    Cicero  against  Catiline,  to  the   people. 
The    accomplices   of    Catiline,  Lentulu.%    Cethegus,    Gabinim, 
Statilius,   and    Cceparius,   were    taken    into    custody   on   the 
strength  of  written  proofs  of  guilt  obtained  by  Cicero. 
Dec.  3.    Third  speech  of  Cicero  against  Catiline,  to  the  people. 
Dec.  5.   Fourth  speech  of  Cicero  against  Catiline,  in  the  senate.     De- 
cree of  the  senate  that  the  traitors  be  strangled  in  prison  with- 
out trial  and  sentence  (Ccesar  opposed  the  resolution  ;  Cato's 
speech  determined  the  vote),  executed  by  the  consul  Cicero. 
Cicero  greeted  as  pater  patrice. 
The  consul  Antonius  was  entrusted  with  the  conduct  of  the  war 
against  Catiline.     His  lieutenant  defeated  Catiline  at  Pistoria   (62). 
Catiline  and  3000  of  his  followers  fell  on  the  field. 
62.    Caesar  administered  the  prsetorship  in  Rome.     A  part  of  his 
large  indebtedness  having  been  paid  by  Crassus,  he  went  for 
61.        the  year  to  Hispania  Ulterior,  as  propraetor,  where  he  laid  the 
foundation  of  his  military  fame,  and  where  he  found  means 
to  discharge  his  debts.     He  returned  bearing  the  honorary  title  of 
"  imperator,"  but  refused  to  triumph,  in  order  that  he  might  become 
a  candidate  for  the  consulship.     The  refusal  of  the  senate  to  grant 
the  allotment  of    lands  requested  by  Pompeius  for  his  veterans, 
led  to  a  complete  break  between  Pompeius  and  the  government,  and 
resulted  in  the  so-called 

60.   First  Triumvirate, 

a  reciprocal  agreement    of  the  three  statesmen  Pompeius, 
Caesar,  and  Crassus.     They  secured  the  election  for  the  next  year 
of 
59.    Caesar  as  consul. 

As  his  colleague,  the  optimate  M.  Bibulus,  and  the  senate  op- 
posed the  proposals  brought  in  by  Csesar  for  an  agrarian  law,  espe- 
cially in  the  interests  of  Pompeius'  veterans  (lex  Julia  de  agro  cam- 
pano  :  ut  ager  campanus  plehi  divider etur),  and  the  ratification  of  the 
organization  of  Asia,  these  measures  were  submitted  to  the  popular 
assemblies  and  passed  by  them,  without  the  approval  of  the  senate. 
Violence  ofPered  Bibulus  and  M.  Porcius  Cato.  Bibulus  did  not 
dare   leave  his   house   again   during  his  year  of    office.     Intimate 


138  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

friendship  and  close  family  ties  between  Caesar  and  Pompeius. 
Caesar's  daughter,  Julia,  23  years  old,  given  to  Pompeius  in  marriage. 
On  the  motion  of  P.  Vatinius,  tribune  of  the  people,  Csesar  received 
by  a  popular  decree  the  government  of  Gallia  Cisalpina  and  Illyri- 
cum  for  5  years,  with  extraordinary  powers.  At  Pompeius'  motion 
the  astounded  senate  added  Gallia  Narbonensis  (p.  125)  to  Caesar's 
province.  A.  Gabinius,  a  friend  and  military  companion  of 
Pompeius,  and  L.  Piso,  father-in-law  of  Csesar,  were  elected  consuls 
for  the  following  year.  The  execution  of  the  agrarian  law  was  en- 
trusted to  Pompeius  and  Crassu^.  Before  Csesar  departed  for  his 
province, 
58.   The  absence  of  Cato  and  Cicero  from  Rome  was  procured 

by  P.  Clodius,  tribune  of  the  people,  who  had  secured  this 
office  at  the  sacrilice  of  his  patrician  rank  by  hasty  adoption  into  a 
plebeian  family.  Cato  was  appomted  by  a  popular  vote  to  take  pos- 
session of  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus,  which  had  been  left  to  Rome  by 
will.  Cicero  was  driven  to  flight  by  the  decree, "  Whoever  shall  have 
caused  the  execution  of  a  Roman  citizen  without  legal  sentence  shall 
be  punished  with  outlawry  "  (lex  Clodia :  ut  qui  civem  Romanum  in- 
demnatum  interemisset  ei  aqua  et  igni  interdiceretur^,  and  then  banished 
by  a  second  lex  Clodia  to  a  distance  of  400  Roman  miles  from  Rome. 
Clodius  caused  Cicero's  house  on  the  Palatine  to  be  burned,  and  his 
Tusculan  and  Formean  estate  to  be  ravaged. 
58-51.   Conquest  of  Gaul  by  Caesar. 

Results  of  Caesar's  eight  years  of  brilliant  warfare,  and  its 
meaning  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

1.  Annihilation  of  the  Celts,  as  a  nation,  for  whose  lasting  Romani- 
zation  Caesar  opened  the  way. 

2.  Creation  of  a  dam  which  for  four  centuries  protected  the 
Romano-Hellenic  civilization  against  destruction  by  the  German  bar- 
barians. 

3.  Enlargement  of  the  boundaries  of  the  old  world,  not  only  by  the 
immediate  conquest,  but  also  through  the  information  obtained  by 
Caesar's  expeditions  to  Britannia  and  Germania. 

4.  Acquirement  of  the  means  for  accomplishing  the  change,  now 
become  necessary,  of  the  Roman  republic  into  a  monarchy  :  the  vet- 
eran legions  and  troops  of  the  allied  states,  who  had  become  at- 
tached to  their  general  and  expert  in  war. 

58.  Victory  of  Caesar  over  the  Helvetians,  who  had  invaded  Gaul, 
at  Bibracte,!  and  over  the  German  prince  Ariovistus,  N.  E. 
of  Vesontio  (Besan^on)  in  the  vicinity  of  Muhlhausen  in 
Alsace 2  (Caesar,  Bellum  Gallicum,  I.). 

57.  Subjugation  of  the  Belgii.  Annihilation  of  the  Nervii  in  Hen- 
negau  by  a  terrible  battle  on  the  Sambre,  not  far  from  Bavay 
(B.  Gall.  III.).  In  the  southeast,  occupation  of  Octodurus 
(Martigny),  to  secure  the  Alpine  pass  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard. 

56.   Subjugation  of   the   Veneti    in  Armorica   (Bretagne)   by  Caesar, 

1  On  the  site  of  the  modern  Aufun,  according  to  v.  Qoler ;  two  miles  wort 
►f  Aiitun  according  to  Napoleon  III.  ( Vie  ae  Cesar.) 

2  See  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Rome,  IV.  p.  244,  note. 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  139 

after  hard  fighting  on  land  and  sea,  and  of  the  Aquitani    by 
his  lieutenant  P.  Crassus,  son  of  the  triumvir.     In  the  north- 
east, successful  war  with  the  Morini  and  Menapii  (B.  Gall. 
III.). 
55.     Csesar  drove  the  Germanic  tribes  of  the  Usipetes  and  Tenchteri 
back  across  the  Rhine.     Passage  of  the  Rhine  on  a  bridge  of 
piles,  between  Coblence  and  Andernach.     After  a  stay  of  fifteen 
days  on  the  right  bank,  Caesar  recrossed  the   stream.     {B. 
Gall.  IV.) 
First  expedition  to  Britain  with  two  legions.     Departure  from  two 
ports,  one  of  which  was   Itius  partus,   E.  and  W.  of  Cape 
Grisnez,  landing  between  Dover  and  Deal,  probably  at  Walmer 
Castle.^     (B.  Gall.  IV.) 
54.     Second  expedition  to  Britain,  with  five  legions.     Cassivelaunus, 
leader  of  the  British  Celts.     Csesar  crossed  the  Stour  and  the 
Thames  (between  Kingston  and  Brentford),  while  Cassivelau- 
nus  attackad  the  Roman  camp  where  the  ships  lay.     Retreat 
and  embarkation  of  Csesar  after  he  had  received  hostages. 
(B.  Gall.  V.) 
53.     Insurrection  of  the  Eburones  under  Amhiorix,  and  of  other  tribes. 

Csesar  crossed  the  Rhine  a  second  time.     {B.  Gall.  VI.) 
52.     General  insurrection  of  the  Gauls  under  the  Arvernian,  Vercin- 
getorix.     Siege  and  capture  of  Avaricum  (Bourges)  by  Cse- 
sar,  occupation  of  Lutetia  Parisiorum   (Paris)   by  Lahienus. 
Unsuccessful  siege  of  Gergovia,  near  Clermont  in  the  Auvergne  ; 
Csesar,  compelled  to  retreat,  united  with  Lahienus.     Siege  of 
Alesia  (Alise  Sainte-Reine  at  Semur  in  the  Dep.  C6te  d'Or, 
between  Chatillon  and  Dijon)  by  Csesar,  while  the  Roman 
army  was  in  turn  surrounded  and  besieged  by  the  insurgent 
army  of  relief  ;  after  a  hard  fight,  complete  victory  of  Csesar. 
Vercingetorix  forced  to   surrender  himself.     He  was  exe- 
cuted at  Rome,  five  years  later  (B.  Gall.  VII.). 
51.     Completion  of  the  subjugation  of  Transalpine  Gaul  (cruel  pun- 
ishment of  the  insurgents).     Ten  legions  located  in  detach- 
ments throughout  the  country  held  it  in  obedience  to  Csesar. 
While  these  magnificent  feats  of  war  were  placing  the  older  mili- 
tary fame  of  Pompeius  in  the  shade,  the  latter  was  trying  unsuccess- 
fully to  master  the  anarchy  at  Rome.     Leader  of  the  ultra-demo- 
crats, the  former  tribune,  P.  Clodius  (pp.  135, 138).    In  opposition  to 
him  the  recall  of  M.  Tullius  Cicero  was  procured  in  57,  by  the  efforts 
of  the  tribune  T.  Annius  Milo.     In  the  same  year  M.  Porcius  Cato 
returned  to  Rome.    The  aristocratic  reaction  opposed  the  armed  bands 
of  Clodius,  which  patrolled  the  streets  and  forum,  with  the  armed 
bands  of  Milo.     The  attempt  of  the  republicans  in  the  senate  to  free 
themselves  from  the  influence  of  the  rulers,  and  the  resolution  to 
revise  the  agrarian  law  passed  during  the  consulate  of  Csesar,  resulted 
in  a  renewal  of  the  alliance  of  the  three  statesmen. 

1  Compare  Heller,  Ccesar's  Expedition  nach  Brittanien,  in  the  Zeitschrift 
fur  allg.  Erdlcunde,  1865.  According  to  v.  Goler,  the  first  expedition  started 
irom  Wissant  near  Cape  Grisnez,  the  second  from  Calais. 


140  Ancient  History,  b.  c. 

In  56  a  meeting  of  the  triumvirs  Caesar,  Pompeius,  and  Crassus, 
and  their  followers  (200  senators)  took  place  in  Luca.  In  conse- 
quence of  agreements  there  concluded,  the  election  of  Fompeius 
and  Crassus  as  consuls  for  55  was  carried  by  the  use  of  force.  A 
decree  of  the  people  {lex  Trebonid)  then  assigned  to  Pompeius  the 
government  of  both  Spains  for  five  years,  and  to  Crassus  that  of 
Syria,  while  Caesar's  command  in  Gaul  was  prolonged  for  Jive  years 
more,  and  the  payment  of  those  troops  which  he  had  recruited  on  his 
own  authority  was  assumed  by  the  state.  The  Roman  aristocracy 
was  obliged  to  submit  to  these  decrees. 

After  the  close  of  his  year  of  office  as  consul  Crassus  went  to 
Syria  in  54,  where  he  undertook  in  53  an  expedition  against  the  Par- 
thians.  He  suffered  a  terrible  defeat  at  Carrhae  in  Mesopotamia, 
and  was  shortly  after  killed  by  the  Parthians  during  an  interview 
with  one  of  their  satraps.  Pompeius  remained  in  Rome,  and  dele- 
gated the  administration  of  his  provinces  to  his  legates. 

In  52  Clodius  and  MUo  happening  to  meet  on  the  Via  Appia,  a 
fight  sprang  up  between  their  followers,  during  which  Clodius  was 
wounded,  and  then,  at  Milo's  command,  put  to  death.  Clodius* 
corpse  was  carried  to  the  Curia  Hastilia,  near  the  foriun  in  Rome, 
and  there  burnt,  together  with  the  buUding.  To  put  an  end  to  the 
disturbances  of  the  mob  which  followed  this  event,  Pompeius  was 
appointed  "consul  without  a  colleague"  by  the  senate,  and  clothed 
with  dictatorial  power.  Trial  of  MUo,  who  was  condemned  by  the 
jurors,  in  spite  of  Cicero's  oration  ^  in  his  defence,  to  be  banished. 
Cicero  proconsul  in  Cilicia.  Breach  between  Caesar  and  Pompeius, 
whose  connection  liad  been  previously  weakened  by  the  death  of  Julia 
(54).  Pompeius  selected  his  new  father-in-law,  Metellus  Scipio,  for  his 
colleague  in  office,  caused  his  governorship  in  Spain  to  be  prolonged 
for  five  years,  and  deprived  Caesar  of  two  legions,  urging  the  impor- 
tance of  the  Parthian  war,  which  a  victory  had  already  ended. 

Pompeius  openly  reassumed  the  leadership  of  the  republican  aris- 
tocracy (lex  de  vi  et  ambitu).  Caesar  remained  leader  of  the  democ- 
racy, which  under  a  constitution  without  representation  led  of  neces- 
sity to  monarchy.  Demand  of  the  senate  that  Caesar  should  resign 
his  command  before  the  expiration  of  the  term  which  had  formerly 
been  granted  him.  Refusal  of  the  senate  to  permit  Caesar  to  stand 
for  the  consulship  during  his  proconsulship,  as  had  been  allowed  by 
the  citizens.     This  brought  about  the 

49-46.     Civil  war  between  Caesar  and  Pompeius. 

The  senate  declared  Caesar  a  public  enemy  (hostis)  should  he 
not  disband  his  army  within  a  given  time.     The  tribunes  of  the  peo- 
ple who  favored  Caesar  fled  to  him  at  Ravenna. 
49.     Caesar,  with  one  legion,  crossed  the  brook  Rubicon,  the  boundary 

of  his  province,  and  thereby  opened  the  civil  war.  Great  con- 
sternation at  Rome.  Pompeius,  who  had  only  commenced  his  prepa- 
rations, and  the  greater  part  of  the  senate,  fled  to  Brundisium.   Caesar, 

1  Not  the  one  which  we  have.  This  was  written  for  the  occasion,  but  the 
tumult  and  fear  prevented  its  delivery. 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  141 

reinforced  by  a  second  legion  which  had  overtaken  him,  marched 
through  Umbria,  Picenum,  where  Domitius,  at  Corjinium,  was  obliged 
to  surrender,  and  Apulia  to  Brundisium,  to  which  he  laid  siege,  after 
a  third  legion  of  veterans  had  joined  him,  and  he  had  levied  three 
new  legions.  Pompeius  succeeded  in  conveying  his  troops,  by  two 
expeditions,  to  Greece,  before  the  capture  of  the  city.  Caesar,  unable 
to  follow  him  from  lack  of  vessels,  commenced  the  construction  of  a 
fleet,  and  went  to  Rome.  There  he  quieted  the  apprehensions  of  a 
return  of  the  horrors  of  the  first  civil  war.  Magnanimous  behavior 
toward  his  foes  (Caesar,  Bell.  Civ.  1-33). 

49.  Caesar  went  by  land  to  Spain  to  subdue  Pompeius'  legates, 
Spring,  leaving  Trebonius  to  besiege  Massilia.  The  legates  of  Pom- 
49.  peius,  Afranius  and  Petreius,  were  compelled  to  surrender  at 

Aug.  Ilerda  (Lerida),  N.  of  the  Ebro,  and  their  army  was  dis- 
banded (C^sar,  Bell.  Civ.  I.  34-87). 
Varro,  who  commanded  in  Hispania  ulteriora,  threw  himself  into 
Gades  (Cadiz),  but  most  of  the  cities  joining  Caesar,  he  capitulated. 
On  Caesar's  march  back  to  Italy,  Massilia^  which  was  suffering  from 
starvation,  surrendered  on  being  threatened  with  a  storm  (Caesar,  Bell. 
Civ.  II.  1-22).  Meantime  Caesar's  legate  Curio  had  reduced  Sicily 
to  subjection.  He  then  crossed  to  Africa,  where  he  was  at  first  victo- 
rious at  Utica,  but  was  afterwards  defeated  at  the  Bagradas  by  Jubay 
king  of  Numidia,  who  had  declared  for  Pompeius,  and  fell  in  the 
battle  (Caesar,  Bell.  Civ.  II.  23-44). 

Caesar,  during  his  absence,  was  proclaimed  dictator  at  Rome 
by  the  praetor  M.  ^milius  Lepidus  (on  the  authority  of  a  new 
lex  de  dictatore  creando),  but  abdicated  the  office  after  eleven 
days,  and  had  himself  appointed  consul,  with  P.  Servilius,  for 
the  year 
48.     while  that  part  of  the  senate  which  had  participated  in  Pom- 
peius' flight  to  Greece  prolonged  the  term  of  office  of  Pom- 
peius and  all  the  officials  of  the  previous  year. 
Caesar  landed  in  northern  Epirus,  at   Oricum,  not  far  from  the 
promontory  of  Acroceraunia,  with  a  part  of  his  army.     The  trans- 
ports which  returned  for  tlie  rest  of  the  troops  were  mostly  captured 
by  the  fleet  of  Pompeius;  and  the  coasts  of  Italy   being   sharply 
watched,  Caesar  was  placed  in  a  situation  of  great  difficulty,  as  M. 
Antonius  was  able  to  transport  the  second  half  of  the  army  only  after 
several  months.     His  army  being  at  last  united,  Caesar  inclosed  the 
army  of  Pompeius  at  Dyrrhachium  by  a  long  chain  of  military  posts. 
Daily  skirmishes,  for  the  most  part  favorable  for  Caesar.     At  last 
however,  Pompeius  broke  through  Caesar's  line.     Caesar,  defeated 
and  compelled  to  retreat,  went  to  Thessaly,  whither  Pompeius  fol- 
lowed him,  leaving  Cato  in  Dyrrhachium.     In  the  Thessalian  plain 
was  fought  the 

48.     Decisive  battle  of  Pharsalus. 

Aug.  9.    Caesar,  with  about  22,000  men,  defeated  and  completely  scat- 
tered the  army  of  Pompeius,  which  had  more  than  twice 
that  strength;  20,000  men  laid  down  their  arms.     Pompeius  fled  to 
the  coast,  and  took  ship  for  Egypt  by  way  of  Lesbos.    At  the  command 


142  Ancient  History.  B.  c. 

of  the  minister  of  the  young  king,  Ptolemaeus,  he  was  murdered  upon 
landing.  Caesar  followed  Pompeius  and  landed  in  Alexandria  with 
4000  men  (Cjesar,  Bell  Civ.  III.). 

Especial  honors  paid  to  Caesar  in  Rome  (consulate  for  five  years, 
tribunate  for  life,  dictatorship  for  one  year).  Caesar  having  taken  it 
upon  himself,  at  Alexandria,  to  decide  between  the  ten-year  old  Ptole- 
mceus  and  his  followers  and  his  sixteen-year  old  sister  Cleopatra,  there 
broke  out  the  so-called 

48-^7.     Alexandrine  vrar, 

an  uprising  of  the  whole  population  of  Alexandria,  sup- 
ported by  the  Roman  army  of  occupation,  which  had  been  in  garrison 
there  since  the  restoration  of  the  king  Ptolemoeus  Auletes  (55).  Caesar, 
besieged  in  the  royal  palace,  was  in  the  greatest  danger,  from  which 
only  his  reckless  daring  rescued  him.  He  caused  the  Egyptian  fleet 
to  be  set  on  fire,  whereby  the  famous  library  of  Alexandria  (p.  77) 
was  also  burned.  Caesar,  with  the  help  of  an  army  of  relief  which 
arrived  from  Asia,  defeated  the  Egyptian  army  on  the  Nile.  The 
young  king  Ptolemaeus  was  drowned  on  the  flight.  The  government 
was  given  to  Cleopatra  and  her  younger  brother,  under  Roman  sti- 
premacy,  and  a  Roman  garrison  was  left  in  Alexandria.  Caesar  went 
to  Asia  Minor,  and  in  a  Jive  days'  campaign  {yeni,  vidi,  vici)  ended 
the 
47.     "War  against  Pharnaces, 

son  of  Mithridates  (p.  136),  who  had  occupied  Pontus,  Arme- 
nia Minor,  and  Cappadocia.  Caesar  defeated  him  at  Zela  and  forced 
him  to  fly.  Pharnaces  fell  in  battle  against  a  revolted  governor. 
Arrangement  of  the  Asiatic  relations.  Deiotarus,  who  had  fought 
against  Caesar  at  Pharsalus,  lost  the  greater  part  of  his  kingdom. 

Return  of  Caesar  to  Rome.  After  he  had  subdued  a  mutiny  of  the 
tenth  legion,  he  undertook  the 

47-46.     War  in  Africa 

against  the  adherents  of  Pompeius,  Sextus  Pompeius,  Scipio, 
Cato,  Lahienus,  Petreius,  king  Jvha.  Caesar  landed  at  Hadrumetum, 
where  he  was  in  great  danger,  since  the  larger  part  of  his  force  did 
not  arrive  till  later  in  consequence  of  a  storm.  After  several  unim- 
portant encounters  Caesar  defeated  and  annihilated  the  republican 
army,  which  far  outnumbered  his  own,  in  the 

46.     Battle  of  Thapsus, 

during  and  after  which  50,000  of  the  enemy  were  slaughtered 
by  Caesar's  embittered  soldiers.  Scipio  killed  himself  on  the  flight, 
Cato  committed  suicide  in  Utica,  Petreius  and  Juba  agreed  to  kill  one 
another,  in  a  personal  contest.  Juba  struck  Petreius  down ;  and  being 
himself  but  slightly  wounded,  had  liimself  killed  by  one  of  his  slaves. 
Labienus  and  Sextus  Pompeius  escaped  to  the  latter's  brother,  Cn. 
Pompeius,  in  Spain. 

A  part  of  Numidia  was  united  with  the  province  of  Africa  by 
Caesar;  the  rest  was  given  to  Bocchus,  king  of  eastern  Mauritania. 

Return  of  Caesar  to  Rome,  where  he  celebrated  four  triumphs,  for 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  143 

Gavl^  Egypt,  Phamaces,  Africa.  Entertainments  for  the  people,  splen- 
did games,  distribution  of  gold  and  grain.  Caesar  was  appointed  dic- 
tator for  10  years,  and  censor  without  a  colleague,  under  the  title 
prcE/ectus  morum,  for  3  years.  Correction  of  the  Calendar,  by  an 
extraordinary  intercalation  of  67  days  in  the  year  46 ;  thereafter  there 
was  a  solar  year  of  365^  days  (a  leap-year  every  four  years  ivithout 
exception). 

46-45.     Wax  against  the  sons  of  Pompeius, 

Cncms  and  Sextus,  and  the  rest  of  the  Pompeian  party.  Al- 
though repulsed  before  Corduba  by  Sextus  Pompeius,  Caesar  by  great 
exertions  defeated  both  brothers  in  the 

45.     Battle  of  Munda,  north  of  Ronda,  between 

Cordova  and  Gibraltar,  in  which  he  was  obliged  to  lead  the 
legions  against  the  enemy  in  person.  Over  30,000  Pompeians  were 
slain,  and  among  them  Labienus,  Varus,  Cn.  Pompeius  ;  Sextus  es- 
caped. 

After  Caesar  had  returned  to  Rome  he  caused  the  senate  to  appoint 
him  at  first  (45)  consul  for  10  years,  afterwards  (44)  dictator,  and 
censor /or  life.  Since  48  he  had  borne  the  new  official  title  Impera- 
tor,  which  denotes  the  possessor  of  the  imperium,  the  concept  of  civil 
and  military  official  power.^  This  included  full  control  of  the  finances 
and  the  military  power  of  the  state,  and  also  the  right  of  coining 
money  with  the  portrait  of  the  ruler  of  the  state.  As  proefectus  morum 
(censor)  Caesar  had  the  right  of  enlarging  the  senate  ;  as  pontifex 
maximus  he  possessed  the  control  of  religious  affairs  ;  as  possessor 
since  48  of  a  power  resembling  that  of  the  tribunes,  he  had  the  ini- 
tiative in  legislation,  and  was  the  inviolable  (sacrosanctus)  protector 
and  representative  of  the  people.  Accordingly  the  position  and 
powers  of  the  new  democratic  monarch  were  almost  exactly  analo- 
gous to  those  of  the  old  Roman  kings. 

The  people  retained,  nevertheless,  at  least  in  form,  a  share  of  the 
sovereignty,  all  laws  affecting  the  constitution  requiring,  as  under  the 
republic,  to  be  ratified  by  the  comitiae,  which  were,  however,  easily 
controlled.  The  senate  became  again,  what  it  had  been  under  the 
kings,  an  advisatory  council  only.  Caesar  brought  the  number  of 
members  up  to  900  and  increased  the  number  of  quaestors  from  20  to 
40.  Election  to  this  office,  it  will  be  remembered  (p.  132),  admitted 
the  holder  to  the  senate.  The  democratic  monarch,  however,  exercised 
to  the  utmost  his  right  of  appointmg  senators,  and  thereby  gravely 
offended  the  nobility.  Ex-centurions,  Spaniards,  Gauls,  sons  of  freed- 
men,  etc.,  found  through  him  admission  to  the  senate.  The  monarch 
had  an  extensive  right  of  nomination  at  the  elections  of  magistrates. 

Restoration  of  the  old  royal  jurisdiction  exercised  by  decision 
of  the  monarch  alone,  from  whose  sentence  there  was  no  appeal,  — a 
right  which,  of  course,  was  but  rarely  exercised  (trial  of  Ligarius  and 
of  Deiotarus).  In  general  the  ordinary  judicial  system  was  retained. 
Praetors  increased  to  16. 

Reorganization  of  the  military  system.     Creation  of  legati  legionis 

1  Cf.  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Rome,  IV.  468,  note. 


144  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

pro  prcetore,  appointed  by  the  imperator.  Reform  of  the  Jinancial  ad' 
ministration.  The  system  of  tax-farming  was  exchanged  for  the  im- 
position of  direct  taxes.  Allotment  of  the  Italian  domains,  particu- 
larly among  the  veterans.  Wide-spread  colonization  in  the  provinces 
with  the  view  at  once  of  Latinizing  the  provinces,  and  of  diminishing 
the  number  of  proletarians  in  the  capital.  Commencement  of  mag- 
nificent buildings  in  Rome.  New  system  of  provincial  administration 
for  the  protection  of  the  provinces  against  the  extortions  of  the  gov- 
ernors. Sumptuary  laws.  Criminal  legislation.  Arrangement  of  the 
relations  of  debtor  and  creditor. 

Project  of  a  war  against  the  Parthians,  to  revenge  the  Roman  de- 
feat under  Crassus  (p.  140)  and  add  to  the  security  of  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  empire.  Conspiracy  of  some  50  republican  aristo- 
crats against  Caesar's  life  (M.  Junius  Brutus,  C.  Cassius.  Longinus, 
C.  Trehonius,  Decimus  Brutus,  Tillius  Cimher,  etc.). 

44.  Assassination  of  Caesar  during  a  session  of  the 
March  15.     senate, 

which  on  that  day  was  held  by  chance  in  a  hall  in  the  theatre 

of  Pompeius.     Csesar  fell,  pierced  with  23  wounds,  at  the  foot 

of  a  statue  of  Pompeius. 
For  a  moment  the  senate  took  the  reins  of  government  again,  and 
decreed  that  Caesar's  laws  should  continue  in  force,  and  offered  an 
amnesty  to  his  murderers.  But  the  populace  of  the  capital,  incited 
by  the  funeral  oration  of  M.  Antonius,  violently  assaulted  the  conspira- 
tors. The  leaders  of  the  conspirators  departed  for  the  provinces  which 
the  senate  had  assigned  them  :  M.  Brutus  to  Macedonia,  Cassius  to 
Syria,  Decimus  Brutus  to  Gallia  cisalpina. 

In  Rome  M.  Antonius  (consul  with  Dolahelld),  having  possession 
of  Caesar's  papers,  assumed  an  uncontrolled  power  under  pretext  of 
executing  the  will  of  the  dictator,  and  caused  Macedonia,  the  prov- 
ince of  M.  Brutus,  to  be  assigned  to  himself  with  five  of  the  six 
legions  which  Caesar  had  dispatched  thither  for  the  Parthian  war. 
Dolahella  received  Syria,  the  province  of  Cassius,  while  the  provinces 
of  Crete  and  Cyrene  were  assigned  to  M.  Brutus  and  Cassius.  Anto- 
nius, moreover,  procured  from  the  popular  assembly  the  province  of 
Gallia  cisalpina,  which  the  senate  had  refused  him.  In  the  hope  of 
balancing  the  usurped  power  of  Antonius,  the  senate  entered  into 
negotiations  with  the  eighteen-year-old  C.  Octavius,  Caesar's  grand- 
nephew  and  adopted  son,  henceforward  known  as  C.  Julius  Caesar 
Octavianus.  The  latter,  who  was  beloved  by  his  soldiers,  took  com- 
mand of  two  legions.  Antonius,  endeavoring  to  eject  Decimus  Bru- 
tus from  his  province  of  Gallia  cisalpina,  there  broke  out  the  so-called 
44-43.    "War  of  Mutina. 

As  was  advocated  by  Cicero  in  the  Philippics,  Hirtius  and 
Pansa,  consuls  for  43,  and  the  young  Octavianus  as  propraetor,  were 
sent  against  Antonius,  who  was  besieging  Decimus  Brutus  in  Mutina 
(Modena).  Pansa  died  at  Bononia  of  a  wound  received  in  the  first 
encounter  ;  Hirtius  fell  as  victor  in  the 
43.     Battle  of  Mutina 

against  Antonius,  who  was  now  declared  an  enemy  of  the  state 


B.  c.  Homan  History.  145 

(hostis).  While  Decimus  Brutus  followed  him  to  Gallia  cisalpina, 
Octavianus,  now  sole  eominander  of  the  army  which  was  originally 
the  army  of  the  senate,  marched  to  Rome,  and  extorted  his  appoint- 
ment to  the  consulship,  the  repeal  of  the  amnesty  extended  to  the 
conspirators,  and  their  sentence  (lex  Pedia).  This  accomplished,  he 
took  the  field,  in  appearance,  against  Antonius,  with  whom  he 
already  had  had  secret  negotiations.  Meantime  Decimus  Brutus  was 
abandoned  by  his  troops,  captured  upon  his  flight,  and  put  to  death 
at  Antonius'  command.     At  a  meeting  near  Bononia, 

43.     The  Second  Triumvirate  was  formed 

Nov.  avowedly  for  the  "  Organization  of  the  State  "  (triumviri  rei- 
puhlicce  constituendce)  by  Antonius,  Octavianus,  and  Lepi- 
dus,  the  former  magister  equitum  of  Caesar.  This  new  assumption  of 
power  was  ratified  by  a  decree  of  the  people  for  a  period  of  five  years. 
New  proscriptions ;  several  hundred  senators  and  2000  equites 
outlawed  and  their  property  confiscated.  Murder  of  Cicero.  The 
triumvirs  began 

43-42.     War  against  the  republican  party 

and  crossed  to  Greece,  where  they  were  opposed  by  M.  Bru- 
tus, who,  despite  the  senate's  decree,  had  taken  possession  of  his 
province,  and  C.  Cassius,  who  had  defeated  Dolahella  in  Syria  and 
driven  him  to  commit  suicide.     In  the 

42.     Battle  of  Philippi 

in  Thrace,  Antonius,  who  commanded  the  right  wing,  de- 
feated the  left  wing  of  the  republican  army  under  Cassius,  while 
Brutus  with  the  right  wing  of  the  republicans  drove  back  Octavia- 
nus. Hearing  a  false  report  of  the  defeat  of  Brutus,  Cassius 
caused  one  of  his  slaves  to  put  him  to  death.  Brutus,  being  defeated 
by  Antonius  in  a  second  battle,  killed  kimself. 

Antonius  ravaged  the  provinces  of  Asia  and  Syria,  and  then  fol- 
lowed Cleopatra  (p.  142),  whom  he  had  ordered  to  meet  him  at 
Tarsus,  to  Egypt.  Meantime  Octavianus,  in  Italy,  was  carrying  out 
the  promised  allotments  of  land  among  the  veterans.  Quarrels 
between  himself  and  the  followers  of  Antonius  led  to  the  so-called 

41-40.     Civil  war  of  Perusia 

between  Octavianus  and  Lepidus  on  the  one  side  and  Lucius 
Antonius,  the  brother,  and  Fulvia,  the  wife  of  the  triumvir,  on  the 
other.  L.  Antonius  was  compelled  to  surrender  in  Perusia.  Octavia- 
nus, now  supreme  ruler  of  Italy,  assumed  the  administration  of  Gaul 
and  Spain,  while  Lepidus  was  put  off  with  the  government  of  Africa. 
Another  civil  war  threatened,  but  was  avoided  by  a  compromise, 
which  the  death  of  Fulvia  facilitated.  Antonius  married  Octavia,  the 
sister  of  Octavianus.  The  administration  of  the  empire  was  divided 
between  the  triumvirs,  so  that 

40.     Octavianus  received  the  luest,  Antonius  the  east,  and  Lepi- 
dus Africa. 
89.     In  the  following  year,  however,  the  triumvirs  were  obliged  to 
make  terms  with  Sextus  Pompeius,  who  had  created  a  naval 
10 


146  Ancient  History.  B.  C. 

empire,  with  Sicily  as  the  base,  and  had  cut  off  the  grain  supplies  from 
Rome.  By  the  treaty  of  Misenum  Sextus  Pompeius  received  Sicili/y 
Sardinia,  Corsica  (?)  and  Peloponnesus,  with  the  promise  of  a  reim- 
bursement for  the  loss  of  his  paternal  property. 

Antonius  went  to  the  east,  where  he  lived  for  the  most  part  with 
Cleopatra  in  Egypt.  He  carried  on,  however,  a  war  with  the  Par- 
thians,  at  first  through  his  legate  Ventidius  (39),  and  afterwards  in 
person  (36),  but  without  much  success.     New  quarrels  led  to  the 

38-36.     Sicilian  war 

between  the  triumvirs  and  Sextus  Pompeius.  Octavianus,  aban- 
doned by  both  his  colleagues,  was  obliged  to  conduct  the  war  alone 
at  first,  and  suffered  great  loss  at  sea.  A  difference  between  Octa- 
vianus and  Antonius  was  made  up  at  a  meeting  in  Tarentum,  and 
Octavianus  gave  Antonius  two  Italian  legions  for  the  Parthian  war, 
while  Antonius  placed  100  ships  at  the  service  of  Octavianus  against 
Sextus  Pompeius.  By  means  of  this  reinforcement,  Octavianus  got 
the  upper  hand  of  Sextus,  especially  since  Af.  Vipsanius  Agrippa 
commanded  his  fleet.  Sextus  Pompeius,  defeated  by  Agrippa  at 
Mylce,  fled  to  Asia  and  died  in  Miletus.  In  the  mean  time,  Lepidus, 
who  had  landed  in  Sicily,  demanded  this  island  for  himself.  Aban- 
doned by  his  men,  he  was  forced  to  surrender  to  Octavianus,  who 
permitted  him  to  retain  the  dignity  of  Pontifex  Maximus,  and  sent 
him  to  Circeii.  The  administration  of  Africa  was  assumed  by  Octa- 
vianus. 

35-33.   Campaigns  of  Octavianus  against  the  Alpine  tribes,  the  Dal- 
matians, and   the   lUyrians.     Antonius    defeated   ArtavasdeSy 
king  of  Armenia,  captured  him,  and  led  him  in  triumph  at  Alex- 
andria. 

New  disputes  between  Octavianus  and  Antonius.  The  latter  pre- 
sented Cleopatra  with  Roman  territory,  and  sent  his  wife  Octavia,  the 
sister  of  Octavianus,  papers  of  separation.  Octavianus  procured  a 
popular  decree  removing  Antonius  from  his  command  and  declaring 
war  upon  Cleopatra. 

31-30.   'War  between  Octavian  and  Ajitonius, 

also  called  Bellum  A  ctiacum. 
During  the  long  delay  of  Antonius  and  Cleopatra  in  Ephesus, 
Athens,  and  at  Patrce  in  Achaia,  Octavianus  completed  his  preparations 
and  transported  his  army  to  Epirus.  His  fleet  of  250  ships,  under 
the  command  of  Agrippa,  defeated  the  fleet  of  Antonius  and  Cleo- 
patra, which  outnumbered  it,  in  the 

31.   Battle  of  Actium, 

Sept.  2  Cleopatra  fled  before  the  battle  was  entirely  decided,  and 
was  followed  by  Antonius.  The  army  of  Antonius  surrendered 
to  Octavianus  without  a  blow. 

30.  Octavianus  went  to  Asia,  where  he  entered  upon  his  fourth  con- 
sulship, returned  for  a  short  time  to  Italy  by  sea  to  repress  a 

revolt,  and  then  returned  to  his  troops  and  marched  through  S2/ria  to 

Egypt.     Antonius,  abandoned  by  his  troops,  killed  himself  on  hear- 


Bo  Co  Roman  History.  147 

ing  a  false  report  of  Cleopatra's  death.  The  latter,  when  convinced 
that  Octavian  spared  her  only  that  she  might  grace  his  triumph  in 
Rome,  poisoned  herself.  Octavianus  made  Egypt  a  Roman  province. 
Octavianus  sole  ruler,  after  the  manner  of  Caesar  (p.  143). 
29.  Octavianus  celebrated  three  triumphs  in  Rome,  and  the  temple 
of  Janus  was  closed  for  the  tliird  time  in  Roman  history.^ 

FIFTH  PERIOD. 

Reigns   of   the  Roman  Emperors  down  to  the  Fall   of  the 
Western  Empire.-^ 

31  (30)  B.  C.-476  A.  D. 

B.  C.    A.  D. 

31-68.   The  five  Julii,  or  the  descendants  of  Caesar's  adopted  son, 
31-14.   Caesar  Octavianus  Augustus. 

The  surname  Augustus  (the  Illustrious,  the  Sublime),  which  was 
given  Octavianus  by  the  senate  in  27  b.  c,  is  the  name  by  which,  as 
sole  ruler  of  the  Roman  world,  he  is  most  commonly  known  ;  it  also 
became,  like  Princeps,^  Ccesar,  Imperator  (p.  143),  the  title  of  the 
Roman  sovereigns.  In  later  times  Ccesar  became  a  peculiar  designa- 
tion of  the  appointed  successor  of  a  reigning  Augustus. 

Augustus  reduced  the  senate  to  600  members  and  made  a  high 
census  (one  million  sesterces)  the  necessary  condition  of  admission. 
The  consular  office  was  retained  in  name,  but  was  sometimes  held 
for  a  series  of  years  by  the  imperator  ;  sometimes  granted,  as  a 
special  distinction,  to  some  one  else  for  a  short  time  (two  months). 
The  prcefectus  urbi,  having  police  and  criminal  jurisdiction,  and  the 
prcefectus  prcetorio,  commander  of  the  standing  body-guard  of  nine 
(afterwards  ten)  prjetorian  cohorts,  became  the  most  important  of- 
ficers.    Division  of  Rome  into  14,  of  Italy  into  11,  regiones. 

B.  C.  27,  new  division  of  the  provinces  into  senatorial,  comprising 
those  quiet  provinces  which  could  be  admuiistered  Avithout  an  army 
(^Africa,  Asia,  Achaia,  Illyricum,  Macedonia,  Sicilia,  Creta,  with  Cy- 
renaica,  Bithynia,  Sardinia,  Hispania  Boetica),  and  imperial,  including 
those  where  an  army  was  maintained,  and  wliich  were  administered 
by  legates  in  the  name  of  Augustus  {Hispania  Tarraconensis,  Lusi- 
tania ;  the  four  provinces  of  Gaul  :  Narhonensis,  Lugdunensis,  Aqui- 
tania,  and  Belgica  ;  Germania  superior  et  inferior,  Mcesia,  Syria,  Cilicia, 
Cyprus,  ^gyptus).^  Aerarium  and  Fiscus. 

Period  of  the  highest  development  of  Roman  literature.  Mcece- 
nas  (t  B.  c.  8),  friend  of  Augustus,  patron  and  protector  of  the  poets  : 
P.  Vergilius  Maro  (70-19  b.  c),  Q.  Horatius  Flaccus  (65-8  b.  c.)  ; 

1  Once  under  Numa,  and  once  in  235.     [Trans.] 

2  Peter,  Rom.  Gesch.  III.3,  1871,  and  Rom.  Gesch.  in  htirzerer  Fassung, 
2d  ed.  1878,  p.  475  foil. 

3  Princeps  was,  it  is  true,  not  an  official  title.  About  the  meaning  of  this  de- 
signation and  its  relation  to  the  difjnity  of  the  Pnnceps  senatus,  see  Mar- 
quardt-Mommsen,  Rom.  Alth.  1 1. 2,  2,  p.  750  foil. 

4  Later  many  changes  were  made  in  this  division.  All  provinces  created 
after  27  b.  c.  were  assigned  to  the  emperor. 


148  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

the  elegiac  poets,  C.  Valerius  Catullus  (87-54  b,  c),  Albius  Tibullus 
(54^19  B.  c.  ?),  S.  Propertius  (49-15  b.  c.  ?) ;  P.  Ovidius  Naso  (born 
43  b.  c,  9  A.  D.  banished  to  Tomi  on  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  f  17). 
The  historian  T.  Livius  (59  b.  C.-17  A.  d.) 

Family   of  Augustus. 

C.  Julius  Caesar  Octavianus  Augustus,  b.  63  b.  c,  f  14  a.  d. 

Married : 
1.  Claudia.  2.  Scribonia.  3.  Livia. 

Tiberius  and  Drusus, 
Sons  of  Tiberius  Claudius  Nero 
and  Livia. 
Julia,  t  A.  D.  14. 
Married  : 
1.  Marcellus,  2.  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa.  3.  Tiberius, 

son  of  Octavia.  f    b.  c.  12. 

t  B.  c.  23. I 

I  I  I  I.  .       I 

Oftius  Csesar.         Lucius  Caesar.        Agrippina.        Julia.         Agrippa  Postumus. 

t  A.  D.  4.  t  A.  D.  2.  t  A.  D.  33.      t  A.  D.  28.  t  A.  D.  14. 

Julia  (the  elder)  was  banished  to  the  island  of  Pandataria  because 
of  her  excesses.  Gaius  Ccesar  and  Lucius  Caesar  were  adopted  by 
Augustus  B.  c.  17,  and  designated  as  his  successors.  Agrippina  (the 
elder)  married  Germanicus,  son  of  Drusus,  and  became  the  mother  of 
the  younger  Agrippina,  the  mother  of  Nero  (p.  150).  Agrippa 
Postumus,  almost  an  idiot,  was  adopted,  but  afterward  banished  to 
the  island  of  Planasia.  Julia  (the  younger)  was  also  banished. 
Tiberius,  son  of  Livia  by  her  first  husband,  Tiberius  Claudius  Nero, 
was  adopted  by  Augustus,  A.  d.  4. 

29.    Moesia  subjugated  (made  a  province  in  16  B.  c.  ?). 

27-25.  Expedition  of  Augustus  against  the  Cantabri  and  Astures,  the 
operations  against  whom  he  was  obliged,  on  account  of  sick- 
ness, for  the  most  part  to  leave  to  his  legates. 

25.  Expedition  to  Arabia,  without  results,  conducted  by  C.  jEUus 
Gallus,  prefect  of  Egypt.  Subjugation  of  the  Alpine  tribe  of 
the  Salassi.     Foundation  of  Augusta  Proetoria  (Aosta). 

23.  Augustus  caused  the  senate  to  confer  upon  him  for  life  the  dig- 
nity of  the  tribunate,  and  the  proconsular  imperium  in  general. 

22  and  21.  Successful  war  against  the  Ethiopians,  conducted  by  Pe- 
tronius,  the  successor  of  Gallus  in  Egypt. 

20.  Campaign  of  Augustus  against  the  Parthians,  whose  king  Phra- 
ates,  upon  hearing  of  the  arrival  of  Augustus  in  Syria  restored 
the  Roman  standards  which  had  been  taken  from  Crassus. 
Tigranes  was  reinstated  in  the  kingdom  of  Armenia  by  Tibe- 
rius. 

19.  Subjugation  of  Spain  completed  by  the  conquest  of  the  Cantabri 
and  Astures. 

15.  After  the  subjugation  of  the  tribes  from  the  northern  boundary 
of  Italy  to  the  Danube,  Raetia  was  made  a  Roman  province, 
along  with  Vindelicia  {Augusta  Vindelicorum,  now  Augsburg) 
and  Noricum. 


B.  c  -A.  D.  Roman  History,  149 

12-9.  Starting  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  (Germania  superior 
and  Germania  inferior,  which  had  been  constituted  provinces  in 
27),  Drusus  undertook  four  campaigns  m  Germany  proper, 
and  led  the  Roman  armies  to  the  Weser  and  the  Elbe.  Drusus 
died  upon  the  way  back. 

8-7.  Tiberius,  the  brother  of  Drusus  and  his  successor  in  the  com- 
mand, after  he  had  subjugated  Pannonia  (12-9),  compelled  e, 
portion  of  the  Germanic  tribes  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine 
to  recognize  the  supremacy  of  Rome. 

Birth  of  Christ  (four  years  before  the  commencement  of  our 
era?). 

6-9.  An  attack  made  by  Tiberius  upon  the  Suevian  kingdom  of  Mar- 
bod  was  interrupted  by  an  insurrection  of  the  lUyrian  and  Pan- 
nonian  tribes,  which  were  reduced  to  subjection  only  after  a 
severe  contest. 

10.  Pannonia  (the  S.  W.  portion  of  Himgary)  made  a  Roman  prov- 
ince. 

9(?).    Three  Roman  legions  under  Quintilius  Varus  annihilated 
in  the   Teutoburg   forest,   by   Arminius    (Hermann  ?),   a 
leader  of  the  Cherusci,  and  husband  of  Thusnelda. 
Lex  Papia  Poppcea  and  Lex  Julia  directed  against  celibacy. 

14.   Augustus  died  at  Nola,  in  the  seventy-sixth  year  of  his  age. 

14-37.     Tiberius  {Claudius  Nero), 

step-son  of  Augustus,  by  whom  he  had  been  adopted,  a  sus- 
picious despot.  The  (formal)  right  of  ratifying  laws  transferred  from 
the  comitice  to  the  senate.  The  law  against  high  treason  (de  maiestate) 
was  extended  to  include  the  most  trivial  offences  offered  the  sover- 
eign.    Rewards  given  to  informers  (delatores). 

Revolt  of  the  legions  on  the  Rhine,  quelled  by  Germanicus,  son  of 
the  elder  Drusus,  and  of   the  legions  in  Pannonia   quelled  by  the 
younger  Drusus,  son  of  Tiberius  (Tacitus,  Annates.  I.  16-49). 
14-16.   Three  expeditions  under  Germanicus  against  the  Germans. 
On  the  third  attempt,  which  was  made  by  sea,  Drusus  landed 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Ems,  and  crossed  the  Weser.      Roman 
victory  in  the  battle  on  the  Campus  Idhtaviso  (according  to 
Grimm,  Idisiaviso,  "  meadow  of  the  elves ")   over  Arminius, 
between  Minden  and  Hameln.     In  spite  of  the  success  of  the 
Roman  arms  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  remained  free  (Tac. 
Ann.  II.  5-26). 
17.   Germanicus  recalled  from  Germany,  through  the  envy  of  Tibe- 
rius, and  sent  to  the  East,  installed  a  king  in  Armenia,  made 
Cappadocia  a  Roman  province,  and  died  (19)  in  Syria  (of  poi- 
son, administered  by  Piso  ?). 
23-31.   Rule   of  the   abandoned   Sejanus,   Tiberius'  favorite.      By 
uniting  the  prtetorian  cohorts  in  one  camp  near  Rome,  Sejanus 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  future  power  of  the  prcetorians. 
23.      Sejanus  poisoned  Drusus,  son  of  Tiberius. 
27.    Tiberius  took  up  his  residence  in  Caprece  (Capri). 
29.   Banishment  of  the  elder  Agrippina  (f  33).  —  Livia  f. 


150  Ancient  History,  A.  C- 

31.  Trial  of  Sejanus,  who  was  executed  in  company  with  many  others 
(accomplices  in  the  conspiracy?).  Macro  succeeded  Sejanus 
in  the  favor  of  Tiberius. 

37-41.  Caligula  (properly,  Gains  Coesar  Germanicus), 
youngest  son  of  Germanicus,  called  by  the  soldiers  Caligula 
(bootling),  a  cruel,  half-crazy  tyrant  {oderint,  dum  metuant !).  Self- 
adoration.  Bridge  over  the  bay  of  Puteoli.  Childish  expedition 
with  an  immense  army  to  the  coast  of  Gaul  (39-40),  which  ended 
with  the  collection  of  mussels  (spolia  oceani).  After  his  murder  the 
praetorians  proclaimed  as  imperator  his  uncle, 

41-54-     Claudius  {Tiberius  Claudius  Nero), 

son   of   Drusus,   younger   brother    of    Germanicus,   a  weak- 
minded,  vacillating  prince,  ruled  by  miserable  favorites  (the  freed- 
men  Narcissus  and  Pallas)  and  his  wives :  1,  the  shameless  Messalinay 
and,  after  he  had  caused  her  to  be  killed,  2,  the  ambitious  Agrippina, 
daughter  of  Germanicus  (Tacitus,  Annales,  XI.  and  XII.). 
43.     Commencement  of  the  conquest  of  Britain  under  the  command 
of  A.  Plautius   and  his  legate,   T.  Flavins   Vespasianus ;   the 
southern  part  of  Britain  became  a  Roman  province  (Tacitus, 
Agricola,p,  14;  Ann.  XII.  31^0). 
During  Claudius'  reign  the  following  provinces  were  incorporated  : 
in  Africa,  Mauretania,  Tingitana,  and  Mauretania  Ccesariensis  (42); 
in  the  east  Lycia  (43),  Thracia  (46),  Judcea,  which  had  been  a  de- 
pendent kingdom  41^44,  became  in  44  a  province  again. 

Agrippina  persuaded  Claudius  to  adopt  L.  Domitius,  her  son  by  Cn. 
Domidus  (he  took  the  name  of  Nero  at  his  adoption),  and  to  appoint 
him  his  successor  in  place  of  his  own  son  by  Messalina,  BritannicuSy 
whose  sister  Octavia  was  the  promised  wife  of  Nero.  As  Claudius 
showed  signs  of  repenting  of  the  adoption  of  Nero,  Agrippina  poisoned 
him. 

54-68.  Nero  {Nero  Claudius  Ccesar  Augustus  Germaniciis) , 
proclaimed  imperator  by  the  praetorians,  was  for  the  first 
five  years  of  his  reign  under  the  guidance  of  the  prcefectus  prceto- 
rio  Burrus  and  his  teacher  L.  Seneca,  who  prevented  the  influence  of 
his  mother  Agrippina  from  becoming  predominant.  Law  against 
informers. 

With  Nero's  passion  for  the  freedwoman  Acte,  and  afterwards  for 

Poppcea  Sabina,  the  opposition  between  himself  and  his  mother  grew 

stronger  and  stronger,  and  the  list  of  his  crimes  began.     He  poisoned 

(55)  his  step-brother  Britannicus,  whom  his  mother  had  threatened  to 

make  imperator,  had  Agrippina  put  to  death  (59),  drove  from  him 

his  wife  Octavia,  whom  he  afterwards  executed  (62),  and  married 

Poppcea  Sabina.     Excesses  and  mad  cruelty  of  Nero.     He  appeared 

in  public  as  chariot-driver  in  the  races,  actor,  and  singer.     Crawling 

servility  of  the  senate  (Tac.  Ann.  XIII.-XVI.). 

31.     Revolt  in  Britain,  suppressed  by  Suetonius  Paulinus. 

8-63.  War  with  the  Parthians  and  Armenians.     After  the  capture 

and  destruction  of  Artaxata,    Domitius   Corhulo  forced  King 

Tiridates  of  Armenia  to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  Rome. 


A.  D.  Roman  History.  151 

64.  A  fire  of  six  days'  duration,  followed  by  another  lasting 
three  days,  destroyed  a  large  part  of  Rome  (set  by  Nero's 
command,  in  order  that  he  might  rebuild  the  city  more  beau- 
tifully ?).  Nero  accused  the  Jews  and  the  communities  of 
Christians  of  setting  fire  to  the  city. 

64.  First  persecution  of  the  Christians.^ 
Re-building  in  Rome,  on  a  large  scale.     The  palace  of  Nero 
(domus  aurea)  occupied  the  entire  Palatine  and  extended  to 
the  Esquiline. 

65.  Conspiracy  of  Piso  discovered  (Seneca  f ). 

68.  Revolt  in  Gaul  (C  Julius    Vindex)   and   in  Hispania  citerior, 

where  the  governor  Sulpicius  Galba,  then  73  years  of  age,  was 
proclaimed  and  acknowledged  imperator.  Nero  fled  and  killed 
himself  on  the  estate  of  one  of  his  freedmen  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Rome. 

68-69.     Galba  {Servius  Sitlpicius  Galba), 

June-Jan.  whose  avarice  soon  gained  him  the  hatred  of  his  soldiers 
(Tac.  Hist,  I.),  and  who  became  the  victim  of  the  revolt  of 

69.  Otho  (Marcits  Salvius  Otho  Titianus), 

Jan.-Apr.  once  a  favorite  of  Nero's  (Tac.  Hist.  I.  II.)  The  legions 
on  the  Rhme  had  already  proclaimed  as  imperator 

69.     Vitellius  {Aulas  Vitellius), 

Apr.-Dec.  who  defeated  Otho  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cremonay 
entered  Rome  and  made  the  city  the  scene  of  his  senseless 
gluttony  and  extravagance.     (Tac.  Hist.  II.,  III.) 

69-96.     The  three  Flavian  emperors. 

69-79.     Vespasianus  {Titus  Flavins  Vespasianus) 

proclaimed  imperator  through  the  influence  of  Licinius  Mud- 
anus,  governor  of  Syria,  at  first  in  Alexandria,  afterwards  by  his  own 
legions  and  those  of  Syria  in  Palestine,  where  he  was  conducting  the 
war  against  the  Jews  who  had  been  in  revolt  since  66.  Vespasianus 
transferred  the  nulitary  command  to  his  son,  Titus,  and  went  to  Rome, 
after  a  long  stay  at  Alexandria,  to  find  that  his  adherents  had  already 
put  Vitellius  to  death.  Restoration  of  discipline  in  the  army  and 
order  in  the  finances.  Reorganization  of  the  senate. 
69-71.    Revolt  of  the   Batavians   under  Julius    (Claudius?) 

Civilis  (Tac.  Hist.  IV.), 

one  of  their  leaders  of  royal  descent.  The  insurgents  at  first 
declared  that  they  took  up  arms  not  against  the  Roman  empire, 
but  against  Vitellius,  and  for  Vespasianus.  Thus  they  gained 
the  assistance  of  a  large  part  of  the  Roman  soldiers  in  those  parts. 
Claudius  Civilis  repeatedly  defeated  the  Romans,  and,  reinforced 
by  Germans  from  the  other  side  of  the  Rhine,  thirsting  for  booty, 
he  advanced  far  into  Gaul.  A  great  part  of  the  Gallic  tribes  joined 
'•  But  see  Overbeck,  Studien  z.  Gesch,  d.  alien  Kirche,  Pt.  1,  p.  93  foil. 


152  Ancient  Histwy,  A.  d. 

him,  and  for  a  moment  he  dreamed  of  founding  an  independent 
Gallic  Empire.  When  once  Vespasian's  power  in  Rome  was  secure, 
however,  Cerealis,  favored  by  the  quarrels  which  had  broken  out 
between  the  allied  Batavians,  Gauls,  and  Germans,  put  an  end  to 
the  revolt,  and  again  reduced  all  Gaul  under  the  Roman  supremacy. 
70.  Capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  (p.  12).  Triumphal  arch  of 
Titus  in  Rome.  Erection  of  the  Amphitheatrum  Flavium  (Col- 
osseum). 

78.  Agricola,  father-in-law  of  the  historian  Tacitus,  made  prepara- 

tions for  the  complete  subjugation  of  Britain.  Vespasianus 
was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

79-81.     Titus  {Titus  Flavins  Vespasiamts)^ 

called,  because  of  his  admirable  qualities,  amor  et  delidm  gen- 
eris humani.     Punishment  of  informers. 

79.  Eruption  of  Vesuvius.     Herculaneum  buried  by  mud,  Pompeii  by 

ashes  and  mud.  Death  of  the  elder  Plinius,  the  leader  of  the 
Roman  fleet  at  Misenum. 

80.  Fire  and  plague  in  Rome.     Titus  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 

81-96.     Domitianus  {Titus  Flavium  Domitianus), 

a  cowardly,  cruel  despot.  He  undertook  a  campaign  against 
the  Chattl  (83),  but  returned  without  having  seen  a  foe,  notwithstand- 
ing which  he  celebrated  a  triumph.  During  his  reign  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Roman  boundary  wall  between  tlie  Rhine,  and  the  Danube 
was  commenced.  It  was  guarded  by  soldiers,  who  were  settled 
upon  public  land  along  its  course  {agri  decumates). 
81-84.     Successful  campaigns  of  Agricola  in  Britain,  whereby  the 

Roman  power  was   extended  as  far  as   Scotland.     Agricola 

recalled  by  Domitian  through  envy. 
86-90.     Unsuccessful  wars  against  the  Dacians.     Domitian  bought 

peace  of  Decehalus  by  a  yearly  tribute. 
93.     Death  of  Agricola  (poisoned  by  order  of  Domitian  ?).     Cruel 

persecution  of  the  Jews,  Christians,  and  philosophers. 
96.     Domitianus  murdered  by  the  freedman  Stephanus,  the  empress, 

who  was  in  fear  of  her  own  life,  and  the  prsefectus  prsetorio, 

Petronius  Secundus,  being  cognizant  of  the  crime. 

96-192.     Nerva  and  his  adopted  faraily. 

96-98.     Nerva  {Marcus  Cocceiu^  Nerva), 

a  senator  64  years  of  age,  was  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  mur- 
derers of  Domitian.  He  repealed  the  law  of  treason,  re- 
called the  exiles,  and  reduced  the  taxes.  He  adopted  and 
appointed  as  his  successor 

98-117.     Trajan  {Marcus  Ulpius  Traia7ius), 

governor  of  the  province  of  Germania  inferior,  born  in  the 
Roman  colony  of  Italica  in  Spain,  the  first  occupant  of  the 
throne  of  the  Caesars  who  was  not  an  Italian.  Excellent 
ruler  and  general.  Magnificent  buildings  in  Rome  {Forum 
Traianum)  and  throughout  the  empire. 


A.  D.  Roman  History.  153 

101-102.     First  war  against  the  Dacians,  in  consequence  of  Trajan's 
refusal   to   pay  the  tribute  promised  by  Domitian.     Trajan 
crossed  the  Danube,  captured  the  fortress  of  the  king  Deceba- 
his  and  forced  him  to  make  peace  and  cede  a  portion  of  his 
territory. 
105-107.     In  the  second  war  against  the  Dacians  Trajan  built  a 
stone  bridge  across  the  Danube  (at  Turnu  Severinu),  crossed 
the  stream,  defeated  and  subdued  the   Dacians.     Decebalus 
killed  himself.     Magnificent  games  at  Rome,  wherein  10,000 
gladiators  are  said  to  have  appeared. 
Dacia,  that  is  Wallachia,  Moldau,  Eastern  Hungary,  and  Transyl- 
vania (Siebenbilrgen),  made  a  Roman  province.     Settlement  of  nu- 
merous colonists  in  Dacia,  from  whom  the  present  Eoumanians  de- 
rive their  descent.     It  would  be  more  correct  to  say  their  language 
only,  the  Roumanian  or  Daco -Romanic,  which  prevails  in  Wal- 
lachia, Moldau  and  a  part  of  Transylvania.     The  column  of  Trajan 
at  Rome  completed  in  113. 

The  governor  of  Syria  took  possession  (105)  of  the  region  E.  and 
S.  of  Damascus  and  of  Judcea  to  the  northern  end  of  the  Red  Sea, 
as  the  Roman  province  of  Arabia.^ 

114-116.   Wars  of  Trajan  with  the  Parthians.     Chosroes,  nephew  of 
the  Parthian  king,  driven  from  Armenia.      Armenia,  Meso- 
potamia, Assyria,  including  Babylonia,  made  Roman  provinces. 
Trajan,  favored,  as  it  seems,  by  internal  troubles  in  the  Parthian 
monarchy,  conquered  Seleucia  and  Ct^siphon  on  the  Tigris,  and  sailed 
down  the  river  to  the  Persian  Gulf.    Trajan,  having  appointed  a  king 
over  the    Parthians,  started  upon  his    return,  but  died   at   Selinus 
(Trajanopolis)  in  Cilicia. 

117-138.   Hadrian  (Fublius  jElius  Hadrianus), 

adopted  by  Trajan  (?).  A  lover  of  peace,  an  excellent  ad- 
ministrator, learned  and  vain.  Hadrian  abandoned  the  new  provinces 
of  Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Assyria,  so  that  the  Euphrates  formed 
the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Roman  empire.  He  restored  quiet  in 
Moesia,  and  strengthened  his  power  by  the  execution  of  those  who 
conspired  against  him. 

121.   Hadrian  began  his  progress  through  all  the  provinces  of  the  em- 
pire, with  a  visit  to  Gaul. 

Magnificent  buildings  :  in  Rome  the  Moles  Hadriani,  on  the  site 
of  the  present  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  and  the  double  temple  of  Venus 
and  the  goddess  Roma,  and  the  Athenceum;  in  Athens,  the  city  of 
Hadrian  (the  Olympieum  completed).  Magnificent  villa  at  Tibur 
(Tivoli). 

In  Britain  a  wall  of  defence  was  built  against  the  Picts  and  Scots. 
Collection  of  the  edicts  of  the  praetors  (edictum  perpetuum}  com- 
menced by  the  jurist  Salvius  Julianus. 

132-135.    Revolt  of  the  Jews  on  account  of  the  foundation  of  the 
colony  of  ^lia  Capitolina  (p.  12). 

Hadrian  had  adopted,  during  a  fit  of  sickness,  L.  u^Elius  Verus,  and 

1  That  is,  Arabia  Petroea,  so  called  from  its  capital,  Petra,  not  the  whole 
peninsula  of  Arabia.    Kiepert,  Atlas.  Ant.  Tab.  XII. 


154  Ancient  History.  A.  D. 

appointed  him  Ccesar  (p.  147)  ;  but  as  Verus  died  before  him  he 
adopted  T.  Aurelius  Antoninus  under  the  condition  that  the  latter 
should  adopt  in  place  of  a  son  his  nephew,  the  young  M.  Annvus 
Verus,  under  the  name  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  L.  Commodus  Verus, 
the  son  of  the  deceased  Ccesar,  jEUus  Verm. 

138-161.     Antoninus   Pius     {Titus   Aurelius    Antoninus 
Fins). 

Peaceable  reign,  during  which  the  borders  were,  however, 
vigorously  defended  against  the  attacks  of  the  barbarians. 
Antoninus  had  his  adopted  son,  M.  Aurelius,  educated  by  phil- 
osophers of  the  Stoic  school. 

161-180.   Marcus  Aurelius  {Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus), 

a  wise  and  active  sovereign,  highly  educated  (pupil  of  Corne- 
lius Fronto),  a  Stoic  pliilosopher.  Until  169  he  reigned  in. 
common  with  his  brother  by  adoption,  the  dissipated  Lucius 
Verus. 

162-165.  War  against  the  Parthians  under  the  command  of  L.  Verus, 
who,  however,  soon  gave  himself  up  to  dissipation  in  Antiochia, 
while  his  legatees  carried  on  the  war  with  success,  conquered 
Artaxata,  appointed  a  king  in  Armenia,  and  burned  Seleucia 
and  Ctesiphon.  A  part  of  Mesopotamia  was  again  made  a 
Roman  province. 

166.    Plague  and  famine  in  Italy. 

166-180.  War  with  the  Marcommani  and  Quadi.  Marcus  Aurelius 
fought  with  various  fortune  against  the  barbarians,  who  con- 
stantly made  new  attacks.  During  a  short  peace  with  the  bar- 
barians, conquest  of  the  rebel  Avidius  Cassius  in  Syria,  175. 
Triumph  in  Rome,  176.  The  senate  erected  an  equestrian 
statue  in  his  honor,  which  still  adorns  the  Capitol.  Before 
he  had  succeeded  in  making  the  boundaries  of  the  empire 
along  the  Danube  secure,  he  died  in  Vindobona  (Vienna).  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  degenerate  son 

180-192.   Commodus, 

who  bought  peace  of  the  Germans  at  the  price  of  a  tribute, 

entrusted  the  government  for  the  most  part  to  the  prsefectus  prsetorio, 

abandoned  himself  to  his  inclination  for  dissipation  and  cruelty,  and 

was  finally  murdered  by  his  intimates. 

193-284.  Imperators  for  the  most  part  appointed  by  the 
soldiers. 

193.  Pertinax,  strict  and  economical,  murdered  after  three 
months  by  the'  praetorians,  who  placed  on  the  throne  in  his 
stead 

193.  Didius  Julianus,  who,  among  all  competitors,  promised 
them  the  largest  present.     The  lUyrian  legions  proclaimed 

193-211.    Septimius  Severus, 

who  was  recognized  by  the  senate   and   maintained  himself 


A.  D.  Roman  History,  155 

against  tlie  otter  pretenders  {Pescennius  Niger  in  the  East,  Clodius 
AlbintAS  in  Gaul).  Successful  campaigns  ia  Mesopotamia.  Improve- 
ments in  the  administration  of  justice  through  the  jurist  Papinianus. 
In  208  expedition  to  Britain  against  the  Scots.  Restoration  of  the 
Roman  wall,  which  had  been  partially  destroyed.  Septimius  Sev- 
erus  died  in  Eboracum  (York).     His  son, 

211-217.   Garacalla  {Antoninus  Bassianus) 

murdered  his   half-brother  and  co-regent  G}«ta  along  with 

thousands  of  his  adherents,  among  whom  was  Papinianus.    By 

the  Coitstitutio  Antoniana  Roman  citizenship  was  conferred  upon  all 

inhabitants  of  the  provinces,  for  the  sake  of  the  higher  taxation  which 

could  then  be  imposed. 

Systematic  plundering  of  the  provinces,  unsuccessful  wars  against  the 
Goths  (wrongly  called  Getoe)  in  Dacia,  cruel  treatment  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Alexandria,  Plundering  expedition  against  the  Parthians. 
Murder  of  Caracalla.     His  successor, 

217.    Macrinus, 

purchased  peace  from  the  Parthians.  The  soldiers  proclaimed 
as  imperator  the  fourteen-year-old 

218-222.  Elagabalus  (the  form  Heliogabalus  is  a  corruption),  priest 
of  the  sun  at  Emesa  in  Syria,  who  was  put  forward  as  the  son 
of  Caracalla.  He  gave  himself  up  to  the  most  infamous  de- 
bauchery ;  the  government  was  conducted  by  his  mother  and 
grandmother.  He  adopted  his  cousin,  the  young  Bassianus 
AlexianuSf  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  after  the  murder  of 
Elagabalus  by  the  praetorians,  under  the  name  of 

^22-235.    Severus  Alexander. 

Excellent  ruler,  advised  by  the  jurists  Domitius  UJpianus  and 
Julius  Paullus.     His  strictness  with  the  soldiers  led  to  several 
mutinies,  in  one  of  which  Ulpianus  was  murdered. 
226.  In  consequence  of  the  dissolution  of  the  Parthian  monarchy  of 
the  Arsacidae  and  the  foundation  of  the  new  Persian  em- 
pire of  the  Sassanidae  by  Artakshatx   (A  rtaxares,  corrupted  into 
Artaserxes,  new  Persian,  Ardeshir),  sl  descendant  of  Sassan,  a  new 
war  broke  out  in  the  East,  which  Severus  Alexander  carried  on,  ac- 
cording to  the  Roman  historian  LampridiuSy  with  success;  according  to 
tlie  Grecian  Herodian,  unsuccessfully.     At  all  events  there  seems  to 
have  been  an  armistice  in  233.     After  the  murder  of  Severus  Alex- 
ander on  the  Rhine  the  soldiers  raised  to  the  throne 

235-238.     Maximinus  Thrax, 

a  Thracian  of  extraordinary  size  and  strength.  Expedition 
across  the  Rhine  ;  German  townships  laid  waste.  Meanwhile 
the  legions  in  Africa  proclaimed  the  senator, 

137.     Gordianus  I., 

then  eighty  years  old,  imperator.  He  appointed  his  son,  Gor- 
dianus  II.,  co-regent.  They  were  both  defeated  by  the  prsefect  of 
Mauretania:  the  sou  fell  in  the  battle,  the  fatlierput  himself  to  death- 


156  Ancient  History.  A.  d. 

The  senate  at  Rome,  which  had  already  taken  sides  against  Maximi- 
nus  Thrax,  elected  the  senators  Pupienus  Mazimus  and  Caelius  Bal- 
binus,  Augusti,  to  whom  was  added,  at  the  people's  demand,  the 
thirteen-year-old  grandson  of  Gordianus  I.  Maximinus  Thrax  was 
killed  by  his  own  soldiers  at  the  siege  of  A  quileia.  The  praetorians 
at  Rome  murdered  the  two  imperators  appointed  by  the  senate,  Pur- 
pienus  and  Balbinus,  so  that  the  young 

238-244.     Gordianus  III. 

was  left  sole  imperator.  A  new  war  with  the  Persians  (241). 
The  young  imperator  married  the  daughter  of  the  veteran  Misitheus 
(  Timesitheus),  whom  he  made  prsef ectus  prsetorio,  and  whose  guidance 
he  followed.  After  the  death  of  liis  father-in-law  Gordianus  was 
murdered  by  the  new  prsef ectus  prsetorio, 

244-249.     Philippus  Arabs, 

whom  he  had  been  obliged  to  accept  as  co-regent  in  243  at  the 
demand  of  the  soldiers.     Peace  with  Persia.     Philippus  returned  to 
Rome  (became  a  Christian  in  secret  ?). 
248.  Celebration  of  the  thousandth  anniversary  of  the  foundation 

of  Rome. 
Revolt  of  the  Mcesian  and  Pannonian  legions,  which  proclaimed  one 
of  their  officers  imperator. 

249-251.     Decius, 

whom  Philippus  sent  to  quell  the  mutiny,  was  compelled  by 
the  legions  to  assume  the  title  of  imperator.  He  defeated  and 
killed  Philippus  in  the  battle  of  Verona. 

250.   General  persecution  of  the  Christians. 

Martyrdom  of  Fabianus,  bishop  of  Rome.  Decius  defeated 
the  Goths,  who  were  plundering  Thrace,  but  fell  in  battle  after 
he  had  followed  them  across  the  Danube.    The  legions  elected 

251-253.     Gallus, 

who  soon  had  his  co-regent,  Hostilianus,  son  of  Decius,  put  to 
death.  Destructive  pestilence  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  em- 
pire.    Gallus  was  deposed  by  the  conqueror  of  the  Goths, 

253.     -^milianus, 

who  after  four  months  was  killed  by  the  soldiers.  He  was 
succeeded  by 

253-260.     Valerianus, 

the  general  of  the  legions  in  Gaul  and  Germania.  He  ap- 
pointed his  son,  Gallienus,  co-regent,  and  both  carried  on  the  war  with 
the  German  bands,  who  were  constantly  making  new  inroads,  espe- 
cially the  Franks  in  Gaul,  the  Alamanni,  who  invaded  northern  Italy 
but  were  driven  back  at  Mediolanum,  and  the  Goths  on  the  Danube. 
Unsuccessful  expedition  of  Valerianus  against  the  Persians  ;  defeated 
at  Edessa,  he  was  captured,  and  at  the  age  of  seventy  carried  about 
as  the  slave  of  King  Artaxerxes.     His  reign  and  that  of  his  son, 


A.  D-  Roman  History,  157 

260-268.     Gallienus, 

was  disturbed  by  the  appearance  of  a  great  number  of  pretend- 
ers to  the  throne,  and  by  the  invasions  of  the  barbarians,  particularly 
of  the  Goths,  who  came  in  ships  from  the  Black  Sea.  Confusion 
throughout  the  empire  ;  the  so-called  "time  of  the  thirty  tyrants." 
Two  pretenders  oidy  maintained  themselves  for  any  length  of  time, 
Tetricus  in  Gaul  and  Spain,  and  Odenathus  (of  Palmyra)  in  Syria. 
The  latter  wrested  Mesopotamia  from  Persia,  and  was  recognized  by 
Gallienus  as  co-regent  for  the  East.  After  the  murder  of  Odenathus 
(267)  his  consort,  Zenobia,  ruled  in  Palmyra.  Gallienus  laid  siege 
to  Mediolanum,  which  had  been  occupied  by  the  pretender  AureoluSy 
and  was  there  murdered  by  contrivance  of  the  latter.  Aureolus  was 
put  to  death  by 

268-270.    Claudius  II., 

whom  the  soldiers  raised  to  the  throne.  He  defeated  the  Ala- 
manni  and  the  Goths,  and  was  succeeded  by 

270-275.    Aurelianus. 

He  concluded  peace  with  the  Goths  by  the  sacrifice  of  the 
province  of  Dacia.  The  Danube  was  henceforward  the  boundary  of 
the  empire  ;  the  greater  part  of  the  Roman  colonists  were  transported 
to  Moesia,  a  part  of  which  was  now  called  Dacia  (Aureliana).  Aure- 
lian  repulsed  the  Alamanni  and  Marcomanni,  who  had  made  an  inroad 
into  Italy  (victory  on  the  Metaurus),  and  began  the  erection  of  a  new 
wall  around  Rome,  which  included  the  enlarged  imperial  city  (271, 
completed  in  276).  He  defeated  Zenobia  in  two  battles,  at  Antiochia 
and  at  Edessa,  subdued  Syria,  besieged  and  destroyed  Palmyra,  cap- 
tured Zenobia,  and  reconquered  Egypt  (273).  Having  thus  subdued 
the  East,  he  turned  against  Tetricus  in  Gaul,  whom  he  defeated 
and  captured  at  Chalons  (274).  Aurelian,  rightly  called  "Restorer 
of  the  universal  Empire "  (Restitutor  Orbis),  was  murdered  on  an 
expedition  against  the  Persians.  At  the  request  of  the  army  the 
senate  elected  the  senator 

275.     Tacitus 

imperator.  He  defeated  the  Alani,  who  had  invaded  Asia 
Minor,  but  died  after  three  months.  His  brother  FlorianuSj 
who  attempted  to  secure  the  succession,  was  defeated  by 

276-282.    Probus, 

who  drove  back  the  Franks,  Burgundians,  Alamanni  and  Van- 
dals, entered  Germany,  and  strengthened  the  wall  between  the  Rhine 
and  Danube  (p.  152).  He  enrolled  a  large  number  of  Germans  as 
mercenaries  in  the  Roman  army,  and  employed  the  soldiers  in  drain- 
ing swamps  and  building  canals  and  roads,  for  which  reason  he  was 
murdered  by  them.     The  prsefectus  prastorio, 

282-283.     Carus, 

succeeded.  He  appointed  his  sons  Carinus  and  Numerianus 
Caesars,  and  afterwards  Augusti,  conquered  the  Sarmaitians,  and  per- 


158  Ancient  History.  a.  d. 

ished  (struck  by  lightning  ?)  on  an  expedition  against  the  Persians, 
after  having  captured  Ctesiphon. 
284.     Numerianus, 

who  had  accompanied  his  father  to  the  East,  was  murdered  by 

his  father-in-law. 

284,  Carinus, 

who  had  remained  in  the  West,  fought  at  first  with  success 
against 

284-305.    Diocletianus, 

who  had  been  proclaimed  imperator  by  the  soldiers.  Carinus 
was  ultimately  murdered  by  his  own  troops.  Diocletian,  who 
created  an  oriental  court  at  Nicomedia  in  Bithynia,  and  thence 
ruled  the  East,  entrusted  the  administration  of  affairs  in  the 

285.  West  to  the  brave  Maximianus,  as  his  co-regent  or  Augustus^ 
who  took  up  his  residence  for  the  most  part  in  Mediolanum 
(Milan). 

292.     Diocletian   appointed  two  more    Ccesars :    1.    Constantius 
Chlorus,  who  was  obliged  to  divorce  his  wife  Helena  and  marry 
the  step-daughter  of  Maximianus,  received  the  government  of 
Gaul,  Britain,  and  Spain,  and   dwelt  commonly  in  Augusta 
Trevirorum  (Trier),  while  Maximianus  was  appointed  to  the 
government  of  Italy  and  Africa.     2.  Galerius,  who  became 
Diocletian's  son-in-law,  and  received  the  government  of  Illyri- 
cum,  including  Macedonia  and  Greece. 
296.     Diocletian  subdued  the  revolt  of  Egypt.     Constantius  sup- 
pressed a  revolt   in  Britain.     Galerius   fought   against  the 
Persians,  unsuccessfully  in  the  first  year,  but  in  the  second  (297)  he 
gained  an  important  victory,  and  extended  the  frontiers  to  the  Tigris 
again.     Maximianus  suppressed  an  insurrection  in  Africa.     Con- 
stantius defeated  the  Alamanni. 
303.    General  persecution  of  the  Christians, 

which  Constantius  discouraged  in  his  province. 

305.  Diocletian  abdicated  and  retired  to  Salonoe  in  Dalmatia,  after 
he  had  obliged  Maximianus  also  to  resign  his  dignity. 

Constantius  and  Galerius  were  raised  to  Augusti.  At  the  desire 
of  Galerius,  the  claims  of  Constantinus,  son  of  Constantius,  and  of 
Maxentius,  son  of  Maximianus,  being  passed  over, 

Severus  and  Maximinus  were  appointed  Caesars,  the  first  receiv- 
ing Italy  and  Africa,  the  second  Syria  and  Egypt. 

306.  After  the  death  of  Constantius  in  Britain,  his  son  (by  Helena), 
Constantine,  assumed  the  administration  of  his  father's  prov- 
inces, Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain,  with  the  title  of  Csesar.  He 
fought  successfully  with  the  Franks  and  Bructeri.  Meanwhile 
the  praetorians  at  Rome  chose  Maxentius  imperator,  where- 
upon his  father,  Maximianus,  reassumed  the  dignity  he  had 
unwillingly  resigned.  The  empire  had  thus  six  rulers,  three 
Augusti  and  three  Caesars. 

307.  The  Caesar  Severus,  having  been   created  Augustus  by  Gale- 

rius, went  to  Italy  to  attack  Maxentius,  but  was  deserted  by 
his  soldiers  and  put  to  death  at  Ravenna.     Galerius  appointed  Licin- 


A.  D.  Roman  History.  159 

ius  co-regent  and  Augustus  in  his  stead,  and  Constantine  therefore 

assumed  the  same  title,  so  that  there  were  now  six  Augusti  in  the 

empire. 

310.  In  the  struggle  that  followed,  the  agftd  Maxiinianus  was  cap- 
tured in  Massilia  and  put  to  death  by  command  of  Constantine. 
Galerius  died  of  disease  (311). 

War  between  Maxentius  and  Constantine.  The  latter  issued  edicts 
in  favor  of  the  Christians.     Maxentius  was  defeated  at  Turin 

312.  and  at  Saxa  rubra,  four  miles  from  Rome,  by  Constantine 
{Hoc  signo  vinces  !),  and  perished  by  drowning  as  he  attempted 
to  cross  the  Tiber. 

Constantine  became  the  protector  of  the  Christians,  but  re- 
mained up  to  his  death  a  catechumen. 

313.  Alliance  between  Constantine   and  Licinius,  who  married 

Constantine's  sister.  Constantine  took  the  field  against  the 
Franks,  Licinius  against  Maximinus,  who  was  defeated,  and 
killed  himself  in  Tarsus  ;  so  that  now 

313-323.  Constantine  and  Licinius  were  the  only  rulers  in  the 
empire,  the  former  in  the  West,  the  latter  in  the  East.  In  314, 
however,  they  were  embroiled  in  conflict.  Licinius,  defeated 
in  two  encounters,  was  obliged  to  cede  Illyricum,  Macedonia, 
and  Achaia  to  Constantine. 

323.  Second  war  between  Constantine  and  Licinius.  The  latter,  de- 
feated at  Adrianople  and  Chalcedon,  surrendered  in  Nicomedia, 
and  was  executed  (324)  by  Constantine's  command. 

323-337.     Constantine  (the  Great)  sole  ruler. 

Christianity  recognized  by  the  State  and  favored  at  the 

expense  of  paganism. 
325.    First  general  (cecumenic)  Council  of  the  Church  at  Nicaea, 

in  Bithynia.  Arianism,  i.  e.  the  doctrine  of  Arius  (''Apeios), 
formerly  a  presbyter  in  Alexandria,  according  to  which  Christ  was 
not  of  the  same  nature,  but  of  like  nature  only  (6fioio{><rios),  with  God 
the  Father,  was  rejected,  and  the  doctrine  of  Athanasius  of  Alexandria, 
according  to  which  Christ  was  of  the  same  nature  (5/iooi5(nos,  consub- 
stantialis)  with  God  the  Father,  was  declared  a  dogma  of  the  Church 
by  the  Symbolum  Niccenum. 
330.     Constantine  selected  Byzantium  (Nova  Roma,  Constantino- 

polis)  for  the  capital.  The  empire  was  redistricted.  The 
four  great  prefectures,  Oriens,  lllyricum  orientale,  Italia,  Gallia,  were 
divided  into  13  dioceses,  these  into  116  provinces.^  New  hierarchy 
of  officials,  7  superior  court  offices.  Council  of  state  (consistorium prin- 
cipis).     New  arrangement  of  the  taxes. 

Cruelty  of  Constantine  in  his  family.  His  eldest  son,  Crispus,  and 
one  of  his  nephews  executed  through  the  plots  of  his  wife,  Fausta,  who 
was  herself  put  to  death. 

Constantine,  before  his  death,  divided  the  administration  of  the 
empire  among  his  three  sons  as  Augusti,  and  two  nephews  as  Ccesars. 
After  his  death,  in  Bithynia,  the  two  Caesars  were  put  to  death  by 
Constantius.  The  three  sons  of  Constantine  redivided  the  empire  sub 
Constantinople. 

1  Kiepert,  Atlas  Antiquus,  Tab.  XII. 


160  Ancient  History.  A.  d. 

337-340.     Constantinus  II.  received  the  West  (the  prefec- 
tures of  Italia,  Gallia,  and  a  part  of  Africa). 

337-361.     Constantius  received  the  East,  the  prefecture 

Oriens. 
337-350.  Constans  received  the  prefectures  of  Illyricum 
orientale  and  a  part  of  Africa. 
Constantius  carried  on  a  long  and  indecisive  war  with  the  Persians. 
Constantinus  II.  attacked  his  brother  Constans,  and  fell  at  Aquileia.  In 
350  Constans  also  died,  so  that  Constantius,  after  the  conquest  of  the 
usurper  Magnentius  (353),  again  united  the  whole  empire.  Julianus, 
a  cousin  of  the  emperor,  who  was  appointed  Caesar,  fought  success- 
fully with  the  Alamanni  and  Ripuarian  Franks,  and  assigned  the 
Salian  Franks  lands  in  northern  Gaul.  Constantius  died  on  an  expe- 
dition against 

361^63.     Julianus, 

who  had  been  proclaimed  Augustus  by  the  legions.  He  is 
known  as  the  apostate  (apostata),  because  he  was  an  adherent  of  the 
heathen  philosophy  and  abandoned  Christianity,  hoping  to  bring  about 
a  reaction  in  favor  of  the  heathen  cult,  which  he  wished  restored  in  a 
purified  form.  Julianus  defeated  the  Alamanni  and  the  Franks,  re- 
stored the  fortresses  which  had  been  erected  against  them  along  the 
frontier,  and  defeated  the  Persians  at  Ctesiphon,  but  died  of  a  woimd 
on  his  return.     The  soldiers  raised  the  Christian 

363-364.     Jovianus, 

to  the  throne.  He  ceded  the  greater  part  of  Mesopotamia  to 
the  Persians.  Christianity  reinstated  in  the  privileges  which  Con- 
stantine  had  granted.  After  the  sudden  death  of  Jovianus  the  legions 
raised 

364-375.     Valentinianus  I. 

to  the  throne.     He  appointed  as  co-regent  first  his  brother, 

364-378.     Valens, 

an  Arian,  who  governed  the  East  from  Constantinople,  and 
afterwards,  for  the  West,  his  son, 

367-383.     Gratianus, 

who,  upon  his  father's  death,  acknowledged  as  co-regent  for 
the  administration  of  the  West  his  four-year-old  half-brother, 

375-392.     Valentinian  II., 

who  had  been  proclaimed  imperator  by  the  soldiers. 

375-     Beginning  of  the  migrations  of  the  Teutonic 

tribes  (p.  170). 
378.    After  the  death  of  Valens  at  Adrianople  in  battle  against  the 

West  Goths,  Gratianus  created  the  heathen 


A.  jx.  Roman  History.  161 

379-395.     Theodosius 

co-regent,  and  entrusted  him  with  the  administration  of  the 
East.  Theodosius  became  a  Christian  after  his  recovery  from  a  severe 
illness,  fought  successfully  against  the  West  Goths,  but  was  obliged 
to  accept  them  as  allies  {foederati)  in  their  abodes  in  Moesia  and 
Thrace.  Gratianus  fell  in  battle  against  the  imperator  proclaimed 
by  the  legions  in  Britain, 
383-388.     Clemens  Maximus, 

whom  Theodosius  recognized  as  co-regent  under  the  condition 
that  he  should  leave  Italy  in  the  hands  of  the  young  Valentinian  II. 
In  387  Maximus  drove  Valentinian  from  Italy.  He  fled  to  Theodo- 
sius, who,  returning  with  him,  captured  Clemens  Maximus  at  Aqui- 
leia,  and  executed  him. 
390.     Insurrection  in  Thessalonica,  cruelly  punished  by  Theodosius 

(7000  executions).     On  this  account  bishop  Ambrosius  of 
Milan,  eight  months  later,  excluded  the  emperor  from  Christian  com- 
munion, until  he  had  done  penance. 
392.      After  the  murder  of  Valentinian  II.  by  Arbogastes,  and  after 

the  new  imperator,  Eugenius,  whom  Arbogastes  set  up,  had 
394.      fallen  at  Aquileia  in  battle  with  Theodosius,  and  Arbogastes 

had  put  himself  to  death,  the  vrhole  empire  was,  for  the  last 

time,  reunited  imder 

394-395.     Theodosius. 

After  his  death  the  division  of  administration  into  an  eastern 
and  a  western  section,  which  had  existed  for  a  hundred  years,  became 
a  permanent  division  of  the  empire. 

395-1453.  Arcadius  received  the  Eastern  empire,  also 
called  the  Byzantine  or  Grecian  empire.  Imperial 
vicar,  Rufinus.  Capital  Byzantium  or  Constantinople. 
The 

395-476.  "Western  empire,  capital  Rome,  Ravenna  im- 
perial residence  after  402,  under 

395-423.     Honorius. 

Guardian  and  chancellor,  the  Vandal  StUicho,  murdered  in  408 
by  command  of  Honorius  to  whom  he  had  been  defamed.  After 
the  death  of  Honorius  the  usurper 

424.  Joannes  reigned  for  a  short  time,  but  was  finally  over- 
thrown with  the  assistance  of  the  Eastern  empire  and  the  six- 
year-old 

425-455.     Valentinian  III. 

made  imperator,  the  government  being  conducted  at  first  by 
his  mother  Placida,  sister  of  Honorius,  in  his  name.  Valen- 
tinian was  murdered  by 

455.     Petronius  Maximus, 

who  married  Eudoxia,  widow  of  Valentinian,  but  was  Mlled 
shortly  before  the  capture  of  Rome  by  the  Vandals  (p.  173). 
11 


162  Ancient  History.  A.  d. 

The  throne  was  usurped  by 

455-556.    Avitus 

who  was  soon  deposed  by  Recimir,  a  military  leader  of  the 
German  mercenaries  in  the  Roman  army.  Recimir  placed  upon 
the  throne 

457-461.     Majorianus, 

whom  he  afterwards  deposed  in  favor  of 
461-465.     Libius  Sevenis^ 

after  whose  deposition  (?) 
465-467.     Recimir  conducted  the  government  without  the  pretence 
■    of  an  imperial  figure-head  imtU  467  when  he  placed 

467-472.    Anthemius 

upon  the  throne,  who  was  succeeded  by 

472.  Olybrius. 

Recimir  and  his  sovereign  dying  this  year,  the  Eastern  court 
interposed  and  placed 

473.  Glycerius 

on  the  throne  of  the  West,  who  was  succeeded  by 
473-475.    Julius  Nepos, 

also  by  appointment  of  the  emperor  of  the  East.  In  475 
OresteSf  a  leader  among  the  mercenaries,  placed  his  son 

475-476.    Romulus  Augustulus 

upon  the  throne,  who,  combining  in  his  name  that  of  Rome's 
first  king  and  first  emperor,  became  the  last  of  the  imperial 
line  in  the  West,  being  deposed  by 

476.     Odovaker    (Odoacer), 

military  leader  of  the  Heruli  and  Rugiif  who  made  himself 
nUer  (not  king)  of  Italy,  and  was  recognized  by  the  Eastern 
emperor  Zeno  as  patricius  of  Rome  and  prefect  of  Italy 
(p.  173). 

§  4.    TEUTONS.    Aryan. 

Geography:  The  Teutonic  race  has  occupied  three  regions  in 
Europe. 

I.  Germany  comprises  Central  Europe,  the  slope  from  the  Alps 
N.  to  the  sea.  It  may  be  roughly  bounded  as  follows  :  N.  German 
Oceany  Baltic  ;  E.  a  vague  line  indicated  by  the  Vistula,  and  the  Car- 
pathian Mts. ;  S.  the  Alps  ;  W.  the  Rhine.  This  region  f  aUs  into  three 
physical  divisions  :  1.  The  broad  and  lofty  chain  of  the  Alps  divided 
into  the  Swiss  Alps  on  the  W.  and  the  Tyrolese  Alps  on  the  E.,  whose 
deep  valleys  fostered  the  rise  of  small  independent  communities  (p. 
245  ).  Mont  Blanc  (14,748  ft.),  Monte  Rosa,  Jungfrau,  etc.,  Lake 
Geneva,  Lake  Constance,  Lake  of  Lucerne  (  VienoaldstcUtesee)^  etc.  2. 
A  broad  upland  extending  two  thirds  of  the  way  from  the  Alps  to  the 
sea,  and  embracing  the  present  Wurtemhergt  Bavaria^  Bohemia^  Sax- 


B.  c.-A.  D.  Teutons.  163 

ony,  Saxon  duchies,  Hesse,  etc.  3.  A  low  plain  reaching  to  the  sea, 
and  including  the  present  Holland,  Hanover,  Prussia,  etc.  Modern 
Germany  comprises  2  and  3.  The  peninsula  of  Denmark  has  belonged, 
in  historic  times,  politically  to  Scandinavia  and  Germany. 

Through  the  middle  of  Germany  a  range  of  low  mountains  extends 
from  S.E.  to  N.W.  from  the  Jura  in  France  to  the  Carpathians  in 
Hmigary.  This  range,  known  to  the  Romans  as  Hercynia  silva,  in- 
cludes the  Jura,  Vosges,  Schwarzwald  (Black  Forest)  Taunus,  Thuringer 
Wold,  Erz  Gehirge,  Riesen  Gebirge,  Sudetes,  and  forms  an  arc  whose 
convex  side  is  turned  toward  the  W.  and  N.  The  valley  of  the  Dan- 
ube S.  of  this  range,  and  the  depression  on  its  northern  base  extend- 
ing from  the  Lahn  to  the  middle  Elbe  (the  old  commercial  route  be- 
tween Frankfort  o.  M.  and  Leipsic),  are  the  two  natural  roads  which 
give  the  East  access  to  western  Europe.  Other  mountain  groups  : 
Bohemian  Forest,  forming  the  S.E.  border  of  Bohemia,  Ha7'z,  N.  of 
the  Frankfort  road.  Rivers  :  S.  the  Danube,  flowing  into  the  Black 
Sea ;  N.  the  Rhine,  with  its  branches  Neckar,  Main,  etc..  Ems, 
Weser,  Elbe,  flowing  into  the  German  Ocean  ;  Oder,  Vistula  flowing 
into  the  Baltic. 

The  Roman  provinces  Rcetia,  Vindelicia,  Noricum,  Pannonia,  occu- 
pied the  Alps  and  the  southern  bank  of  the  Danube.  Germania 
superior  and  inferior  were  Gallic  provinces  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Upper  and  Lower  Rhine.  To  Germany  proper,  which  was  never  a 
province  of  the  empire,  the  Romans  applied  the  name,  Germania 
magna. 

II.  Scandinavia,  the  great  peninsula  jutting  W.  and  S.  from  the 
north  of  Europe.  It  falls  into  two  divisions  :  1.  A  rugged,  moun- 
tainous region  on  the  W.,  with  deeply  indented  coasts  (Norway). 
2.  On  the  E.  a  less  mountainous  region  with  numerous  rivers 
flowing  into  the  Baltic  and  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  (Sweden).  The 
southern  part  of  Scandinavia  was  known  to  the  Romans  under  the 
name  Scandia,  and  was  thought  to  be  an  island. 

III.  The  British  Isles.     See  pp.  36  and  176. 

Ethnology :  I.  According  to  the  theory  of  the  Asiatic  origin  of 
the  Aryans,  the  Teutonic  migration  followed  the  Celtic  and  preceded 
that  of  the  Slavs.  The  Teutons,  or  Germans,  appear  to  have  taken 
the  northern  route  and  to  have  fii'st  settled  along  the  coast,  on  the 
plain,  and  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  plateau.  The  valley  of  the 
Danube  and  Bohemia  were  early  occupied  by  Celtic  tribes,  and  it 
was  only  gradually  that  these  were  dispossessed  by  the  invading  Ger- 
mans. Whether  the  Teutons  entered  Germany  in  two  bands,  is  not 
clear  ;  certain  it  is  that  from  a  very  early  time  a  radical  difference 
has  existed  in  language  and  customs  among  the  Germans,  whereby 
they  are  divided  into  High  Germans,  inhabiting  the  inland  plateau, 
and  Low  Germans,  dwelling  on  the  coast. 

The  Romans  divided  the  Germans  {Germani)^  either  into  two  sec- 
tions, the  Suevi  and  the  non-Suevi  (Caesar),  or  into  three  branches 
which  were  named  after  the  sons  of  "  Mannus,  the  son  of  the  earth-born 
god  Tuisco,^'  Istcevones,  Ingcevones,   Herminones.     The  former  division 

1  The  orifiaiiof  this  name  is  doubtful.  See  the  disputed  passage  in  Tacitus, 
Cermantia,  2. 


164  Ancient  History.  B.  c.-A.  d. 

is  thought  to  correspond  to  that  of  High  (Suevl)  and  Low  Germans  ; 
the  latter  answers  territorially  to  the  fusions  of  tribes  which  later 
formed  the  Franks,  Saxons,  and  Thuringians.  Of  the  separate  tribes 
may  be  mentioned:  I.  Non-Suevi:  Istsevones,  Ubii,  Usipii,  Tencterii, 
Sugambri,  Marsi,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  where  we  find  later 
the  Alamanni  and  Ripuarian  Franks ;  Ingsevones,  Batavians,  Fri<- 
sians,  Saxons,  Chauci,  Cimbri,  along  the  coast  from  the  Rhine  to  the 
right  bank  of  the  Elbe.  II.  Suevi,  Chatti,  in  Hessen,  Cherusci  on 
the  Upper  Weser,  Hermunduri  in  Thuringia,  extending  as  far  as  the 
Danube  (these  three  were  included  under  the  Herminones),  Marc- 
omanni  in  Bohemia  (see  below),  Quadi  on  the  Danube,  Semnones,  the 
centre  of  what  seems  to  have  been  a  very  loose  political  organization 
of  the  Suevi,  between  the  Elbe  and  Oder,  Langobardi,  Rugii  in  the 
northeast  toward  the  Vistula,  Burgundiones  on  the  Oder,  Guttones 
(later  Goths)  extending  beyond  the  Vistula,  Vandali,  Alani  (?). 

In  Denmark  dwelt  the  Saxons,  Angles,  and  Jutes,  until  the  fifth 
century  A.  D.,  when  a  large  part  of  these  tribes  migrated  to  England, 
and  their  place  was  taken  by  Danes  from  the  islands  on  the  E. 

II.  Scandinavia  was  occupied  by  Finnish  tribes  (Sitones),  from 
the  N.,  and  by  invading  Germans  from  the  S.  at  an  unknown  time  : 
Gautce  (Goths),  Sueones  (Swedes)  in  Sweden  ;  Northmen  in  Norway. 

III.  British  Isles.    See  pp.  36  and  176. 

Religion  :  The  religion  of  the  Teutonic  race  was  a  pantheistic 
nature  worship.  I.  Germans  :  Beyond  the  unsatisfactory  passages 
in  Caesar  (Bell.  Gall.  VI.  21)  and  Tacitus  (Germania  9,  10,  etc.),  all 
our  knowledge  of  the  ancient  religion  of  the  Germans  before  the 
introduction  of  Roman  civilization  and  of  Christianity  is  derived 
by  inference  from  later  sources,  or  from  the  younger  but  much  fuller 
mythology  of  Scandinavia.  Among  the  great  gods  {Ases)  of  the 
Germans  were:  "Woden  (Odin  in  the  north),  the  "all-father"; 
Donar  (Thor),  his  son,  at  once  the  storm-god,  and  the  god  of  agri- 
culture ;  Zio  or  Thiu  (Tyr)  also  a  son  of  Woden,  god  of  war  ;  Fro 
(Freyr),  god  of  love  ;  Paltar  (Baldur),  god  of  justice  ;  Nerthus 
or  Hertha  (Frau  Bertha),  the  earth  ;  Frauwa  (Freya),  sister  of 
Fro  ;  Friga  (Fria),  wife  of  Woden  ;  Helia  (Hel)  goddess  of  the 
lower  regions.  Below  the  Ases  were  the  Giants,  the  Nomes  or  fates, 
the  Walkyres  or  messengers  of  the  gods.  In  the  realm  of  lower 
mythology  the  German  imagination  was  remarkably  fertile.  Fairies, 
cobolds,  elves,  nixes,  abounded,  and  still  live  in  childrens'  tales,  and  the 
many  popular  fancies  which  the  modem  study  of  folk  lore  has  revealed. 

The  Germans  had  no  corporation  of  priests  like  that  of  the  Druids, 
though  the  priests  and  priestesses  of  certain  divinities  stood  in  high 
honor.  Their  worship  consisted  in  the  repetition  of  formal  invocations, 
and  in  the  offering  of  sacrifices,  prisoners  being  often  immolated  to 
the  gods.  Woods  and  trees  were  held  in  special  reverence  and  often 
devoted  to  the  performance  of  worship  beneath  their  branches.  Cer- 
tain days  were  set  apart  for  the  worship  of  certain  deities,  whose 
names  have  come  down  to  us  in  the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week. 
Tuesday  (Thiu'sdag),  Wednesday  (Woden'sdag),  Thursday  (Thor's- 
dag,  Donnerstag),  Friday  (Freya'sdag).     Some   of  the  customs  of 


B.  c.-A.  D.  Teutons.  165 

these  recurring  festivities  were  afterwards  impressed  into  the  service 
of  Christianity.  Such  was  the  decoration  of  trees  with  flower- 
wreaths  and  candles,  now  a  part  of  Christmas  rites, ^  and  such  the 
colored  eggs  in  a  "  hare's  nest,"  now  an  Easter  custom,  but  originally 
an  offering  to  some  heathen  divinity.  Divinations  by  flight  of  birds, 
neighing  of  horses,  throwing  sticks,  etc. 

II.  Scandinavia  :  The  faith  of  the  northern  Teutons  was  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  of  the  heathen  religions,  and  one  of  the  last  in 
Europe  to  yield  to  Christianity.  After  being  long  transmitted  bv 
hearsay  the  northern  mythology  was  first  committed  to  writing  il. 
the  poem  of  the  Elder  Edda  in  the  twelfth,  or  as  some  scholars  hold, 
in  the  thirteenth  century.  The  poem  is  supplemented  by  the  com- 
mentary known  as  the  Younger  Edda,  written  by  Snorri  Sturluson 
(1178-1241). 

In  the  beginning  existed  the  All-Father.  In  chaos  (Ginungagap) 
he  created  two  worlds,  Nijlheim,  the  ice-world,  in  the  north,  and 
Muspelheim,  the  fire-world,  where  sat  Surt  with  the  flaming  sword, 
in  the  south.  Midway  of  the  two  their  opposing  influences  produced 
the  giant  Ymer,  who  became  the  progenitor  of  the  evil  race  of  frost- 
giants  (Hrymthurses).  Ymer  was  fed  by  the  milk  of  the  cow  Aud- 
humhra,  who  licked  the  ice-blocks  and  set  free  the  god  Bure,  to  whom 
a  giant's  daughter  bore  three  sons,  Odin,  Vile,  and  Ve.  These  three 
slew  Ymer,  in  the  deluge  of  whose  blood  perished  all  the  frost-giants, 
save  two,  who  became  the  ancestors  of  a  new  race  of  frost-giants.  Of 
the  body  of  Ymer  the  gods  formed  the  universe,  the  earth,  the  sky  and 
th»  stars.  Dwarfs  were  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  After- 
wards the  first  man  and  woman  were  created  from  two  trees. 

The  universe  thus  formed  comprised  nine  worlds.  Of  these  the 
highest  was  Muspelheini,  in  whose  highest  part  was  Gimle,  the  abode 
of  the  blest.  Below  Muspelheini  was  Asaheim,  or  Godheim,  where 
dwelt  the  great  gods  (Asa)  in  their  capital,  Asgard,  with  its  lofty 
halls,  the  fairest  of  which  was  Valhal,  the  hall  of  Odin.  Below 
Godheim  was  Mannaheim,  or  Midgard,  the  earth,  a  disk  of  land  sur- 
rounded by  the  ocean  and  held  together  by  the  Midgard-serpent 
which  lay  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  its  tail  between  its  jaws. 
Across  the  ocean  was  Jotunheim,  the  world  of  the  giants,  whose  one 
purpose  was  the  annoyance  of  mankind,  on  which  account  they  were 
perpetually  at  war  with  man's  defenders,  the  gods  of  Godheim.  Be- 
low the  earth  was  Helheim,  the  world  of  the  dead,  and,  lowest  of  all, 
Niflheim,  with  the  fountain  Hvergelmer.  Bif roust,  the  bridge  between 
Godheim  and  Mannaheim.  Gjallar-hridge  between  Helheim,  Jotun- 
heim and  the  worlds  above. 

These  worlds  were,  in  the  fancy  of  the  north,  surrounded  and 
united  by  a  mighty  ash-tree,  Yggdrasil,  with  three  roots  reaching  to 
Godheim,  Jotunheim,  and  Niflheim. 

The  great  gods  were  Odin  and  his  sons  :  Thar,  Vali,  Haimdall, 
Vidar,  Baldur,  Braga,  Tyr,  Hodur,  besides  Aller,  Forsete,  and  Njord, 

1  In  Germany  the  tree  is  simply  decorcCed^  the  presents  to  be  exchanged  are 
piled  around  the  support  of  the  tree  or  placed  on  an  adjacent  table.  The  ex- 
change of  gifts  was  not  a  part  of  the  old  German  custom,  but  is  perhaps  a  sur- 
Tival  of  a  practice  observed  by  the  Romans  during  the  Saturnalia  (p.  85). 


166  Ancient  History.  b.  c.-a.  d. 

Freyr,  sea  gods,  and  Loke,  Of  the  goddesses  the  chief  were  Friggaf 
wife  of  Odin,  Freyja^  goddess  of  love,  Saga,  goddess  of  history. 
Above  all  the  gods  were  the  Nomes,  or  fates.  Below  the  gods  were 
elves,  trolls,  witches,  etc.  Exploits  of  the  gods.  Especially  famous 
were  the  dealings  of  Thor  with  the  giants.  After  the  creation  fol- 
lowed a  golden  age  when  all  was  well  in  Godheim,  but  after  a  time 
evil  crept  in  personified  as  Loke.  Death  of  Baldur,  killed  through 
the  contrivance  of  Zo^e  by  his  brother  Hodur  with  a  sprig  of  mistle- 
toe, Frigga  having  bound  all  other  created  things  not  to  hurt  Baldur. 
Loke's  children  were  the  Fenris^woify  chained  until  the  coming  of 
Ragnarok,  the  Midgard-serpent,  and  Hel.  Binding  of  Loke.  Finally 
comes  the  end  of  the  world,  Ragnarok,  the  Twilight  of  the  Gods, 
Battle  of  the  Asa-gods  with  the  Midgard-serpent,  Loke,  and  the 
Fenris-wolf,  who  have  broken  tlieir  chains.  The  good  and  the  bad 
alike  perish  in  the  combat.  >SiMr^  consumes  Yggdrasil  and  the  whole 
world  in  flames.  Vidar,  Vale,  Hodur,  Baldur,  and  the  sons  of  Thor 
survive.     A  new  earth  and  a  new  heaven  are  created. 

According  to  the  belief  of  the  Nortlimen,  all  good  men  and  all  who 
died  in  battle  crossed  over  the  bridge  Bifroust  (the  rainbow)  to 
Valhal,  where  they  spent  their  days  feasting  and  fighting,  until 
Ragnarok  when  they  passed  to  Girrde.  Cowards  and  evil-doers  were 
punished  in  Helheim,  and  after  Ragnarok  in  Nojostrand.^ 

Civilization  :  It  is  probable  that  the  Germans  had  not  completed 
the  transition  from  a  pastoral  to  an  agricultural  people,  when  they 
arrived  in  central  Europe.  They  were  certainly  in  a  low  stage  of 
civilization  when  they  became  known  to  the  Romans,  a  stage  not  un- 
like that  reached  by  the  most  advanced  of  the  American  Indians,  the 
Iroquois.  Cities  were  unknown  to  them  ;  they  seem  to  have  settled 
for  the  most  part  each  individual  apart,  each  tribe  separated  from 
the  other  by  a  broad  strip  of  mark-land.^  Orders  :  1.  Nobles,  who 
derived  their  descent  from  the  gods,  but  wei-e  entitled  to  no  political 
privileged  because  of  their  nobility.  2.  Freemen^  that  is,  land-owners, 
men  born  to  arms,  the  work  upon  whose  land  was  done  by  their 
bondmen;  out  of  this  class  developed  later  the  lower  nobilitg.  3. 
Freedmen  (lid,  lassen),  or  half-freemen,  renters  bound  to  military 
service,  but  excluded  from  the  ownership  of  land,  from  the  popular 
assembly,  and  from  the  courts.  4.  Servants  or  bondmen,  in  part 
serfs  bound  to  the  soil  (glebcB  adscripti),  in  part  actual  slaves.  The 
latter  two  classes  formed  the  majority  of  the  population. 

Custom  of  comradeship  {gasindi  leudes),  out  of  which  the  feudal 
system  developed  after  the  occupation  of  the  Roman  provinces  and 
the  division  of  land  among  the  faithful  (f  deles},  and  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Christian  religion.  Feudal  superior  (suzerain).  Vas- 
sen,  vassals,  or  men ;  fief  (feudum  or  benefcium),  held  on  tenure  of 
service,  distinct  from  allodium,  property  in  fee  simple. 

1  The  relation  of  these  myths  to  Christianit}'-,  the  extent  to  which  they  have 
heen  influenced  by  acquaintance  with  the  Scriptures,  is  a  subject  of  active  in- 
quiry, but  nothinic  can  as  yet  be  said  to  be  definitely  determined.  See  Bugge, 
Entstehung  der  Novdischen  Gotter. 

2  Whoever  desires  to  become  involved  in  that  most  hopeless  of  all  historical 
questions,  the  social  and  political  organization  of  the  ancient  Germans,  is  re- 
ferred to  Waltz,  Verfassungsgeschichte,  where   references  will  be  found. 


B.  c.-A.  D.  Teutons.  167 

History :  I.  The  date  of  the  first  arrival  of  Teutons  iii  Europe  is 
wholly  unknown.  Pytheas  of  Massalia,  who  visited  the  amber  coasts 
of  the  Baltic  about  350  b.  c,  met  with  German  tribes.  From  that 
time  on  only  the  bare  introduction  of  the  word  German!  in  the  Roman 
annals  for  225  B.  c.  hints  at  any  knowledge  of  the  Teutons  until  the 
close  of  the  second  century  B.  c,  when  the  tribes  of  the  Cimbri  and 
Teutones  left  their  homes  at  the  base  of  the  Danish  peninsula  (driven 
from  them  by  a  flood?)  and,  after  humiliating  the  Roman  arms  in 
Gaul,  found  their  death  on  the  fields  of  Aquae  Sextise  and  Vercellse 
(102,  101,  B.  c,  p.  127).  The  terrors  of  the  invasion  died  away, 
but  the  Romans  did  not  come  again  into  contact  with  the  Germans 
imtil  Caesar's  invasion  of  Gaul  brought  on  a  contest  with  the  Suevian 
prince  Ariovistus  which  ended  in  the  latter's  defeat  (58  b.  c).  Sub- 
jugation of  the  Germans  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  Caesar's  two 
expeditions  across  the  Rliine  (58,  55,  p.  139). 

Under  Augustus,  systematic  attempt  to  subjugate  Germania  magna. 
Conquest  of  Rcetia  and  Noricum  by  Drusus  (15),  of  Pannonia  and 
Vindelicia.  Expeditions  of  Drusus  from  the  Rhine  :  1.  With  the 
fleet  on  the  Ems  (12)  ;  2.  Against  the  Cherusci  on  the  Weser,  foun- 
dation of  the  citadel  Aliso  (11)  ;  3.  Along  the  Alain  to  the  Werra 
and  Elbe  (9).  Legend  of  the  "white  woman."  Death  of  Drusus. 
His  successor  Tiberius,  reduced  all  the  tribes  between  the  Rhine  and 
the  Elbe  to  submission  and  began  the  active  construction  of  fortresses 
and  colonies.  The  folly  of  Tiberius'  successor.  Varus,  alienated  the 
Germans  and  led  to  revolt.  Under  Arminiiis,  one  of  the  nobles  of  the 
Cherusci,  three  Roman  legions  were  annihilated  in  the  three  days' 
battle  in  the  Teutoburg  Forest  ^  (9  A.  d.  ?).  Augustus  gave  up  the 
hope  of  subjugating  the  Germans,  and  later  emperors  did  not  revive  it. 
Expeditions  of  Germxinicus  in  revenge  for  the  Teutoburg  massacre,  14, 
15,  16.  Thenceforward  the  Romans  were  contented  ^vith  maintain- 
ing their  borders  against  the  free  tribes,  and  with  colonizing  the 
land  south  of  the  Mam  and  the  Danube.  Line  of  fortifications  from 
Aschaffenburg,  on  the  Main,  to  Regensburg,  on  the  Danube  (Pfahl- 
graben,  Teufelsmxiuer).  Along  this  line  Roman  soldiers  were  settled  on 
land  for  the  rent  of  which  they  paid  a  tenth  of  the  produce,  hence 
agri  decumates.  Foundation  of  colonies  :  Curia  Rcetorum  (Chur)  in 
Rfetia  ;  Juvenum  (Salsburg)  in  Noricum  ;  Vindobonum  (Vienna)  in 
Pannonia ;  Augusta  Vinddicorum  (Augsburg),  Castra  regina  (Re- 
gensburg) in  Vindelicia.  Active  intercourse  between  Rome  and  Ger- 
many. Germans  served  both  as  privates  and  as  officers  in  the  Roman 
army  (so  Arminius).     Traffic  in  amber. 

Of  the  internal  affairs  of  the  free  Germans  we  are  but  scantily 
informed.  In  the  first  century  b.  c.  a  portion  of  the  Hermunduri,  the 
Alarcomanni,  had  invaded  Bohemia,  driven  out  the  Celtic  Boii  (wh<^ 
took  refuge  in  Pannonia,  where  they  were  gradually  exterminated  by 
the  Roman  arms)  and  established  a  state  which,  under  Marbo'J 
(Maroboduus),  grew  to  formidable  proportions.  Intended  expedi- 
tion of  Tiberius  against  Marbod  frustrated  by  the  Pamionian  revolt 
(8).  Feuds  between  the  German  tribes  fostered  by  the  Romans. 
Arminius  expelled  Marbod  from  his  kingdom,  but  was  liimself  mur- 
i  The  locality  has  not  been  satisfactorily  made  out. 


168  Ancient  History.  b.  c.-a.  d. 

dered  under  suspicion  of  aiming  at  supreme  power.  The  Cherusci, 
Hermunduri  and  Bructeri  were  nearly  exterminated  in  internecine 
strife.  Revolt  of  the  Batavians  under  Civilis  (p.  151).  War  of 
Marcus  Aurelius  with  the  Marcomanni  (p.  154). 

In  process  of  time  a  change  came  over  the  political  organization  of 
the  Germans.  The  multitude  of  small  tribes  disappeared  and  we 
find  in  their  stead  a  smaller  number  of  more  extensive  tribes.  At  the 
same  time  the  Slavs  began  to  press  upon  the  eastern  Germans  and 
urge  them  westward.  The  Germans  increased  in  power  and  popula- 
tion,-and  became  better  and  better  trained  in  the  arts  of  war  and 
political  intrigue  as  they  came  more  and  more  into  intimate  connec- 
tion with  Rome.  The  provincial  armies  were  largely  German  ;  Ger- 
man officers  rose  to  high  distinction  and  great  influence  in  Rome- 
So  Rome  grew  weaker  and  her  foes  stronger  until  at  last  the  im- 
pulse of  the  invading  Huns  in  the  east  set  all  the  tribes  in  motion. 

II.  Scandinavia:  Northern  annalists  present  an  historical  Odin, 
probably  no  less  mythical  than  Odin  the  god.  According  to  these 
tales  (which,  like  some  other  mythical  history,  may  have  greater  his- 
torical value  than  the  present  credits  them  with),  Odin  was  the 
leader  of  the  Asas  who  dwelt  in  Asia  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Caspian.  Attracted  to  the  falling  fortunes  of  Mithridates,  he  was 
driven  from  his  kingdom  by  Pompeius.  He  conducted  the  Asas 
westward  to  Scandinavia  where  he  subdued  Denmark,  Sweden  and 
Norway,  and  gave  these  countries  to  his  sons  ;  Denmark  to  Skjoldy 
Sweden  to  Yngave,  Norway  to  Seeming.  Odin  ended  his  days  in 
Sweden. 

The  history  of  Scandinavia  as  far  as  ascertained  belongs  to  the 
next  period,  and  will  be  found  on  page  207. 

III.  British  Isles.  For  the  history  of  the  Teutonic  invasion  of 
England  see  p.  176. 

§  6.    SLAVS  AND  LITHUANIANS.    Aryan. 

These  closely  related  peoples  belong  to  the  northern  branch  of  the 
European  Aryans,  and  their  westward  migration  followed  that  of  the 
Teutons. 

The  Slavs  were  known  to  the  late  Roman  geographers  under  the 
name  Venedce  (hence  Wends)  as  inhabiting  the  region  beyond  the 
Vistula,  which  bore  the  general  name  of  Sarmatia,  from  the  nomadic 
Sarmatians  who  inhabited  it,  interspersed  with  the  Slavs,  from  whom 
they  differed  in  language  and  descent. 

In  the  fifth  century  A.  d.  the  Slavs  occupied  the  country  between 
the  Baltic  and  the  Black  Sea,  between  the  Carpathians  and  the  Don. 
They  dwelt  in  the  steppes  of  Russia  as  far  north  as  Novgorod  on  the 
Volga,  and  their  westerimiost  limit  lay  between  the  Vistula  and 
the  Oder.  In  the  sixth  century  the  Slavs  began  to  extend  them- 
selves south  and  west,  a  movement  which  resulted  in  the  permanent 
occupation  of  Bohemia  and  of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  while  their 
settlement  extended  east  to  Tyrol.  In  623  A.  d.  temporary  formation 
of  a 'Slavic  monarchy  of  great  extent  under  Samo  in  Bohemia,  which 
endured  thirty-five  years.  The  conquests  of  the  Slavs  came  to  an 
end  with  the  seventh  century,  and  the  separate  kingdoms  of  Poland, 
Bohemia,  Russia,  were  gradually  formed. 


A.  D.  Slavs  and  Lithuanians.  169 

Of  the  religion  of  the  Slavs  little  is  known  with  certainty,  owing 
to  the  diversity  of  nomenclature  among  the  various  divisions  of  this 
wide-spread  people,  and  to  the  lack  of  trustworthy  authorities.  Among 
the  Slavs  of  the  Baltic,  who  had  a  class  of  priests  and  built  temples, 
occur  the  names  Svatovit  or  Svantovit,  god  of  light  or  of  the  air,  with 
a  temple  at  Arkona  ;  Triglath,  the  three-headed  god,  worshipped  in 
Pomerania  (Stettin)  ;  Radigost,  Rugevit  or  Ranovit  (in  Rtigen), 
Jarovit,  all  gods  of  war  ;  Zcemeboh,  "  the  black  god,"  an  evil  deity. 
The  Russians  worshipped  Khors,  Volos,  or  Veles,  god  of  the  herds 
(St.  Blaise)  ;  Koupalo,  god  of  the  harvest ;  Jarglo,  god  of  generation  ; 
Stribog,  god  of  the  winds  ;  Lada,  goddess  of  love  and  passion.  The 
gods  were  worshipped  by  offerings  of  fruit  and  animals,  seldom  by 
human  sacrifices. 

The  Slavs  were  a  pastoral  and  agricultural  people.  All  inhab- 
itants of  the  same  district  were  kinsmen,  bearing  a  common  name,  liv- 
ing under  the  rule  of  an  elected  elder,  and  holding  property  in  com- 
mon. A  union  of  such  districts  formed  a  tribe  ;  a  union  of  tribes 
formed  a  people. 

The  Lithuanians  play  no  part  in  history  before  the  thirteenth 
century.  In  the  wider  sense  the  name  includes  the  Letts  and  the 
ancient  Prussians,  who  were  known  to  the  Romans  as  ^stui.  In  the 
narrower  sense  it  is  limited  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  region  between 
the  Memel  and  the  Finnish  Esthonians. 


11.    MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


FIRST  PERIOD. 

FROM  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  MIGRATIONS  OF  THE  NORTHERN 
TRIBES  TO  THE  TREATY  OF  VERDUN ^  (375-843). 

§  1.    MIGRATIONS  OF  THE  NORTHERN  PEOPLES. 

Habitations  of  the  Germanic  tribes  in  the  fourth  century  a.  d. 

Alani,  whose  German  descent  is,  however,  not  certain,  on  the  lower 
Volga ;  East  Goths  in  southern  Russia  ;  West  Goths  in  Dacia  {eastern 
Hungary,  Roumania);  Vandals  in  Pannonia  {southwestern  Hungary); 
Suevi  in  Moravia,  Bohemia,  and  Bavaria;  Burgundians  on  the  Neckar 
and  the  Rhine,  with  Worms  as  their  capital  (compare  p.  164);  Ala- 
manni  (or  Alemanni)  on  the  Rhine,  between  the  Main  and  the  Alps,, 
partly  along  the  Roman  boundary  wall  {agri  decumates) ;  Ripuarian 
Franks  on  both  sides  of  the  lower  Rhine  (capital  at  Colonia  A  grip- 
ping) ;  Salic  Franks  on  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine  (in  Meergau,  "  dis- 
trict on  the  sea,"  the  Meruwe,  hence  Merowingians  ;)  ^  Saxons  from 
the  Elbe  almost  to  the  Rhme  ;  Thuringians  south  of  the  Saxons  ;  Lan- 
gohards  on  the  lower  Elbe. 

The  peoples  which  appear  in  the  so-called  migrations  of  the  peoples 
were  generally  heterogeneous  armed  bands  under  the  command  of  a 
leader  or  king  chosen  for  his  military  prowess  {Heerkonig). 

375.    Beginning   of   the   migration   of    the   Teutonio 
tribes. 

Period  of  migrations  and  invasions. 

The  Huns,  a  Mongolian  race,  crossed  the  Volga. 

The  Huns,  joined  by  the  Alani,  whom  they  had  defeated,  fell  upon 

the  East  Goths  (king  Ermanaric  or  Hermanric,  of  the  family 

of  the  Amali),  and,  in  union  with  these,  upon  the  West  Goths. 

That  part  of  the  West  Gothic  race  which  had  remained  heathen 

took  refuge  in  the  Carpathians  ;  the  Christians,^  and  those  who 

1  Assmann,  Geschichte  des  Mittelalters.  2d  edition,  by  E.  Meyer. 

2  According  to  other  scholars  the  name  was  a  patronymic. 

8  A  Gothic  bishop  (Theophilus)  took  part  in  the  "^council  of  Nicaea  (325), 
"Wulflla  (Ulfilas),  bishop  of  the  West  Goths  (348-381),  translator  of  the  Bible; 
cf.  Dahn,  Die  Kiiniye  der  Germanen,  VL  41. 


A.  D.  Migrations  of  the  Northern  Peoples.  171 

were  just  on  the  point  of  accepting  Christianity  (in  the  form 
of  Arianism),  were  allotted  habitations  in  Moesia  by  the  em- 
peror Valens.  Disputes  with  the  Roman  officials  at  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Danube  (Fridigem,  leader  of  the  West  Goths)  led 
to  war,  and  the  Goths  advanced,  ravaging  as  they  went. 

378.     Battle  of  Adrianople.   Valens  defeated  and  slain.   His 
successor,  Theodosius,  made  peace  with  the  West  Goths,  who, 
for  pay  and  the  gift  of  a  dwelling-place,  were  to  protect  the 
frontiers  of  the  Roman  Empire  as  foederati. 
Alaric,  leader  of  the  West  Goths,  belonging  to  the  family  of  the 
Balthi  (i.  e.  "  bold  ")  enraged  at  not  receiving  pay  from  Arcadius,  laid 
waste  Macedonia,  Illyria,  and  Greece  (395),  and  advanced  into  Pelo- 
ponnesus.   Stilicho,  magister  utriusque  militice  of  the  Western  Empire 
(p.  161),  came  to  the  assistance  of  the  Eastern  court.     Landing  with 
an  army  at  Corinth  he  surrounded  the  West  Goths,  but  allowed  them 
to  escape.     Alaric  went  to  Illyria,  and  compelled  the  court  at  Byzan- 
tium to  recognize  him  as  dux  in  lUyricum  orientale. 

401.  Alaric's  first  invasion  of  Italy.  After  a  victory  at  Aquileia 
he  crossed  the  Po.  Stilicho  hastened  from  Rsetia  to  meet 
him. 

402.  Drawn  battle  at  FoUentia.  Alaric  made  another  attempt  to 
advance  southward,  but  was  compelled  to  return  to  lUyria  by 
disease,  hunger,  and  desertion. 

404-406.  German  bands  under  Radagais  invaded  Italy,  but  wer« 
defeated  by  Stilicho  at  Fcesulce,  and  annihilated  by  continued 
fighting  and  by  hunger. 

406-409.  Bands  of  Vandals,  Suevi,  and  Alani  left  the  regions 
along  the  Danube,  crossed  the  Rhine,  sustained  great  loss  in 
contests  with  the  Franks,  and  finally  (409)  invaded  Spain. 

Foundation  of  Teutonic  monarchies  in  Roman  territory. 

The  Salian  Franks  gradually  occupied  northern  Gaul.    The 
Burguudians  settled  (406-413)  on  the  middle  Rhine  (  Worms). 
408.     Stilicho  murdered  by  the  command  of  the  emperor  Honorius 
(p.  161). 
Alaric's  second  invasion  of  Italy.     He  besieged  Rome,  but  retired 
on  receipt  of  a  ransom.     The  court  at  Ravenna  refusing  to  grant 
Alaric's  request  that  the  Goths  should  be  assigned  lands  for  a  per- 
manent settlement  in  northern  Italy,  Alaric  again  advanced  upon 
Rome,  and  forced  the  senate  to  appoint  Attains,  prefect  of  the  city, 
emperor.     Alaric  besieged  Honorius   in  Ravenna  without   success, 
quarrelled  with  Attains,  whom  he  deposed,  and  advanced  for  the  third 
time  upon  Rome. 

410»  Capture  and  sack  of  Rorae  by  Alaric.  Alaric  went 
to  Lower  Italy  with  the  intention  of  crossing  to  Sicily,  and 
thence  to  Africa,  but  died  at  the  close  of  410,  at  Cosenza,  and 
was  buried  beneath  the  Busento. 

410-415.  Athaulf,  brother  of  Alaric's  wife,  led  the  West  Goths  to 
Gaul,  though  whether  in  fiilfilment  of  a  treaty  with  Honorius 


172  MedicEval  History.  A.  d, 

to  resist  the  Romans,  who  had  forced  their  way  into  the  province,  or 
of  his  own  accord,  is  uncertain.  He  carried  with  him  the  sister  of 
Honorius,  who  was  detained  as  a  hostage  in  the  Gothic  camp,  and  mar- 
ried her  in  Narbonne  (414:).  The  proposed  treaty  with  the  imperial 
court  was  not,  however,  concluded.  Athaulf,  hard  pressed  by  the  im- 
perial general  Constantius,  went  to  Spain,  conquered  Barcelona,  and 
was  murdered  (415).     After  the  murder  of  his  successor,  Sigric, 

415-419.  Walja  became  king  of  the  West  Goths.  He  concluded  a 
treaty  with  Honorius,  and  fought  for  Rome  against  Vandals, 
Alani,  and  Suevi.  He  received  a  grant  of  southern  Gaul  under 
Roman  supremacy.     Walja  was  the  founder  of  the 

415-507.  West  Gothic  (Visigothic)  kingdom  of  To- 
losa,  with  its  capital  at  Tolosa  (Toulouse),  which  soon  became 
independent.^ 

429.  King  Genseric  (Geiseric)  conducted  the  Vandals  and  a  portion 
of  the  Alani  to  Africa,  at  the  invitation,  as  the  story  goes,-^  of  the 
Roman  governor  Bonifacius.  The  latter  was  slandered  at  court 
by  Aetius,  and  accused  of  treason,  but,  making  his  peace  with 
Placidia,  the  mother  and  guardian  of  the  Emperor  Valen- 
tinian  III.,  he  fought  unsuccessfully  against  Genseric,  who, 
after  a  short  peace  with  the  Romans  (435),  conquered  Car- 
thage (439). 

429-534.  Kingdom  of  the  Vandals  in  Africa.  Capital, 
Carthage  (S.  Augustinus,  bishop  of  Hippo  Regius  t430). 

440.  The  Vandals,  having  created  a  great  naval  power,  plundered 
the  coasts  of  Sicily  and  lower  Italy,  by  their  fleets. 

443.  The  Burgundians  settled  on  the  upper  Rhone  and  on  the 
Saone  ;  the  Alamanni  extended  themselves  over  the  Roman 
province  of  Germania  superior  (hence  called  Alsace),  and 
also  occupied  a  part  of  Switzerland,  east  of  the  Burgundian 
territory. 

449.  The  Angles  and  Saxons,  long  known  as  pirates  along  the 
coasts  of  the  German  Ocean,  and  having .  settlements  on  the 
coast  of  Flanders  (litus  Saxonicum  ^),  were  called  in  by  the  Brit- 
ons, after  the  withdrawal  of  the  Roman  legions  from  Britain, 
to  assist  them  in  repelling  the  robber  tribes  of  the  north- 
ern mountains,  the  Picts  and  Scots.  The  Saxons  and  Angles 
crossed  to  Britain  (according  to  tradition,  the  first  bands  were 
led  by  Hengist  and  Horsa),  and  founded  in  the  course  of  time 
8  states  :  Kent,  Sussex,  Wessex,  Essex,  East  Anglia,  Mercia, 
Deira,  Bernicia.  The  last  two  were  later  united  to  form 
NortJiumbria  (north  of  the  Humber);  hence  the  number  of 
states  was  then  7  (heptarchy). 
The  Britons    for  the  most  part  migrated  to  Wales,  and  to  Ar-^ 

monca  in  Gaul,  wliich  was  hence  called  Brelagne  (Brittany). 
For  the  details  of  the  settlements,  see  p.  176. 

1  Cf.  Dahn,  Dit  Konige  der  Germanen,  Pt.  V. 
^  2  This  is  denied  by  the  more  recent  authorities. 

«  See,  however,  p.  38. 


A.  D.  Migrations  oj  the  Northern  Peoples.  1 73 

451.  Attila  (Etzel,  «  Scourge  of  God  "),  king  of  the  Huns  (in  his 

train  armed  bands  of  Germanic  peoples,  whom  he  had  sub- 
jected, East  Goths,  Gepidce,  etc.),  invaded  and  ravaged  Gaul. 
He  besieged  Orleans  in  vaui. 
Battle  on  the  Catalaunian  fields  (near  Chcilons-sur-Marne:  the 
battle-field  itself  t/as  at  Troyes).  Attila  defeated  by  Aetius, 
the  Roman  governor  of  the  small  district  around  Lutetia,  which 
alone  remained  in  possession  of  the  Romans,  and  the  West 
Goths  (with  the  aid  of  auxiliaries  from  the  Franks,  BurgundianSj 
etc.).     Theodoric  I.,  king  of  the  West  Goths,  fell  in  the  battle. 

452.  Attila  went  to  Italy,  destroyed  Aquileia.    Venice  founded 

by  Italian  fugitives.  Rome  saved  by  Bishop  Leo  (?). 
After  the  death  of  Attila  (453)  the  monarchy  of  the 
Huns  fell  asunder. 

Not  only  the  German  tribes  which  had  been  subjugated  by  the 
Huns  became  free  (the  Gepidce  were  the  first  to  shake  ott'  the  yoke) ; 
the  Slavic  peoples  also  regained  their  liberty.  During  the  following 
centuries  these  latter  tribes  extended  themselves  throughout  the  east- 
ern parts  of  Germany. 
455.   Rome,  after  the  murder   of  Valentinian  HI.,  by  Maximus, 

plundered  for  14  days  by  the  Vandals,  who  had  been  called  in 

by  Eudoxia,  widow  of  Valentinian. 
The  Vandals  controlled  the  entire  northern  coast  of  Africa  as  far 

as  Gyrene,  and  the  islands  of  the  western  Mediterranean. 

476.  Odovakar  (Odoacer),  leader  of  Herulian  and  other 
German  bands  in  the  pay  of  Rome,  became  ruler  in 
Italy,  after  the  deposition  of  the  last  emperor  of  the 
West  (p.  162). 

There  was  no  conquest  of  the  western  empire  by  Odovakar,  but 
the  line  of  Emperors  in  the  West  came  to  an  end  in  consequence 
of  domestic  revolution,  and  thereby  the  last  bond  was  broken  which  had 
united  the  provinces,  long  since  occupied  by  the  barbarians,  who, 
however,  had  xisually  nominally  recognized  the  supremacy  of  the 
Imperator  or  Augustus  in  Ravenna. 

486.  Battle  of  Soissons.  The  Merowingian  Chlodwig 
(Chlodowech,  Clovis,  481-511),  leader  of  the  Salic 
Franks,  defeated  the  Roman  governor  Syagrius,  the 
successor  of  Aetius. 

Kingdom  of  the  Franks  in  northern  Gaul.  Chlodwi^ 
by  cruelty  and  deceit  made  himself  sole  ruler  of  all 
the  Franks. 

496.  Victory  of  Chlodwig  over  the  Alamanni  (not  at  Tolbiacum 
or  Ziilpich).!  Conversion  of  Chlodwig  and  the  Franks  to 
Catholic    Christianity.     Chlodwig 'baptized   by   RemigiuSj 

1  Assmann,  I.  53. 


174  Mediaeval  History.  A.  D. 

bishop  of  Rheims  (Mitis  depone  colla  Slgamber,  adora   quod 
incendviti,  incende  quod  adorasti). 

493.  Theodoric  the  Great  (493-526),  after  having  de- 
feated Odovakar,  with  whom  he  had  been  at  war  since 
489,  founded  the 

493-555.  Kingdom  of  the  East  Goths  (Ostrogoths)  in 
Italy. 

Residence  Ravenna,  at  times  Verona,  hence  in  the  hero  romances : 
Dietrich  von  Birn.     Cassiodorus,  historian.     Boethins  {de  con 
solatione  philosophies),  and  Syniuiachus,  executed  (525). 
500.   Chlodwig,  king  of  the  Franks,  attacked  tlie  Burgundians,  to 
revenge  himself  on  Gundohad,  the  imcle  of  his  wife  Chlotilde, 
for  the  murder  of  her  father,  defeated  them  at  Dij&n,  and 
made  them  tributary  to  the  Franks. 
507.   Chlodwig  defeated  the  West  Goths  at  Vouille^  or  Voulon,i 
on  the    Clain,  a   branch   of  the    Vieime,  in  the  vicinity   of 
Poitiers. 

The  West  Goths,  assisted  by  the  East  Goths,  defeated  the  Franks 
at  Aries,  and  maintained  their  control  of  Septimania  (the  coast  be- 
tween the  Rhdne  and  Pyrenees). 

Theodoric  the  Great  united  a  part  of  southern  Gaul  to  the  king- 
dom of  the  East  Goths,  and  undertook  the  govermnent  of  that  part 
which  the  West  Goths  retained,  as  well  as  of  the  Spanish  possessions 
of  that  people,  as  the  guardian  of  their  king,  his  grandson  Ama- 
laric,  a  minor  (son  of  Alaric  II.),  and  retained  it  till  his  death  (526), 
which  first  severed  the  connection  of  the  two  Gothic  kingdoms. 

507  (526)-711.  ^West  Gothic  (Visigothic)  Kingdom  in 
Spain,  with  its  capital  at  Toledo. 

626.  After  the  death  of  Theodoric,  his  daughter  Amalasuntha  be- 
came regent  in  the  East  Gothic  kingdom  for  her  son  Athalaric. 
The  latter  died  yomig  (534),  and  his  mother  associated  with 
herself  as  co- regent  her  cousin  Theodahad  (Theodat),  who 
murdered  her,  thereby  causing 

535-555.   War  between  the  East  Goths  and  the  Eastern  Empire. 

533-534.  Belisarius,  general  of  Justinian,  Emperor  of  the 
East  (527-565),  destroyed  the  Vandal  power  in  Africa. 

Decay  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Vandals  after  the  death  of 
Genseric  (477).  Hilderic  deposed  by  Gelimer,  whom  Beli- 
sarius captured. 

Brilliant  campaign  of  Belisarius  against  Vitiges,  king  of  the 
540.     East  Goths,  whom  he  carried  captive  to  Constantinople. 

Belisarius,  after  he  had  declined  the  Italian  crown,  offered 
him  by  the  East  Goths,  was  dispatched  by  Justinian  against 
the  Persians. 

During  his  absence  the  East  Goths,  under  their  new  king 
Totila,  reconquered  the  greater  part  of  Italy. 

1  Dahn,  Die  Kbnige  d.  Germ.  V.  109. 


A.  D.  Migrations  of  the  Northern  Peoples.  175 

544-549.  Belisarius,  sent  again  to  Italy,  fought  with  varying  suc- 
cess, but  with  increasing  fame,  against  Totila.  He  recaptured 
Rome.  After  Belisarius  had  been  again  recalled,  Rome  was  a 
second  time  taken  by  Totila. 

652.  Narses,  the  successor  of  Belisarius,  defeated  Totila  at  Tagince 
or  Busta  Gallorum.     Totila  fell  on  the  field. 

553.  The  last  king  of  the  East  Goths,  Teja,  fell  in  the  battle  of 
.  Mons  lactarius  (near  Vesuvius). 

555.  Narses  destroyed  the  kingdom  of  the  East  Goths.  Ex- 
archate. 

568-774.  Kingdom  of  the  Langobards  (Lombards)  in 
Italy.  Alboin. 

Alboin,  with  the  help  of  the  Avars  (on  the  lower  Danube),  de- 
stroyed the  kingdom  of  the  Gepidce  and  married  Rosamunda,  the 
daughter  of  the  king  of  the  Gepidse.  At  the  head  of  his  Lango- 
bards, with  the  aid  of  Saxons  and  Slavs,  he  conquered  Italy  as  far 
south  as  the  Tiber.  Capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Langobards, 
Pavia  (Papia).  The  Langobards  conquered  almost  the  entire  Ex- 
archate of  the  Byzantines,  who  retained  only  Venice,  Ravenna,  Naples, 
and  Calabria.  Rome  (ducatus  Romce)  became  gradually  indepen- 
dent under  its  bishops.  (Patrimonium  Petri.) 

After  Alboin  had  been  murdered  by  Rosamund,  because,  as  the 
story  goes,  he  attempted,  during  a  carouse,  to  force  her  to  drink 
from  her  father's  skull,  his  successor  Cleph  pushed  his  conquests  to 
lower  Italy,  where  independent  Langobardian  duchies,  like  Bene- 
ventum,  were  established.  After  an  interregnum  of  ten  years  his 
son  Authari  was  recognized  as  king.  Through  the  influence  of  his 
wife,  Theodelinde,  a  Bavarian  princess,  the  conversion  of  the  Lango- 
bards to  Christianity  was  begun. 

Among  the  successors  of  Authari  the  following  deserve  mention  : 
Rothari,  in  whose  reign  the  famous  code  of  laws  of  the  Langobards 
appeared   (644)  ;    Grimoald,  duke   of   Beneventum,   who  violently 
usurped  the  throne  and  completed  the  conversion  of  the  Langobards  ; 
Liutprand  (717-744),  who  made  further  additions  to  the  code  of 
the  Langobards;  and  Aistulf  (750-756),  whose  attempt  to  conquer 
Rome  was  frustrated  by  Pipin,  king  of  the  Franks  (p.  184). 
585.  Kingdom  of  the  Suevi  in  Spain  united  with  that  of  the  West 
Goths,  who,  like  all  the  barbarians  that  had  adopted  Arianism, 
were  converted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  church  (587). 
690-604.     Gregory  I,  (the  Great),  bishop  of  Rome.     Beginning  of 
the  Papacy  (Papa,  Ilan-ira?,  i.   e.  father,  formerly  the  title  of 
every  Christian  bishop,  soon  applied  exclusively  to  the  succes- 
sor of  St.  Peter). 


176  Mediceval  History.  A.  D. 


§  2.    TEUTONIC  KINGDOMS  IN  BRITAIN. 

From  the  first  invasions  to  the  supremacy  of  Ecgberht 
449  (?)-828. 

Roman  Britain. 

Political  divisions:  1.  Britannia  prima,  S.  of  the  Thames  and 
the  Severn  (Cantii,  Regni,  Belgge,  Atrebates,  Durotriges,  Dumnonii). 
2.  Britannia  secunda,  Wales  (Silures,  Demetse,  Ordovices).  3.  Flavia 
Ccesariensis,  between  the  Thames,  Severn,  and  Humber  (Trinobantes, 
Caytieuehlani,  Iceni,  Dobuni,  Coritavi,  Cornavii).  4.  Maxima  Ccesa- 
riensis, between  the  Humber  and  the  Tyne  (Parisii,  Brigantes).  5. 
Valentia,  between  the  Tyne  and  the  Forth  (Otadeni,  Gadeiii,  Selgovse, 
Novantse). 

Fortifications  :  In  the  N.  wall  of  Agricola  (81)  or  LoUius  Urbi- 
cus,  between  the  Friths  of  Forth  and  Clyde  ;  wall  of  Hadrian  (122) 
between  the  Solway  Frith  and  a  point  on  the  opposite  coast  near  New- 
castle-on-Tyne  (replaced  in  the  third  century  by  the  wall  of  Severus). 
In  the  S.  the  strongholds  Burgh  Castle,  Reculver,  Richborough,  Lym- 
ne,  Pevensey,  along  the  Saxon  shore.     (Compare  the  Cinque  Ports.) 

Towns  :  Camulodunum  (Colchester),  Glevum  (Gloucester),  Lin- 
dum  (Lincoln),  Deva  (Chester),  Eburacum  (York),  Londinium 
(London). 

Roads  :  Watling  Street  from  Kent  to  the  Forth,  Hermin  Street  from 
Sussex  coast  to  Humber,  Foss  Way  from  Cornwall  to  Lincoln,  Ikenild 
Street  from  Caistor  to  Dorchester.  ^ 

The  Teutonic  Invaders. 

After  the  withdrawal  of  the  Roman  legions  (about  410)  the  Brit- 
ons suffered  severely  from  the  ravages  of  the  Scots  (Irish)  on  the 
W.  and  the  Picts  (Gaels)  on  the  N.,  which  they  resisted  unaided  for 
several  decades.  About  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  the  Britons 
were  overwhelmed  from  another  quarter.  Bands  of  Low  Germans 
from  the  coast  of  Europe,  west  of  the  Baltic,  whose  piratical  expedi- 
tions had  long  been  the  terror  of  southeastern  Britain,  began  to  set- 
tle in  the  island  and  conquer  themselves  homes  and  kingdoms.  Tliat 
they  came  at  first  to  aid  the  Britons  against  their  other  foes  is  not 
impossible  ;  but  little  faith,  however,  can  be  placed  in  the  story  of 
Vortigern  and  Rowena. 

The  invaders  came  principally  from  three  Teutonic  tribes  :  Jutes, 
inhabiting  the  northern  part  of  Denmark  (Jutland)  ;  Angles  or  En- 
gle  from  modern  Schleswig,  south  of  the  Jutes;  Saxons,  a  more  nu- 
merous people,  living  south  of  Schleswig  along  the  Elbe  and  westward 
on  the  coast.  Of  the  Jutes  and  Saxons  only  a  portion  emigrated;  the 
Angles  seem  to  have  gone  en  masse. 

Religion  :  The  new  settlers  were  pagans,  sharing  the  faith  of  the 

^  G-"een.  The  ninrp  usual  but  inmrreet  routes  assif^ned  these  roads  are: 
WatUnqcKeni  to  Cardicc^'n  Hay;  Hermin.  St.  Davids  to  Southainpfon  ;  /Ws, 
Cornwall  to  Lincohi;  J/cenild,  St.  Davids  to  Tynemouth.  See  Scarth,  IJoniau 
Britain,  p.  116. 


A.  D.  Teutonic  Kingdoms  in  Britain.  177 

continental  Germans  (p.  164).  Each  man  was  priest  in  his  household, 
and  political  rulers  exercised  also  priestly  functions  for  the  regions 
under  their  control. 

Civilization  :  The  invaders  were  rude  warriors,  cultivators  of  the 
soU,  but  fond  of  the  hunt  and  still  more  fond  of  war.  They  settled 
in  villages,  the  dwellers  in  each  village  being  kinsmen,  who  often  gave 
their  family  name  to  the  place  of  their  abode.  In  each  village  all 
were  united  by  a  bond  of  mutual  protection  and  responsibility.  Around 
the  house-lots  and  garden-plots,  which  were  for  the  most  part  practi- 
cally private  property,  extended  the  common  land,  the  "  mark,"  com- 
prising tilled  land,  pasture  and  woodland,  which  also  served  to  isolate 
one  village  from  another.  The  people  were  divided  into  four  orders: 
athel,  nobles  ;  ceorl,  free  landowners  ;  laets,  tenants  owing  service 
to  their  landlords  ;  slaves,  generally  captives  taken  in  war.  Whether 
either  of  the  invading  tribes  were  under  kings  at  home  is  unknown  ; 
their  leaders  during  the  invasion  were  war-chiefs,  ealdormen,  whose 
power  was  frequently  prolonged  and  concentrated  by  the  military  ne- 
cessities of  their  new  conditions,  until  it  became  royal  and  they  took 
the  title  of  king.  Each  village  had  its  governor  and  its  council,  the 
latter  composed  of  all  freemen  in  the  village  ;  each  aggregate  of  vil- 
lages (the  hundred)  had  its  governor  and  council  ;  the  aggregate  of 
hundreds  which  made  up  the  tribe  had  its  king  and  its  great  council 
(loitan),  which  elected  the  king,  generally  out  of  some  one  noble  fam- 
ily, and  was  consulted  by  him.  The  witan  was  in  theory  composed  of 
all  freemen  in  the  tribe,  but  it  soon  became  practically  limited  to  the 
more  wealthy  and  powerful  among  them.  Each  ealdorman,  perhaps 
every  man  of  note,  had  a  personal  following  of  companions  (thegns), 
who  had  devoted  themselves  to  his  service  and  were  supported  by 
him.  The  development  of  monarchy  caused  a  corresponding  develop- 
ment of  this  institution.  Powerful  men  were  proud  to  be  thegns  of 
the  king,  and  thus  the  number  and  power  of  the  king's  militaiy  house- 
hold constantly  increased. 

Jutes  (Kent). 

449  (?).!  Landing  of  the  chiefs  Hengist  and  Horsa  in  Thanet 
(then  an  island).  Gradual  conquest  of  the  country  between 
the  Thames  and  the  Andredsweald  (p.  36).  East  and  West 
Kent. 

South  Saxons  (Sussex). 

477.  ^lle,  a  Saxon  ealderman,  with  his  sons  Cymen,  Wlencing,  and 
Cissa,  landed  at  Cissanceaster  and  conquered  the  region  S.  of 
the  Andredsweald. 

491.  Stortn  of  Anderida.     Massacre  of  the  inhabitants. 

1  The  date  is  variously  given,  but  449  is  the  year  most  commonly  accepted. 
1  have  followed  throughout  the  conservative  scholars.  The  ultra-skepticism 
which  would  limit  our  knowledge  of  the  5th  and  6th  centuries  in  Britain  to 
what  can  be  guessed  from  the  condition  of  things  there  in  the  7th,  8th,  and  9th 
centuries  seems  to  me  to  be  based  on  hypercriticism. 
12 


Mediceval  History.  A.  d. 


West  Saxons  (Wessex). 

A  more  important  settlement  was  that  begun  by  the  Saxons, 

under  the  ealdormen 
495.  Cerdic  and  Cynric,  on  the  southern  coast,  W.  of  the  Andreds- 

weald.     The  formation  of  the  country  directed  their  line  of 

extension  W.  and  N.,  thus  bringing  them  mto  contact  with  the 

great  body  of  western  Cymry. 
617.  Cerdic  and  Cynric  assumed  the  royal  title. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  second  decade  of  the  sixth  century  the 
Saxon  advance  was  so  sternly  checked  that  fifty  years  elapsed  before 
it  was  again  resumed.  Battle  of  Mons  Badonicus  (520).  The  Cym- 
ric traditions  of  Arthur,^  king  of  the  Silures,  to  whom  this  repulse 
of  the  pagan  invaders  is  attributed,  are  probably  founded  in  truth. 

yynric  (534-556)  conquered  modern  Berkshire.  Cea-wlin  (556- 
691  [3])  raised  Wessex  to  such  power  that  later  years  entitled  him 
the  second  Bretwalda  of  Britain  (the  first  being  JSlle).  The  meaning 
of  this  title  is  not  clear.     By  the 

577.  Battle  of  Deorham  Ceawlin  extended  his  power  to  the  Severn 
and  separated  the  Cymry  of  Cornwall  {Devraint)  from  those 
of  West  Wales. 

East  Saxons  (Essex). 

During  the  latter  half  of  the  fifth  century  Saxons  settled  north  of 
the  Thames.  Sack  of  Camulodunwn.  Establishment  of  a  small 
kingdom  under  the  shadow  of  the  great  forest  which  then  reached  to 
the  Wash  (Ercenwin,  527  ?). 

Middle  Saxons  (Middlesex). 

A  small  division  of  the  East  Saxons,  dwelling  about  London. 

East  Angles  (^East  Anglia). 

While  the  East  Saxons  were  making  their  settlements,  Angles  were 
occupying  the  region  to  the  N.,  between  the  sea,  the  great  fens  about 
the  Wash  (Uffa,  575  ?),  and  the  forest.     Norfolk,  Suffolk. 

North  Angles  {Northumbria). 

Deira.  Early  in  the  sixth  century  settlements  of  Angles  north  of 
the  Humber,     Conquest  of  central  Yorkshire. 

Bernicia.  At  the  same  time  other  Angles  were  settling  along  the  Frith 
of  Forth,  where  they  may  have  found  a  Jutish  colony  already 

647.  established.  Under  Ida,  "  the  flame  bearer,"  as  the  Cymry 
called  him,  the  Angles  pushed  their  conquests  to  the  Esk.^ 
Bernicia  thus  comprised  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland,  a  region 
which  still  contains  the  purest  type  of  the  Teutonic  con- 
querors of  Britain.     Saxon  and  Gael. 

1  The  northern  Cymry  seem  also  to  have  had  traditions  of  an  Arthur.  Later 
fugitives  to  Bretagne  carried  the  memory  of  Arthur  with  them ;  there  his 
name  was  connected  with  the  French  legend  of  the  Holy  Grail,  and  woven 
into  the  romances  which  make  up  the  Arthurian  cycle. 

2  The  stubborn  resistance  of  the  Cymry  here  as' well  as  in  the  south  has  been 
attributed  to  Arthur. 


A.  D.  Teutonic  Kingdoms  in  Britain,  179 


Middle  Angles  (Mercia). 

Early  in  the  sixth  century  scattered  bands  of  Angles  occupied  the 
present  counties  of  Lincoln,  Nottingham,  Leicester,  Warwick,  and 
Northampton.  The  small  kingdoms  and  lordships  thus  founded 
(Lindesfaras,  Gainas,  Magescetas,  Hwiccas)  were  at  a  later  time 
united  in  the  great  kingdom  of  Mercia  (Cridda,  582  ?). 

Thus  Britain  south  of  the  Firth  at  the  close  of  the  third  quarter  of 
the  sixth  century  was  divided  between  Cymry  and  Teutons  by  a  line 
drawn  nearly  N.  and  S.  midway  of  the  breadth  of  the  land.  Teuton 
and  Celt,  pagan  and  Christian,  faced  one  another  throughout  the 
length  of  the  island.  As  far  as  it  went,  the  conquest  was  thorough. 
Not  that  the  Cymry  were  exterminated  ;  many  remained  within  the 
Saxon  lines,  and  traces  of  Celtic,  and  of  still  older  blood,  are  not  in- 
frequent in  the  most  Teutonic  parts  of  England  to-day.  Though 
the  subjugated  Cymry,  however,  might  retain  their  Celtic  blood,  in 
all  else  they  were  soon  assimilated  with  the  conquerors.  Temporary 
halt  in  the  work  of  conquest. 

Wars  of  the  invaders  among  themselves. 
588.   Formation  of  the  kingdom  of  Northumbria  by  the  enforced  union 

of  Bernicia  and  Deira  under  .ZBthelric,  king  of  Bemicia. 
690-616.   Supremacy  of  iEthelbert,  king  of  Kent,  afterwards  called 

the  third  Bretwalda,  over  Essex,  East  Anglia,  Middle  Britain. 

His  wife  was  the  Catholic  Christian  princess  Bertha,  daughter 

of  Charibert,  king  of  the  Franks. 
597.   Arrival  of   Augustine,  legate   of  Pope   Gregory  the   Great. 

Conversion  of  Kent.     Quarrel  between  the  British  church  and 
Augustine   (date  of  Easter,  form  of   the  tonsure).     Conversion  of 
the  East  Saxons.     Laws  of  iEthelbert.     An  attempt  to  convert  the 
East  Angles  led  to  the  revolt  and 
About  610-617.     Supremacy  of  Raedwald,  of  East  Anglia,  over 

Middle  Britain.     He  was  afterwards  called  the  fourth  Bret- 
walda.    In  the  N.  JSthelfrith  of  Northumbria  defeated  the  Cymry  of 
Strathclyde  in  the  great 
607.   Battle  of  Chester,  and  extended  his  realm  to  the  sea,  cutting 

off  Strathclyde  from  Wales,  as  Wales  had  been  severed  from 
Cornwall  by  the  battle  of  Deorham  (p.  178).     ^thelfrith  defeated 
and  slain  in  the  battle  of  the  Idle  by  Rcedwald,  who  had  taken  up  the 
claims  of  Eadwine,  son  of  JElla,  formerly  king  of  Deira. 
617-633.   Supremacy   of    Eadwine   of    Northumbria,  called    the 

fifth  Bretwalda.  His  overlordship  was  more  comprehensive 
than  that  of  any  of  his  predecessors,  since,  after  the  conquest  of 
Wessex  (526),  it  included  all  Teutonic  Britain  except  Kent.  Conver- 
sion of  Northumbria  (627).  .  Revolt  of  the  Mercians  under 
Penda  (627-655),  who,  in  alliance  with  Cadwallon  of  Wales,  de- 
feated Eadwine  in  the  battle  of  Heathfield  (633).  Death  of  Ead- 
wine. 
633-655.     Supremacy  of  Penda  of    Mercia  over  Middle  Britain,  ,  ^  v>       ,» 

Essex,  and  East  Anglia.  ^^  <  'sS^ 


^^^ 


180  MedicBval  History.  A.  D. 

635.   Defeat  of  Cadwallon  by  Oswald  of  Bernicia,  in  the  battle  of 

the  Hevenfeld.     Conquest  of  Deira. 
635-642.    Supremacy   of    Oswald   of    Northumbria,    afterwards 

called  the  sixth  Bretwalda,  over  Wessex,  Sussex,  Essex,  Kent. 
Conversion  of  Northumbria  (where  many  people  had  rfelapsed  mto 
paganism)  by  Irish  (not  Roman)  missionaries.  Conversion  of  Wes- 
sex. In  the  contest  over  East  Anglia  Oswald  was  defeated  by  Penda, 
and  slam  in  the 
642.   Battle  of  the  Maserfeld.     Penda's  sovereignty  extended  over 

Wessex,  East  Anglia,  Deira. 
655.   Battle  of  the  "Winwged.     Penda  defeated  by  Osiviu,  brother  of 

Oswald,  and  his  successor  in  Bernicia,  and  slain. 
655-659.    Supremacy  of  Osw^iu  of  Northumbria,  called  the  sev- 
enth Bretwalda,  over  all  Teutonic  Britain  except  Wessex, 

Kent,  and  Sussex. 
669.   Revolt  of  Mercia  under  Wulfhere.     Henceforward  the  kings  of 

Northumbria  were  sovereigns  of  merely  local  power. 
Rivalry  between  the  Irish  missionaries  and  Rome.     A  council  con-i 
vened  by  Oswiu,  decided  in  favor  of  Rome.     Theodore  of  Tarsus, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  (609),  undertook  the  organization  of  the 
English  church. 

688-726.   Ine,  king  of  "Wessex.     Conquest  of  Kent  (694).     Wars 

with  the  Cymry  of  Cornwall  (710).     Laws  of  Ine,  the  oldest 

West  Saxon  code.     Abdication  of  Ine  (726). 
"Willibrod,  missionary   to   the   Frisians.      Boniface  (Winfrith), 
apostle  of   the  Germans.     Wilfrith,  bishop   of    York.     Cuthbert, 
of  Lindisfarne.      Benedict  Biscop,  abbot  of  Wearmouth.      Caed- 
mon.     Baeda  (672-735) ;  Historia  ecclesiastica  gentis  Anglorum. 
733-752.    Supremacy  of  .Slthelbald  of  Mercia  over  all  England 

S.  of  the  Humber. 
752.   Battle  of   Burford   (Oxfordshire).     Defeat  of    iEthelbald  of 

Mercia  by  the  West  Saxon,  Cuthred. 
Henceforward  Teutonic  Britain    remained  divided   between 
the  three  great  kingdoms,  Northumbria,  Wessex,  Mercia. 
756.   Strathclyde  subjected  to  Northumbria  by  Eadberht. 

755-794.    Offa,  king  of  Mercia. 

Conquest  of  Oxfordshire  from  Wessex    (777  ?).     Conquest  of  the 

Welsh  kingdom  of  Powys,  W.  of  the  Severn.     Offa's  Dyke  from  the 

mouth  of  the  Wye  to  that  of  the  Dee.     Friendship  between  Offa  and 

Charles  the  Great.     Laws  of  Offa. 

789.  First  recorded  landing  of  Northmen  in  Britain  on  the  coast  of 
Devonshire. 

802-837.  Ecgberht,  king  of  Wessex,  being  elected  to  suc- 
ceed Beorhtric  after  thirteen  years'  exile  spent  in  the  kingdom 
of  the  West  Franks.  Cornwall  made  tributary.  Defeat  of 
Beornwulf  oi  Mercia,  at  the  battle  of  Ellandune  (825).  Sub- 
mission of  all  England  S.  of  the  Thames,  and  of  Essex 
Ecgberht  overlord  of  Mercia  and  Northumbria  (828).  Subniis' 
Bion  of  Wales  (828). 


A.  D.    Kingdom  of  the  Franks  under  the  Merowingians.    181 

All  England  south  of  the  Forth,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  Strathclyde,  united  under  Ecgberht. 
834.   The  Northmen  ravaged   Sheppey.     Ecgberht  defeated  by  the 

Danes  (825). 
836.   Battle  of   Hengestesdun.     Victory  of  Ecgberht  over  Welsh 
and  Danes.     Death  of  Ecgberht  (837).  {Seep.  203.) 

§  3.    THE    KINGDOM    OF  THE  FRANKS    UNDER  THE   MEROWIN- 
GIANS. {Seep.  173.) 

611.     After  the  death  of  Chlodwig  the  frst  division  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Franks.     According   to  this  division,   which  was  not 
strictly  territorial,  the  four  sons  of  Chlodwig,    Theoderic  I. 
(Thierry,     511^33).    CModomer  (Chlodomir,  511-524),  Chil- 
debert  I.  (511-.558),  Chlotar  I.  (Clotaire,  511-561)  ruled  the 
kingdom  from  the  four  court-camps  of  Metz^  OrUanSy  Paris 
and  Soissons. 
630-532.     The  kingdom  of  the  Thuringians  conquered  by  the  eldest 
of  the  brothers  (Theoderic).     The  two  younger  brothers  sub- 
jugated the  Burgundians. . 
The  northern  part  of  Thuringia,  as  far  south  as  the  Unstrut,  fell  to 
the  Saxons,  the  allies  of  the  Franks  in  the  war.     The  southern  part 
(to  the  Danube)  became  Frankish  territory,  but  the  name  of  Franco- 
nia  was  given  to  the  region  south  of  the  Thuringian  forest;  the  dis- 
trict between  the  Unstrut,  the  Thuringian  forest,  and  the  Saale  con- 
tinued to  be  called  Thuringia. 

Acquisition  of  Provence  (536)  and  the  supremacy  over  Swabia  and 
Bavaria  on  the  fall  of  the  kingdom  of  the  East  Goths. 
558-561.     The  whole  Frankish  kingdom  again  united  under  Chlo- 
tar L,  who  outlived  his  three  brothers.     After  his  death 
561.   A  second  division   of  the   kingdom   among  the   grandsons   of 
Chlodwig,  Guntram  (561-593),  Charibert  I.  (561-567),  Sigi- 
bert  I.  (561-575),  and  Chilperic  I.  (561-584),  into  four,  later 
(567)  into  three  parts  :  Austrasia,  with  the  capital  at  RheimSy 
and  a  population  chiefly  German  ;  Neustria,  with  the  capital 
at  Soissons ;  Burgundy,  with  Orleans  as  capital ;  in  both  of 
which  later  divisions  the  mass  of  the  population  was  Romano- 
Celtic  or  Romance.^ 
Family  divisions   and  wars  full  of   horrors.     Feud   of   Brunhilde 
{Brunichildis)  of  Austrasia,  a  daughter  of  Athanagild,  kmg  of  the 
Visigoths,  and  Fredegunde  {Fredegundis)  of  Neustria  (f  597),  slave, 
and  afterwards  wife,  of  Chilperic  I. 

613.  Second  union  of  the  entire  kingdom  of  the  Franks  under 
Chlotar  II,  of  Neustria,  great-grandson  of  Chlodwig. 
Brunhilde  captured,  tortured,  and  dragged  to  death  by  a 
wild  horse. 

Origin  of  the  power  of  the  majores  domus  (Hausmeier,  mayors  of 

1  Charibert  rcrei\'ed*the  territory  around  Paris,  but  after  his  early  death  this 
was  equally  divided  among  his  brothers,  and  the  triple  division  alone  was  hence* 
forth  of  importauce.    [Trans.] 


182  MedicBval  History.  a.  d. 

the  palace),  who  were  at  first  superintendents  of  the  royal  household, 
afterwards  leaders  of  the  feudal  retainers  (leudes).  The  race  of  the 
Pipins  (afterwards  called  Carolingians),  of  pure  German  blood,^  ac- 
quired an  hereditary  claim  to  the  oftice  of  major  domus,  in  Austrasia 
first,  and  afterv/ards  in  Neustria. 

622-678.     Third  division  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks  (interrupted, 
however,  by  several  temporary  unions)  into  the  two  parts  into 
which  it  had  meanwhile  separated  : 

1.  Austrasia  (principally  German),  separated  by  the  Schelde 
from  2.  Neustria  (Romance,  northern  France  to  the  Loire,  not  reck- 
oning Bretagne  which  was  independent)  and  Burgundy.  The  duchies 
of  Aquitauia  and  Vasconia  (Guyenne  and  Gascogne),  between  the 
Loire  and  the  Pyrenees,  were  almost  independent.  {See  p.  18S.) 

§  4.    MOHAMMED    (MAHOMET)  AND  THE  CALIPHATE. 
622.     Mohammed's  flight  (Hegira)  from  Mecca  to  Medina. 

16  July.  Mohammed  (i.  e.  he  who  is  greatly  praised),  bom  at  Mecca, 
571,  of  the  family  of  Hashem,  a  merchant,  husband  of  the 
wealthy  Chadija,  acquainted  from  his  journeys  with  the  Jewish  and  the 
Christian  religions,  proclaimed  himself  a  prophet  among  the  tribe  of 
the  Koreishites.  Islam  (i.  e.  a  submission  to  the  will  of  God  conse- 
quent on  belief).  One  God  (Allah)  and  Mohammed  his  prophet. 
Moslems  (the  believers).  Victories  of  Mohammed  in  Arabia  (629)  ; 
preparation  for  conquests  in  Syria.     Mohammed  died  632. 

Caliphs  (i.  e.  successors)  : 
632-634.     Ahu-heJcr,  father-in-law  of  the  prophet.     Collection  of  the 
Koran  (Qiiran),  later  enlarged  by  the  transcription  of  an  oral 
tradition,  the  Soona.     Separation  of  the  believers  into  Soonees, 
who  recognized  this  addition,  and  Sheeah,  who  rejected  it,  and 
regarded  Ali,  the  son-in-law  of  Mohammed,  as  his  only  right- 
ful successor.    Wars  with  the  Eastern  Empire  and  the  Persians. 
63^^-644.     Omar,  founder  of  the  Arabian  supremacy  in  the  East. 
He  assumed  the  title   of  Emir-al-Mumenin  ("  Prince  of  the 
faithful"),  which  was   afterwards  borne  by   all  the  caliphs. 
Conquest  of  Syria  (Damascus  635),  Palestine,  Phoenicia.     De- 
struction of  the  empire  of  the  Sassanidce  (the  New  Persians) 
by  the  battle  of  Nehavend   (641).     Conquest   of  Egypt   by 
Omar's  general  Amroo.     Capture  of  Alexandria. 
644-656.     Othmann  (Osman).     Conquest  of  northern  Africa.    Cap- 
ture of  Rhodes.     Murder  of  Othman  during  an  insurrection. 
656-661.     Ali,  husband  of  Fatima,  Mohammed's  daughter,  not  uni- 
versally recognized.     Muawwiyah  proclaims  himself  caliph  in 
Syria.     After  bloody  civil  wars  and  after  the  murder  of  Ali, 
the  Sooneite 

661-750.     Ommiads  obtamed  the  caliphate. 

661-680.    Muawwiyah  /.,  great-grandson  of   Omeyyah.      He  trans- 
ferred the  residence  of  the  caliphs  from  Medina  to  Damascus* 

1  Bonnell,  Die  Anfange  des  Karolingischen  Hatises,  1866. 


A.  D.     Kingdom  of  the  Franks  under  the   Carolingians.       183 

The  caliphate  was  made  hereditary. 
About  700  the  governor  Musa  completed  the  conquest  of  Byzantine 
Africa  as  far  as  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  Berbers,  who  ac- 
cepted Islam,  together  with  the  inhabitants  of  Punic,  Greek, 
and  Roman  descent,  became  amalgamated  with  the  Arabians 
under  the  name  of  Moors.  Tarik^  one  of  Musa's  generals, 
crossed  from  northern  Africa  to  Spain,  and  in  the 

711.  Battle  of  Xeres  de  la  Frontera  (plains  of  the  Guadal- 
quivir) destroyed  the  kingdom  of  the  Visigoths. 

From  this  time  on  there  coexisted  in  Spain:  1.  the  province  of  the 
caliphate,  which  became,  at  a  later  date  (756),  the  separate  caliphate 
of  Cordova;  2.  the  Christian  kingdom  of  Asturia,  founded  by  Pelagius, 
afterwards  the  kingdom  of  Leon. 

The  Arabians  penetrated  the  passes  in  the  country  of  the  Basques 
and  invaded  Gaul.     Here  a  limit  was  set  to  their  conquests  by  the 

732.  Battle  between  Tours  and  Poitiers,  where  they  were  defeated 
by  Charles  Martel. 

Under  the  last  of  the  Ommiads  the  caliphate  reached  its  greatest 
extent,  embracing  southwestern  Asia  from  the  Gulf  of  Arabia  and 
the  Indus  to  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Caucasus^  the  entire  northern 
coast  of  Africa,  a  great  part  of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  and  in  southern 
France  the  county  of  Narhona,  besides  Sardinia,  Corsica,  and  the 
Balearic  Isles. 

In  the  caliphate  declining  vigor;  constant  wars  with  the  followers 
of  Ali.  Ahul  Abbas,  great-grandson  of  an  uncle  of  the  prophet,  over- 
threw the  last  Ommiad  caliph,  Merioan  II. 

750-1258.    Rule  of  the  Abbasides.    Residence  at  Bagdad. 

Treacherous   murder  of  all  the   Ommiad  princes   (90). 

One  only, 
Abd-er-Rahman,  escaped   to   Spain,  and   founded  there  the 
756.      caliphate  of  Cordova.  (^Seep.209.) 

§5.    KINGDOM  OF  THE  FRANKS  UNDER  THE  CAROLINGIANS. 

{Seep.  182.) 
687.  Pipin  of  Heristal,  major  domus  (mayor  of  the  palace) 
of  Austrasia,  became  by  the  victory  of  Testri  (not  far  from 
St.  Quentin)  over  the  major  domus  of  Soissons  (Neustria)  sole 
major  domus  of  the  whole  kingdom  of  the  Franks,  and  called 
himself  in  future  dux  et  princeps  Francorum. 
Eudes,  duke  of  Aquitaine,  defeated  by  the  Arabian  invaders, 
sought  help  from  Charles,  the  son  and  successor  of  the  major 
domus  Pipin  of  Heristal. 

732.     Battle  between  Tours  and   Poitiers.     Victory  of 

1  From  him  comes  the  name  Gihel  or  Jebel-al-Tarik  ( Gibraltar),  i.  e.  moun- 
tain of  Tarik,  near  which  he  landed-  It  would  appear  that  the  story  of  Tank's 
having  been  summoned  by  the  Visigothic  count  Julian,  is  m^lhical.'  Cf.  Dahn. 
Kim.  d.  Germ.  V.  227. 


184  Mediaeval  History.  A.  d. 

Charles  Martel  (major  domus  714-741)  over  the 
Arabs. 

751.^  With  Pipin  the  Short  (741-768),  Charles  Martel's 
son,  the  Carolingians  became  kings  of  the  Franks. 

The  last  king  of  the  Merowingian  line  (les  rois  faineants)  y  Childe- 
ric  III.,  was  deposed  with  the  consent  of  Pope  Zacharias  and  placed 
in  a  monastery.  Pipin  was  raised  upon  the  shield  on  the  field  of 
Mars  at  Soissons,  as  king  of  the  Franks.  In  754  Pope  Stephen  III., 
who  had  come  to  France  to  seek  help,  anointed  Pipin  and  his  sons 
Charles  and  Karlmann  as  kings  of  the  Franks.  For  the  future  Pipin 
styled  himself  "  king  by  the  grace  of  God.'' 

In  requital  of  this  service  Pipin  drove  back  Aistud,  king  of  the 
Langobards,  who  was  threatening  the  Pope  (p.  175).  Gift  of  the 
Exarchate  of  Ravenna  and  the  Pentapolis  {Ancona,  Sinigaglia,  Fano, 
Pesaro,  Rimini)  y  the  territory  of  Bologna  and  Ferrara,  to  the  Pope, 
and  thereby  the  first  foundation  of  the  Papal  States.  Pipin  patricius 
of  Rome,  that  city  not  being  included  in  the  gift  to  the  Pope.^ 

Bonifacius  (the  Anglo-Saxon  Benedictine  monk  Winfried,  named 
Bonifacius  by  Pope  Gregory  II.),  the  apostle  of  the  Germans  (about 
680-754).  He  preached  Christianity  in  the  country  of  the  East  Franks, 
in  Thuringia,  Hesse,  and  Friesland.  Bishop  since  722,  archbishop 
since  732  without  a  settled  bishopric,  he  brought  all  newly  founded 
bishoprics  and  monasteries  into  strict  dependence  upon  the  Papal 
chair.  In  742  Concilium  Germanicum,  recognition  of  the  Pope  as  head 
of  the  Church.  In  748  Bonifacius  became  the  first  archbishop  of 
Mainz  ;  in  754  he  was  killed  by  the  heathen  Friesians. 

768-814.     Charles  the  Great  {Charlemagne), 

since  the  death  of  his  brother  Karlmann  (771),  sole  ruler.  Karl- 
mann's  sons  took  refuge  with  Desiderius,  king  of  the  Lango- 
bards, whose  daughter  Charles  had  married,  but  afterwards 
rejected. 

773-774.  Destruction  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Langobards. 
The  Pope  having  refused  to  crown  the  sons  of  Karlmann,  Desi- 
derius occupied  the  Pentapolis  and  threatened  Rome.  Charles  came 
to  the  assistance  of  the  Pope,  ex  officio,  as  patricius  of  Rome.  Capture 
of  Pavia  after  a  six  months'  siege,  during  which  Charles  had  visited 
Rome  and  renewed  his  alliance  with  the  Pope.  Desiderius  placed  in 
a  monastery.  Charles,  king  of  Italy,  by  which  is  meant  the  kingdom 
of  the  Langobards,  northern  and  central  Italy.  The  larger  part  of 
southern  Italy  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Eastern  Empire. 

772-804.     War  with  the  Saxons. 

The  country  of  the  Saxons  was  divided  as  follows.     West- 
phalia, on  the  Sieg,  Ruhr,  and  Lippe,  and  on  both  sides  of  the  Em^  / 

1  See  the  proof  in  G.  Richter,  Annalen  d.  deutschen  Geschichte  im  Mitielal' 
ter,  I.  p.  216. 

2  See,  however,  Oelsner,  Jahrb.  d.  frank.  Reichs  unter  Konig  Pippin,  Charj. 
IX.  p.  129  foil. 


A.  D.     Kingdom  of  the  Franks  under  the   Carolingians.       185 

Engern,  on  both  sides  of  the  Weser  as  far  as  the  Leine  ;  Eastphalia, 
as  far  as  the  Elbe;  Northalbingia,  N.  of  the  lower  Elbe  to  the 
Eider. 

The  Saxon  war  was  resolved  upon  in  the  assembly  (May-field)  at 
Worms  (772). 

772.  Capture  of  the  Ereshurg^  destruction  of  the  Irminsul.  11^, 
Capture  of  Sigiburg.  Subjug^ation  oJ  the  Saxons  W.  of  the  Elbe. 
The  Saxons  destroyed  the  Eresburg,  but  were  subjugated  anew, 
776-777.  First  May-field  in  the  land  of  the  Saxons,  at  Paderborn. 
New  insurrection  of  the  Saxons  upon  receipt  of  the  news  of  Charles's 
defeat  in  the  Pyrenees,  778;  subdued  by  the  army  of  the  east  Franks 
and  Alamanni.  779,  Charles  gained  a  victory  at  Bocholt  on  the  Aa. 
780,  Submission  of  the  Saxons  ;  acceptance  of  Christianity. 

After  a  new  and  general  revolt  headed  by  Widukind  or  Witte- 
kind,  and  a  defeat  of  the  Prankish  army,  Charles  took  the  field  in 
person  with  success.  782,  Slaughter  of  4500  Saxons  on  the  Aller. 
783,  A  new  and  terrible  uprising,  the  result  of  this  massacre.  Charles 
victorious  first  at  Detmold,  then  on  the  Hose.  785,  After  a  two  years' 
resistance  Wittekind  submitted  and  became  a  Christian. 

778.  Wars  of  Charles  in  Spain. 

Conquest  of  Saragossa.  Return  by  RoncevauXj  and  defeat  of 
the  Prankish  rearguard.  Death  of  the  hero  Roland,  margrave 
of  the  Breton  coast,  a  pretended  nephew  of  Charles,  whose 
deeds  are  celebrated  in  a  series  of  romances.  The  Spanish 
mark  ^  was  of  later  foundation,  and  was  strengthened  by  Lud- 
wig,  son  of  Charles  (801). 

788.  Abolition  of  the  duchy  of  the  Bajuvariae  (Bavarians),  after 
the  second  revolt  of  duke  Tassilo. 

Wars  with  the  Northmen  (the  common  name  of  the  Germans 
of  the  Scandinavian  north),  and  with  the  Slavs.  Charles  de- 
feated the  Wiltzi  and  advanced  to  the  Peene  (789). 

791-799.  War  with  the  Avars  (who  had  aided  Tassilo,  duke  of  Ba- 
varia) conducted  principally  by  Charles'  son  Pipin.  796. 
Storm  of  the  King^s  Ring  (the  chief  camp  of  the  Avars) 
between  the  Danube  and  the  Theiss.  The  country  between 
the  Ems  and  the  Raab  was  annexed  to  the  Prankish  empire 
and  occupied  by  German  colonists,  especially  by  Bavarians. 
(Soon  after,  complete  ruin  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Avars.^ 

800.  Charles  revived  the  office  of  Emperor  of  the  West. 
Pope  Leo  III.,  ill-treated  by  the  relatives  of  his  predecessor 
in  an  insurrection,  and  expelled  from  the  city  (799),  sought 
Charles'  camp  at  Paderborn.  Restored  by  Charles  to  Rome, 
he  crowned  him  emperor  on  Christmas-day,  800. 

793-804.  New  revolts  among  the  Saxons  particularly  in  the  N.,  led 
to  a  war  with  the  Danes,  with  whom  the  Saxons  had  taken  ref- 
uge. Gottfried,  king  of  Denmark,  invaded  the  Prankish  mark; 
his  ships  harassed  thp  coasts' of  the  German  Ocean. 

1  Mark  :  a  strip  of  land  on  the  border  of  a  country,  where  the  militar}' 
power  was  especially  well  kept  up,  under  a  Markgraf  (border-count),  who  was 
responsible  for  the  safety  of  the  border.  —  Trajts. 


186  Mediaeval  History.  A.  d. 

808.  The  Danes,  defeated  by  Charles,  the  eldest  son  of  the  emperor, 

retired  beyond  the  Eider. 
810.  The  emperor  was  obliged  to  take  the  field  against  Gottfried  in 

person.  The  Danish  king  was  murdered  by  his  own  servants. 
Peace  with  his  successors.  Saxony  north  of  the  Elbe  remained  a  part 
of  the  Frankish  kingdom.  Boundaries  of  the  kingdom  :  Ehro,  Raaby 
Eider,  Garigliano.     The  WenHs  were  again  subjugated. 

Charles  resided  in  Aachen  in  Austrasia  (Aix-la-Chapelle)  prin- 
cipally on  account  of  its  warm  springs,  or  in  the  County  Palatine  on 
the  Rhine,  at  Ingelheim,  or  in  Nymwegen.  Capitularii,  imperial  re- 
scripts. Assemblies  composed  of  all  men  of  rank,  both  churchmen 
and  laymen  ("  in  quo  placito  generalitas  universorum  maiorum,  tam 
clericorum  quam  laicorum  conveniebat ").  Levy  of  troops  (Heer- 
ban).  Governors  of  counties  (Gaugrafen),  counts  of  the  border  dis- 
tricts (comites  marchice,  Markgrafen),  imperial  messengers  (missi  regis, 
Sendgrafen),  who  made  periodical  circuits  in  different  parts  of  the 
empire,  heard  complaints  and  reported  the  same  with  other  observa- 
tions and  suggestions  to  the  emperor.  The  Anglo-Saxon  scholar 
Alcuin,  the  Langobard  Paul,  son  of  Warnefrid  (Paulus  Diaconus), 
called  to  the  imperial  court,  where  intellectual  pursuits  were  favored 
and  shared  by  the  emperor.  Schools  for  the  education  of  the  clergy,  at 
Tours  and  Paris.  Einhard  (Eginhard),  the  favorite  secretary  of 
Charles  (author  of  the  Vita  Caroli  Imperatoris).  Charles  the  Great 
became  the  centre  of  the  most  important  series  of  romances  of  the 
Middle  Age. 
786-809.     In  the  East  Charles  found  a  friend  and  admirer  in  Hax- 

ouu-al-Rashid,  Caliph  of  Bagdad.     His  reign  and  that  of 

his  son  Mamun  cover  the  most  fruitful  period  of  science,  art, 

and  manufactures  among  the  Arabs. 

The  elder  sons  of  Charles  the  Great,  Charles  and  Pipin,  dying 

before  their  father,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  yoimgest  son, 

814-840.     Ludwig  the  Pious.    (Louis  le  Debonnaire). 

Ludwig's  nephew,  Bernhard,  Pipin's  son,  according  to  Charles' 
decree,  khig  of  Italy  under  the  supremacy  of  his  uncle,  re- 
belled against  the  latter,  was  defeated,  captured,  and  killed. 
Ludwig  had  4  sons  :  Lothar,  Pipin,  Ludwig,  Charles  the  Bald  (the 
latter  by  Judith,  his  second  wife,  of  the  noble  Alamannian  family  of 
the  Welfs).  In  829  Ludwig  substituted  a  new  division  of  the  empire, 
whereby  his  youngest  son,  Karl,  received  Alamannia  and  the  royal 
title  for  the  division  made  in  817,  under  which  Lothar  held  the  larger 
part  of  the  empire  and  the  imperial  crown,  Pipin  had  Aquitania,  and 
Ludwig,  Bavaria.  The  three  elder  sons  at  once  revolted,  and  civil  war 
broke  out.  On  the  Field  of  Lies,  near  Colmar  in  Alsace,  Ludwig,  the 
father,  was  deserted  by  his  troops  (833).  He  was  taken  piisoner 
(public  penance  in  the  church  at  Soissons),  but  soon  released  by  his 
repentant  son  Ludwig,  and  replaced  upon  the  throne  (834).  Pipin 
died  in  838,  and  his  share  of  the  empire  was  divided  between  Lothar 
and  Charles,  which  caused  a  new  rebellion  on  the  part  of  Ludwig.  In 
840  Ludwig  the  Pious  died  on  an  island  in  the  Rhine,  near  Ingelheim. 
Ludwig  and  Charles  in  alliance  defeated  Lothar  at  Fontanetum  (Fon^ 
tenaille  or  Fontenay  ?)  in  841.     Bi-lingual  oath  of  Strassburg  (842). 


A.  D.  New  Persian  Empire  of  the  Sassanidce.  187 

843.     Treaty  of  Verdun.     Division  of  the  empire  among 
Aug.       the  brothers  as  follows  : 

1.  Lothar  :  Centre  of  the  Frankish  lands,  i.  e.  Austrasia,  Fries- 
land,  the  Alamannian  lands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  the 
greater  part  of  Burgundy,  Provence,  a  part  of  Languedoc;  in 
general,  a  region  bounded  by  the  Schelde,  Meuse,  Saone,  Rhone, 
in  the  west,  by  the  Rhine  and  Alps  in  the  east,  and  Frankish 
Italy. 

2.  Ludwig  the  Grerman  :  The  eastern  part  of  the  Frankish  lands, 
i.  e.  all  those  parts  of  the  empire  lying  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  except  Friesland  ;  the  diocese  of  Mainz,  Worms,  and 
Speier  on  the  left  bank  (in  general  a  region  lying  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  Elbe). 

3.  Charles  the  Bald :  The  western  part  of  the  Frankish  lands, 
i.  e.  Neustria,  Aquitania,  the  northern  part  of  Burgundy,  Septi- 
mania,  the  Spanish  Mark. 

Lothar  retained  the  imperial  dignity  which  his  father  had  given 
him.  His  kingdom,  which  lacked  natural  boundaries  and  comprised 
various  nationalities,  contained  within  itself  the  germ  of  rapid  disso- 
lution. 

The  Treaty  of  Verdun  was  originally  merely  a,  family  contract,  made 
without  regard  to  national  differences.  In  Ludwig's  kingdom,  how- 
ever, the  German  element  was  in  the  majority  ;  in  that  of  Charles  the 
Romance  element  prevailed.  Thus  there  developed,  in  the  course  of 
the  following  centuries,  from  the  East  Frankish  element  the  German, 
from  the  West  Frankish  the  French  nationality.  The  East  Franks 
called  their  language,  in  contrast  to  the  Latin  used  by  the  educated 
clergy,  the  deutsche,  i.  e.  the  language  of  the  people,  and  gradually 
(since  Henry  I.  ?)  those  who  spoke  Deutsche  came  to  be  called 
Deutsche.^  (See  pp.  193,  201.) 

§  6.     NEW    PERSIAN    EMPIRE    OF    THE    SASSANID^.2    Aryan. 
226-641.  {Seep.  15S.) 

226-240.     Artaxerxes  I.  (Artahshatr), 

son,  not  of  Sasan,  but  of  Papak,  probably  king  of  Persia 
proper,  revolted  against  Artabanus,  the  last  king  of  Pai- 
thia  (p.  30),  whom  he  defeated  and  slew  in  the  battle  of 
Hormuz. 
Contest  of  Artaxerxes  with  the  Arsacid  kings  of  Bactria  and  Arme- 
nia.    The  claim  preferred  by  Artaxerxes  to  all  Asia  as  far  as  the 
^gean  involved  him  in  a  war  with  Rome.      Defeat  of  Alexander 
Severus,  followed  by  peace.     Subjugation  of  Armenia.     Restoration 
of  the  religion  of  Zoroaster.    Collection  of  the  text  of  the  Zend  Avesta. 
Artaxerxes  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

240-271.     Sapor  I.  (Shahpuhri). 

Wars  -with  Rome.     I.  (241-244.)  The  Romans  were  sue* 

1  V.  Giesebrecht,  Gesch.  d.  deutschen  Kaiserzeit,  I.  4th  ed.  p.  149. 

2  Bawlinson,  Seventh  Great  Oriental  Monarchy. 


188  MedicBval  History.  A.  R 

cessful  under  GordianuSf  but  his  successor,  Philippus,  concluded  peace 
with  Sapor,  leaving  Armenia  in  his  hands,  but  retaining  Mesopotamia. 
II.  (258-260.)  A  glorious  war  for  Persia.  Nisibis,  Edessa,  Antiock 
fell  into  their  hands,  and  the  Roman  emperor  Valerianus  was  cap- 
tured and  remained  a  prisoner  until  his  death  (265  or  266).  Defeat 
of  Persians  by  Odenathus  of  Palmyra  (p.  157).  Erection  of  many 
buildings  and  engineering  works  in  Persia.  Mani,  or  Manes,  a 
teacher  of  a  new  form  of  religion  compounded  of  Christianity  and 
Zoroasterianism  {Manicheism),  expelled  from  Persia. 

Sapor  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Hormisdas  I.  (Auhrmazdi),  who 
reigned  one  year  and  ten  days  (271-272)  and  was  followed  by  his 
brother,  Varahran  I.  (272-275).  Execution  of  Alani.  Aid  sent  to 
Zenobia  (p.  157).  The  murder  of  Aurelianus  (275)  put  an  end  to  his 
expedition  against  Varahran,  who  was  succeeded  in  the  same  year  by 
his  son  Varahran  II.  (275-292?).  His  reign  is  marked  chiefly  by  the 
war  with  Rome  (283),  which  was  closed  by  the  mysterious  death  of 
Cams  (283-284).  Revolt  of  Tiridates  of  Armenia,  aided  by  Rome- 
Varahran  IH.,  son  of  Varahran  II.,  reigned  four  months,  and  was 
followed  by  his  brother, 

292-301.     Narses, 

who  after  defeating  his  brother  and  rival,  Hormisdas,  drove 
Tiridates  from  Armenia  (296).  War  with  Rome.  Galerius,  at  first 
unsuccessful  in  Mesopotamia,  finally  defeated  Narses.  Peace  (297) : 
1.  Persia  ceded  five  provinces  beyond  the  Tigris  to  Rome.  2.  The 
Tigris  recognized  as  the  general  boundary  between  Persia  and  Rome.^ 
3.  Cession  of  a  large  part  of  Media  io  Armenia.  4.  Persia  surrendered 
to  Rome  her  supremacy  over  Iberia  (Georgia). 

Abdication  of  Narses  and  accession  of  his  son,  Hormisdas  II. 
(301-309),  whose  reign  covers  little  of  importance.  At  his  death  the 
nobles  set  aside  his  son  Hormisdas,  and  conferred  the  crown  upon  his 
unborn  child.     A  boy  was  born,  who  received  the  name 

309-379  (?).     Sapor  U. 

During  his  minority  the  country  suffered  from  invasions  of  the 
Arabs,  but  on  arriving  at  his  seventeenth  year  Sapor  assumed  the 
government,  and  inflicted  a  terrible  punishment  on  Arabia.  Persecu- 
tion of  Christians  (about  325).  First  war  with  Rome  (337-350). 
Defeat  of  Constantius  at  Singara  (348).  JVisibis  in  Mesopotamia  tlirice 
besieged  by  Sapor  in  vain  (338,  340,  350).  War  of  Sapor  with  Tatar 
tribes  in  the  E.  (351-359)  and  extension  of  Persian  power  in  this 
direction.  Armenia  went  over  to  Rome.  Second  war  with  Rome 
(359-363).  Invasion  of  Syria.  Capture  of  Amida  after  a  desperate 
resistance.  Julianus,  emperor  of  Rome,  invaded  Persia,  and  defeated 
the  Persians  before  Ctesiphon  (362),  but  immediately  began  a  retreat, 
in  the  course  of  which  he  died.  His  successor,  Jovian,  concluded 
peace  with  Sapor  for  thirty  years  (363)  :  1.  Restoration  of  the  five 
provinces  ceded  by  Narses.  2.  Surrender  of  Nisibis  and  Singara  to 
Persia.  3.  Rome  to  give  up  all  connection  with  Arme7iia.  Conquest 
of  Armenia  by  Sapor.  Third  war  with  Rome  (371-376),  carried 
on  without  energy  and  concluded  by  an  obscure  peace. 

1  Bawlinson,  Seventh  Monarchy,  128  foil.,  discusses  the  conditions. 


A-.  D.  New  Persian  Empire  of  the  Sassanidce.  189 

The  brilliant  reign  of  Sapor  was  followed  by  a  time  of  quiet. 
Artaxerxes  II.  (379-383.)  Sapor  HI.  (383-388.)  Division  of 
Armenia  between  Persia  and  Rome,  —  Persia  receiving  the  larger 
part.  Varahran  IV.  (388-399)  deposed  Chosroes,  king  of  Persian 
Armenia,  and  placed  his  own  brother  on  the  throne  (391).  Varahran 
was  murdered  during  a  mutiny,  and  succeeded  by  his  son  Isdigerd  I. 
(Izdikerti)  (399-419  [420]),  whose  peaceful  reign  is  remarkable  for 
little,  except  a  persecution  of  the  Christians  in  Persia  and  Armenia. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

419  (420)^40. .  Varahran  V., 

who,  having  put  down  Chosroes,  a  pretender  to  the  throne,  re- 
newed the  persecution  of  the  Christians,  and  began  war  with  Rome. 
Meeting  with  no  success,  he  concluded  peace  (422),  and  agreed  to  stop 
the  persecution.  (Charity  of  Acacins,  bishop  of  Amida,  who  ransomed 
7000  Persian  captives.)  Beginning  of  Persia's  wars  with  the  Ephthi- 
alites  (Pers.  Haithal),  a  people  dwellmg  beyond  the  Oxus,  and  prob- 
ably of  "  Thibetic  or  Turkish  stock  "  (not  Huns).  Surprise,  defeat,  and 
death  of  the  invading  Khan.  The  Persians  crossed  the  Oxus  and 
chastised  the  Tatars  in  their  own  territory.  Varahran  was  succeeded 
by  his  son, 
440-457.     Isdigerd  II., 

who  at  once  declared  war  upon  Rome,  but  as  hastily  concluded 
peace.  Nine  years'  war  with  the  Epthialites,  ending  with  their  defeat 
in  their  own  country.  The  attempt  of  Isdigerd  to  convert  Armenia 
to  Zoroastrianism  brought  on  a  religious  war,  wherein  the  Christians 
were  defeated  (455  or  456).  Forcible  conversion  of  Armenia.  To- 
ward the  close  of  his  reign  Isdigerd  was  defeated  by  the  Ephthialites. 
After  his  death  civil  war  between  his  sons  Perozes  and  HormisdaSf 
ending  in  the  victory  of 
459-483  (?).     Perozed. 

Great  famine  in  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign  (?).  Unsuccess- 
ful war  and  disgraceful  peace  with  the  Ephthialites  (464  465).  Re- 
volt of  Armenia  under  Vahan,  which  was  still  unsubdued  when  Pero- 
zes again  attacked  the  Ephthialites,  at  whose  hands  he  suffered 
a  severe  defeat,  falling  in  the  battle.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  (?) 
483(?)-487.     Balas  (Pers.  Valahhesh  or  Volgases), 

under  whom  Persia  probably  paid  tribute  to  Khush-newaz,  the 
Ephthialite    Khan.     Pacification   of   Armenia.     Edict  of  toleration. 
Destruction  of  fire-altars.     Balas  was  succeeded  by 
487(?)-498.     Kobad,  (first  reign) 

son  of  Perozes,  who  had  been  in  hiding  among  the  Ephthi- 
alites. Successful  war  with  the  Khazars,  a  people  of  uncertain  race 
(Turkish  or  Caucasian?),  dwelling  between  the  Volga  and  the  Don. 
Communistic  and  ascetic  doctrines  of  Mazdak,  a  high  priest  of  Zoro- 
aster, to  which  many  converts  were  made,  the  king  being  of  the 
number.  Consequent  disturbances  in  Persia  and  Armenia  resulting 
in  the  deposition  of  Kobad  and  the  accession  of  his  brother, 
498-501.     Zamasp. 

Kobad,  however,  soon  escaped  to  the  Ephthialites  and  returned 


190  Med i aval  History.  A.  d. 

at  the  head  of  an  army,  whereupon  Zamasp  voluntarily  resigned  the 

crown. 

601^31.     Kobad  (second  reign). 

Withdrawal  of  support  from  Masdak.  The  refusal  of  the 
Eastern  Empire  to  fulfil  its  agreement  to  contribute  to  the  defence  of 
the  pass  of  Derhend  in  the  Caucasus,  which  was  the  usual  route  of 
the  nomadic  tribes  in  their  invasions  of  Persia  or  the  Eastern  Empire, 
caused  Kobad  to  declare  war.  Sack  of  Amida  (502).  An  Ephthi- 
alite  invasion  induced  peace  in  507.  Erection  of  the  fortress  of 
Daras,  twelve  miles  from  Nisibis  by  Anastasius,  emperor  of  the  East. 
Second  war  with  the  Eastern  Empire  (524-531),  wherein  the  Per- 
sians, at  first  successful,  were  defeated  by  Belisarius  m  the  battle  of 
Daras  (528).     Kobad  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

531-579.     Chosroes  I.    Anushirwan    ("  The   Just  ")  per- 
haps the  greatest  of  the  Sassanid  kings. 

Peace  with  Rome  (533)  :  1.  Rome  paid  11,000  lbs.  of  gold  toward 
the  fortification  of  the  Caucasus.  2.  Daras  retained  its  fortifica- 
tions, but  was  not  to  be  the  Roman  headquarters.  3.  Reciprocal  sur- 
render of  recent  conquests.  4.  Eternal  friendship  and  alUance,  whence 
this  peace  is  known  as  the  "  endless  peace."  It  endured  for  seven 
years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  Chosroes,  jealous  of  the  great  victo- 
ries of  Justinian  in  the  West,  listened  to  the  prayers  of  the  East 
Goths  and  declared  war. 
540.     Capture  of  Antioch. 

Chosroes  extorted  ransom  from  the  principal  cities  of  west- 
ern Asia  Minor  ;  returned  home.     A  truce,  concluded  in  545,  was 
broken  in  549  by  Rome,  who  sent  assistance  to  the  Lazi  (inhabitants 
of  ancient  Colchis^  in  their  war  with  Persia. 
651.   Capture  of  Petra  by  the  Romans  and  Lazi. 
563.   Definite  peace  between  Persia  and  Rome. 

1.  Lazica  ceded  to  Rome.  2.  Rome  to  make  a  yearly  pay- 
ment to  Persia.  3.  Exercise  of  their  faith  secured  to  the  Christians 
in  Persia.  4.  Commercial  intercourse  between  the  empires  restricted 
to  certain  roads  and  marts.  5.  Free  diplomatic  intercourse.  6. 
Daras  to  retain  its  fortifications.  7.  Disputes  to  be  settled  by  arbi- 
tration. 8.  Allies  of  either  party  included  in  the  peace.  9.  Persia 
undertook  the  maintenance  of  the  Caspian  Gates  alone.  10.  The 
peace  was  concluded  for  fifty  years. 

Successful  wars  with  the  Ephthialites  and  Khazars. 
662.  Expedition  of  Chosroes  to  Arabia,  against  the  Christian  king- 
dom founded  there  by  Abyssinians  early  in  the  sixth  century. 
Chosroes  expelled  the  Abyssinians  and  left  the  country  under  the 
control  of  Salf,  leader  of  the  native  Homerites ;  after  his  mui'der 
Arabia  was  made  a  Persian  province. 

The  expedition  to  India  ascribed  to  Chosroes  is  doubtful.  Dezabul, 
Khan  of  the  Turks,  who  had  recently  subjugated  the  Ephthialites 
and  entered  into  alliance  with  the  Eastern  Empire,  invaded  Persia, 
but  met  with  no  success. 

572.     Justin,  Emperor  of  the  East,  declared  war  on  Persia.     Chos- 
roes ravaged  Syria.    Fall  of  Daras  (573). 


fL.  D.  iVW  Persian  Empire  of  the  Sassanidce.  191 

Chosro5s  died,  579,  in  Mesopotamia. 

Improved  administration  in  Persia  under  Chosroes.  Empire  di* 
vided  into  four  governments  :  East,  Khorassan,  Seistan,  Kirman  • 
North,  Armenia,  Azerbizan,  Ghilan,  Koum,  Isfahan;  South,  Fars, 
Ahwaz  ;  West,  Irak,  or  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Mesopotamia.  Frequent 
progresses  of  the  king.  Substitution  of  a  fixed  land  tax  for  the  for- 
mer variable  tax  on  produce.  Tax  collectors  placed  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  priests.  Reform  in  the  army.  Improved  irrigation. 
Protection  of  foreigners.  Encouragement  of  learning.  Laws  of 
Artaxerxes  revised.  Collection  of  the  Shah-na-meh,  or  Book  of  the 
Kings,  the  basis  of  Firdusi's  epic.  Introduction  of  the  Fables  of 
Pilpay,  and  of  the  game  of  chess  from  India.  Toleration  extended  to 
Christians.  Chosrogs  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
579-589.     Hormisdas  IV.  (Hormazd). 

At  first  a  wise  ruler,  afterwards  the  worst  of  Persian  kings. 
579.   Invasion  of  Persia  by  the  Eastern  Emperor  Maurice. 
581.    Defeat  of  the  Persians  at  Constantia.     The  war  continued  with 

alternate  defeat  and  victory  until  in 
589.     Persia  was  invaded  by  Arabs,  Khazars,  and  above  all  by  the 

great  Khan  of  the  Turks.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Persian 
general  Bahram  and  fell  in  the  battle.  In  the  same  year  Hormisdas 
provoked  a  war  with  Rome  by  invading  Lazica.  Bahram  was  de- 
feated on  the  Araxes.  An  insult  ofPered  him  by  the  king  caused  his 
revolt  and  the  deposition  and  murder  of  Hormisdas,  who  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son, 

589-628.     Chosroes  II.,  Eherwiz, 

who  was  at  once  involved  in  war  with  Bahram,  who  drove  him 
from  the  kingdom  and  assumed  the  crown.  The  reign  of  Bahrain 
(Varahran  VI.)  was  short  (590-591).  Chosroes  had  taken  refuge 
at  Constantinople,  and  a  Roman  force  restored  him  to  his  throne. 
Bahram,  defeated,  fled  to  the  Turks. 

The  second  reign  of  Chosro6s  II.  was  marked  by  a  wonderful  in- 
crease of  Persia's  power,  and  by  its  sudden  fall. 
603-610.   War   with  Phocas,   murderer    of    Maurice.      Capture   of 

Daras.     Syria,  Armenia,  Galatia,  Phrygia,  ravaged.     Sack  of 
Antioch.     The  accession  of  Heraclius  to  the  throne  of  the  Eastern 
Empire  did  not  end  the  war. 
612.   Invasion  of  Cappadocia. 

614.  Capture  of  Damascus. 

615.  Sack  of  Jerusalem. 

616.  Capture  of  Pelusium  and  Alexandria  by  the  Persian  general 

Shahr-Barz.     Submission  of  Egypt. 

617.  Fall  of  Chalcedon.     The  Persians  encamped  within  a  mile  of 

Constantinople. 
820.   Capture  of  Ancyra  and  of  Rhodes.     Persia  restored  to  the 

limits  "which  it  attained  under  Darius  I. 
So  nearly  had  Chosroes  driven  Heraclius  to  despair  that  he  pre- 
pared to  take  refuge  in  Carthage,  but  his  design  was  prevented  by 
the  citizens  of  Constantinople.  Thus  driven  to  bay,  the  emperor 
formed  the  desperate  resolve  of  attacking  his  enemy  in  his  own 
eountry. 


192  Medicevcd  History.  A.  D. 

622.  Landing  of    the   Romans  in  the   Gulf    of  Issus.     Defeat   of 

Shahr-Barz. 

623.  Heraclius  sailed  to  Lazica,  and  invaded  Armenia.     Chosroes  re- 

treated, and  the  Romans  wintered  in  Albania. 

626.  Battle   of  the  Sarus.     Defeat  of  Shahr-barz.     Chosrogs  al- 

lied himself  with  the  Avars,  and  placed  two  armies  m  the  field: 
one  against  Heraclius  in  Asia  Minor,  one  destined  for  a  direct 
attack  on  Constantinople.  The  latter  attempt  failed,  Constantinople 
held  out,  although  attacked  also  by  hosts  of  Bulgarians  and  other 
barbarians  from  the  west. 

Winter  campaign  of  Heraclius. 

627.  Dec.  12.   Battle  of  Nineveh.     Defeat  of  the  Persians.    Flight 

of  Chosroes.     Heraclius  advanced  to  Ctesiphon,  but  returned 

without  assaulting  the  city. 
Mutiny   of  the   Persian   troops   at   Ctesiphon  under  two  of   the 
king's  sons.     Seizure  and  murder  of  Chosroes.     He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son, 
628-629  (?).   Kobad  H.  {Siroes\ 

who  concluded  peace  with  Rome  on  a  basis  of  exchange  of 
conquests  and  captives.  Death  of  Kobad  (of  the  plague  ?).  Usur- 
pation of  Shahr-barz,  who  before  two  months  were  over  was  mur- 
dered by  his  own  troops.  Reigns  of  Furaudocht  and  Azermi- 
docht,  daughters  of  Chosroes  II.,  followed  by  a  period  of  anarchy, 
during  which  nine  or  ten  nobles  held  the  throne  successively. 

632-641  (651).     Isdigerd,   grandson  of    Chosro6s  II.,  last 
Sassanid  king  of  Persia. 

His  whole  reign  was  a  struggle  against  the  growing  power  of  the 
Caliphs  Abu-Bekr  and  Omar  (p.  182). 

633.  Expedition  of  Kaled  (the  "  sword  of  God  ")  to  Hira.  Defeat 
of  the  Persians.  The  whole  region  west  of  the  Euphrates 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Arabs,  who,  however,  suffered  a  temporary 
check  by  the  loss  of  the  "  Battle  of  the  Bridge."  Their  ravages 
were  soon  renewed,  and  extended  throughout  Mesopotamia.  Great 
exertions  of  the  Persians.  Levy  of  an  army  of  120,000  men,  which 
was  defeated  in  the  four  days' 

636.  Battle  of  Cadesia, 

by  Sa'ad  Ibu  Abi  Wakas.     Loss  of  the  Durufsh-katoani,  or 
royal  standard  of  Persia. 

637.  Invasion  of  Mesopotamia  by  Sa'ad.     Capture  of  Ctesiphon. 

Defeat  of  the  Persians  in  the  battle  of  Jalula. 
639.   Invasion  of  Susiana  and  Persia  proper  by  the  Arabs.     Capture 

of  Hormuzan,  a  Persian  general,  who,  being  brought  before 
Omar,  asked  for  a  cup  of  water,  which  he  hesitated  to  taste  until  as- 
sured by  the  Caliph  that  he  should  not  be  harmed  until  he  had  drunk 
the  water,  whereupon  he  dashed  the  water  on  the  ground  before  the 
astonished  Caliph,  who  respected  his  promise  and  spared  the  Persian's 
life. 

The  recall  of  Sa'ad  emboldened  Isdigerd  to  make  a  final  efPort. 
Collection  of  an  army  of  150,000  men,  which  was  totally  defeated  in 
the 


A.  D.  Italy  and  Germany.  193 

641.  Battle  of  Nehavend  ("victory  of  victories").  Fall 
of  the  Sassanicl  power.  Persia  henceforward  governed 
by  the  caliphs.  Isdigerd  III.  lived  for  ten  years  a 
fugitive,  and  was  at  last  murdered  (651). 

SECOND   PERIOD. 

FROM  THE  TREATY  OF  VERDUN  TO  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE 
CRUSADES  (843-1096). 

§1.    ITALY  AND  GERMANY.  {Seep.  187.) 

843-875.    Carolingians  in  Italy. 

After  the  death  of  two  sons  of  Lothar  I.,  Ludwig  the  German 
and  Charles  the  Bald  divided  Lothar's  inheritance  by  the  treaty  of 
Mersen  on  the  Meuse  (870).  The  German  portion  (Friesland^  Lotha- 
ringia  or  Lothringen  {Lorraine),  so  called  after  Lothar  II.)  was  an- 
nexed to  the  kingdom  of  the  East  Franks,  the  Romance  portion 
(Burgundy,  Provence)  to  the  kingdom  of  the  West  Franks.  Boun- 
dary, the  Meuse. 

After  the  death  of  Ludwig  II.,  who  was  the  eldest  son  of  Lothar  I. 
(875),  Charles  the  Bald  became  Emperor  (f  877). 

843-911.   Carolingians  in  Germany. 
843-876.   Ludwig  the  German. 

Wars  with  the  Slavs,  with  Charles  the  Bald,  and  especially 
with  the  Northmen,  i.  e.  the  Scandinavian  sea  warriors  (Vikings), 
by  whose  ferocious  energy  the  west  of  Europe  was  during  this 
epoch  harassed  almost  beyond  belief.  In  845  simultaneous  attack  by 
the  Northmen  upon  all  three  of  the  Frankish  kingdoms.  Ludwig  the 
German's  son, 

876-887.   Charles  the  Fat, 

at  first  in  conjunction  with  his  brothers,  Karlmann  (f  880)  and 
Ludwig  (f  882).  Successful  resistance  to  the  claims  of  Charles  the 
Bald  on  the  Rhine  (battle  of  Andemach,  876)  and  Italy.  Charles 
the  Fat  became  Emperor  in  881,  and  in  884  was  elected  king  of  the 
West  Franks.  He  united  once  more  under  one  sceptre  the  Mon- 
archy of  Charles  the  Great,  with  the  exception  of  cisjurane 
Burgundy  (Dauphiue,  Provence,  part  of  Languedoc),  which  became 
a  separate  kingdom  under  Boso.  Charles  the  Fat  was  deposed  by 
East  and  West  Franks  on  account  of  his  cowardice  (siege  of  Paris 
by  the  Northmen),  abdicated  the  throne  at  Trihur  (887),  and  died 
almost  immediately  thereafter.     The  East  Franks  elected 

887-899.  Arnulf  of  Carinthia,  grandson  of  Ludwig  the 
German,  illegitimate  son  of  Karlmann.  He  defeated  the 
Northmen  upon  the  Dyle  (at  Lowen,  891),  and  in  alliance  with  the 
Magyars,  a  nomadic  Finnish  tribe,  which  had  gradually  made  its 
way  from  the  Ural  region  towards  Europe,  and  under  guidance  of 
13 


194  Mediaeval  History.  A.  d. 

Arpad  had  invaded  Hungary,  conquered  Svatopluk  II.  (893),  the 
founder  of  the  kingdom  of  Moravia.  Arnulf  went  twice  to  Italy, 
and  was  crowned  Emperor  (896).     His  son, 

899-911.    Ludwig  the  Child  (six  years  old), 

was  completely  under  the  influence  of  Hatto,  archbishop  of 
Mainz.  Terrible  devastation  of  Germany  by  the  Magyars.  In  908 
they  traversed  Bavaria,  Franconia,  and  penetrated  into  Thuringia 
and  Saxony.  Lewis,  defeated  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Lech  (910), 
was  obliged  to  pay  them  tribute.  Internecine  feuds  in  Franconia  : 
Adalbert  of  Bahenherg  against  Rudolf,  bishop  of  Wurzburg,  of  the 
family  of  Conrad  of  Hesse.  Victory  of  the  Conradines.  Adalbert 
executed  in  front  of  his  castle.  Weakness  of  the  young  king.  The 
monarchy  seemed  about  to  break  up  into  duchies  :  Saxony,  Fran- 
conia, Bavaria,  Swabia,  Lotharingia.  After  Ludwig's  death  the 
aged  Otto  the  Illustrious,  duke  of  Saxony,  refused  the  crown,  and  se- 
cured the  election  of 

911-918.    Conrad  I.  of  Franconia, 

by  the  nobles.  Invasions  of  Danes,  Slavs,  and  Magyars. 
Conrad  was  constantly  at  war  with  the  West  Franks  and  with  his 
own  subjects  in  a  vain  endeavor  to  obtain  recognition  of  his  sover- 
eignty, especially  from  Henry,  son  of  Otto  the  Illustrious  and  duke 
of  Saxony,  since  912.  Lotharingia,  with  the  exception  of  Alsace, 
became  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  West  Franks. 

919-1024.   Kings  and  Emperors  of  the  Saxon  house. 

In  obedience  to  the  wish  of  Conrad,  expressed  on  his  death- 
bed, and  seconded  by  his  brother,  Eberhard,  the  Saxons  and  Franks 
elected  at  Fritzlar  on  the  Eder 

919-936.     Henry   I.   the   Fowler,  founder   of  the   German 
monarchy. 

Henry   compelled   BurTchard,  duke   of  Alamannia   (Swabia), 
and  Arnulf,  duke  of  Bavaria,  to  acknowledge  his  supremacy. 

924.  The  Magyars  (Hungarians)  made  a  new  inroad.     Henry  con- 

cluded a  nine  years'  truce  with  them,  and  secured  immunity 
for  Saxony  and  Thuringia  by  payment  of  tribute. 

925.  Henry  regained  Lotharingia. 

Enlargement  and  better  fortification  of  old  fortresses  (Merse- 
hurg)  and  construction  of  new  ones  (Quedlinburg,  Goslar),  which  at  a 
later  period  became  cities.  There  was  no  wide-spread  founding  of 
cities  by  Henry  himself,  but  in  his  reign  the  Saxons  were  gradually 
accustomed  to  city  life  and  to  cavalry  service  in  war. 

Successful  wars  with  the  Wends,  against  whom  a  great  mark  was 
established  along  the  middle  Elbe,  out  of  which  at  a  later  time  (after 
the  retirement  of  margrave  (Markgraf)  Gero,  963)  were  formed  the 
Altmark  or  Northmark,  Meissen,  and  the  Ostmark  (later  Mark  Lau- 
sitz),  lying  between  the  two.  Victory  at  Lenzen  (929).  Wars  with 
the  Bohemians  (recognition  of  the  duty  of  feudal  service),  and  with 
the  Danes  {Gorm  the  Old).  Creation  of  a  mark  between  the  Eidef 
and  Sley  (934),  afterwards  called  Mark  Schle,<iwig. 


A.  D.  Italy  and  Germany.  195 

Henry  refused  to  pay  the  promised  tribute  to  the  Magyars,  who 
thereupon  made  a  new  inroad. 

933.  Victory  of  Henry  over  the  Hungarians  (on  the  Un- 
strut?).^  Henry  died  in  936.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
eldest  son  by  Mat/ulde, 

936-973.   Otto  I.,  the  Great, 

who  was  elected  by  Saxons  and  Franks,  and  crowned  at 
Aachen  by  the  archbishop  of  Mainz.  Homage  of  the  princes  of  all 
the  German  races  (Stamme).  First  appearance  of  the  four  court 
offices  :  duke  of  Lotharingia,  Chamberlain  ;  duke  of  Franconia,  Stew- 
ard ;  duke  of  Swabia,  Cup-bearer  ;  duke  of  Bavaria,  Marshal. 

Countless  swarms  of  Hmigarians  crossed  Franconia  (937),  to  in- 
vade Saxony.  Defeated  and  pursued  by  Otto,  they  took  a  western 
direction,  and  ravaged  France  as  far  as  the  Loire. 

Otto  defeated  the  rebellious  duke  of  Bavaria,  and  drove  him  from 
his  duchy,  and  subdued  a  revolt  of  Eberhard,  duke  of  Franconia,  and 
his  own  half-brother,  Thankmar,  who  fell  in  the  battle  on  the  Eres- 
burg  (938).  Henry,  Otto's  younger  brother,  rebelled,  and  was  de- 
feated by  Otto  along  with  his  ally  Giselbert,  duke  of  Lotharingia,  at 
Birthen,  on  the  Rhine  ;  the  rebels,  with  whom  Eberhard  made  com- 
mon cause,  called  in  the  assistance  of  the  French.  Eberhard  fell  at 
Andemachf  Giselbert  was  drowned  on  his  flight,  Henry  fled  to 
France  (939).  A  murderous  assault  which  Henry  made  upon  his 
brother  after  he  had  received  forgiveness  failed  ;  Henry  threw  him- 
self upon  the  king's  mercy,  received  forgiveness  a  second  time  (941), 
and  became  henceforward,  with  his  brother  Bruno,  archbishop  of 
Cologne  (since  953),  the  king's  chief  reliance.  Otto  gave  Lotha- 
ringia in  944  to  Conrad  the  Red,  the  ancestor  of  the  Franco-Salic 
royal  house,  who  four  years  afterwards  became  his  son-in-law.  Otto 
made  his  brother  Henry  duke  of  Bavaria  (947). 

Wars  with  the  Wends,  conducted  by  margrave  Gero;  with  the 
Danes,  under  Otto  himself,  who  advanced  to  Jutland  (Mark  Schleswig 
given  to  Hermann  Billung)  ;  with  Boleslav,  duke  of  Bohemia  (950), 
who  became  a  vassal  of  the  empire  ;  and  with  the  Hungarians,  princi- 
pally under  the  command  of  Henry. 

948.  Otto  appointed  his  son  Liudolf  (by  Edithd)  duke  of  Swabia. 
946-950.  Otto  interfered  in  the  French  wars.  He  protected  King 
Louis  IV.  against  Hugo,  count  of  France,  both  of  whom  were 
his  brothers-in-law. 
951.  First  expedition  of  Otto's  to  Italy  against  Berengar  II.  of  Ivrea. 
Otto  released  and  married  Adelheid,  the  widow  of  King 
Lothar  (of  the  house  of  Burgundy),  and  then  nineteen  years 
of  age.     Berengar  submitted  to  Otto  as  liis  suzerain  (952). 

953.  Liudolf,  Otto's  son,  and  Conrad,  duke  of  Lotharingia,  Otto's  son- 

in-law,  rebelled  against  the  king. 

954.  New  inroad  of  the  Hungarians,  who  swept  through  Germany, 

ravaging  as  they  went,  to  France  ;  the  rebels  were  in  alliance 

1  Probably  not  at  Merseburg.  See  V.  Giesebrecht,  Gesch.  der  Deutschen 
Kaiserzeit,  1.4,  232. 


196  Mediceval  History.  A.  d. 

with  them.  After  a  severe  struggle  and  several  fruitless  at- 
tempts at  reconciliation,  Liudolf  and  Conrad  submitted.  They 
were  forgiven,  but  deprived  of  their  duchies.  Archbishop 
Bruno  received  Lotharingia;  duke  Burkhard,  Swabia.  Bavariay 
still  in  revolt,  was  subjugated  by  Otto  and  his  brother  Henry. 
New  inroad  of  the  Hungarians. 

955.     Victory  over  the  Hungarians  on  the  Lechfeld 
Aug.  10.  (Augsburg).      Conrad   fell  in  the  battle.      The    Bavarian 
Ostmark,  which  was  afterwards  transformed  into  the  duchy  of 
Austria  (Oesterreich),  reestablished.     Victorious  expedition 
against  the  Wends,  whom  Otto  defeated  on  the  Rekenitz. 
957.  Liudolf  died  in  arms  against  Berengar,  who  was  in  rebellion. 

961.  Second  expedition  of  Otto's  to  Italy,  Pope  John  XII.  having  im- 

plored his  assistance  against  Berengar.  Otto  hastened  to  Rome, 
where  he 

962.  Renewed  the  imperial  office.     Holy  Roman  Em- 
Feb.  pire  of  the  German  Nation. 

While  Otto  was  engaged  in  the  war  with  Berengar  in  Lom- 

bardy,  John  XII.  endeavored  to  free  himself  from  the  impe- 

,  963.     rial  protection  and  allied  himself  with  Otto's  foes.     The  em- 

Nov.  peror  advanced  upon  Rome  and  captured  the  city  ;  John  fled. 
The  Romans  were  obliged  to  promise  never  to  elect  another 
Pope  without  the  consent  of  the  emperor.  John  was  deposed 
by  a  synod  in  Rome,  and  Leo  VIII.  elected  Pope. 

964.  A  revolt   of   the    Romans    quickly   suppressed.      While   Otto 

Jan.  was  again  absent  in  northern  Italy,  where  Berengar  had, 
meantime,  been  obliged  to  surrender  (he  died  as  prisoner  in 
Bamberg),  Leo  was  expelled  by  the  Romans,  and  John  returned, 
but  soon  died  in  consequence  of  his  dissipation.  The  Ro- 
mans choose  Benedict  Pope.  Otto  captured  Rome  the  second 
time,  deposed  Benedict,  and  reinstated  Leo. 

966-967.  Third  expedition  to  Italy.  Otto's  son.  Otto  II.,  already 
crowned  as  German  king,  received  the  imperial  crown  at  Rome. 
Otto  I.  died  at  Memleben,  near  Merseburg.  His  sepulchre  is 
in  the  cathedral  of  the  bishopric  of  Magdeburg,  which  he  had 
created. 

973-983.  Otto  II.,  highly  gifted,  but  passionate,  husband  of 
the  Grecian  princess  Theophano. 

976.  Otto's  cousin,  Henry  the  Quarrelsome,  duke  of  Bavaria,  insti- 
gated a  conspiracy  against  the  emperor,  was  conquered  and 
deposed.  Bavaria  given  to  Otto  of  Swabia,  son  of  Liudolf. 
Carinthia  separated  from  Bavaria  and  made  a  duchy.  Luit- 
pold  of  Babenberg  received  the  (Bavarian)  Eastmark. 

978.  Otto  surprised  by  Lothar,  king  of  France,  escaped  with  diffi- 
culty, reconquered  Lotharmgia,  invaded  France,  and  besieged 
Paris,  but  without  success. 

980-983.     Wars  in  Italy.     The  emperor  crossed  the  Alps,  to  Rome, 

981.      advanced  into  southern  Italy,  defeated  the  Greeks  and  Sarar 


A.  D.  Italy  and   Germany.  197 

982.  cens  at  Colonne,  south  of  Cotrone,  but  was  afterwards  defeated 
by  them  further  south  on  the  Calahrian  coast  ^  where  his  army 
was  annihilated. 

983.  Victorious  advance  of  the  Danes  and  Wends ;  destruction  of  the 

bishoprics  of  Havelberg  and  Brandenburg.  Otto  II.  died  in 
Rome. 

983-1002.     Otto  III.,  three  years  old. 

Henry  the  Quarrelsome's  claim  to  the  guardianship,  and  to 
the  crown  itself,  was  denied,  but  Bavaria,  without  Carinthia, 
was  returned  to  him.  Otto's  mother,  the  Grecian  Theophano, 
conducted  the  regency  in  Germany,  his  grandmother,  Adelheid, 
in  Italy  ;  after  the  death  of  Theophano  (991),  Adelheid  and 
WilUgis,  archbishop  of  Mainz,  conducted  the  government  until 
the  young  prince  took  the  reins  in  995.  From  his  great  intel- 
lectual endowments  known  as  the  "  Wonder  of  the  World," 
he  was  dreamy  and  unpractical.     Three  Roman  expeditions. 

996.     On  the  first  expedition  Otto  was  crowned  by  Gregory  V. 

998-999.  On  the  second  his  teacher  Gerhert  was  elected  pope  as 
Sylvester  II.  Attempt  of  Crescentius  to  throw  off  the  German 
yoke  and  restore  the  ancient  republic.  He  was  defeated  and 
executed.  It  was  Otto's  design  to  make  "  golden  Rome  "  the 
imperial  residence  and  centre  of  a  new  universal  empire. 

1000.  Journey  through  Germany,  pilgrimage  to  the  grave  of  St. 
Adalbert,  foundation  of  the  archbishopric  of  Gnesen.  A  wide- 
spread belief  that  this  year  would  bring  the  end  of  the  world 
and  the  coming  of  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  led  thousands  of 
people  to  undertake  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome. 

1001.  During  his  third  visit  to  Italy,  revolt  of  the  Romans.  Otto 
died  in  the  castle  of  Paterno  at  the  foot  of  Soracte. 

1002-1024.     Henry  II.  (the  Saint), 

son  of  Henry  the  Quarrelsome  of  Bavaria,  great-grandson  of 
Henry  I.,  was  elected  kimg  at  Mainz,  after  his  rival,  Eckard,  margrave 
of  Meissen,  had  been  murdered.  Henry  II.  enforced  the  acknowl- 
edgment of  his  sovereignty,  particularly  from  Hermann,  duke  of 
Swabia. 
1004.     First  expedition  to  Italy  against  Ardoin  of  Ivrea  ;   Henry 

crowned  king  of  Italy  in  Pavia. 
1004-1018.     Wars  with  Boleslav,  king  of  Poland,  who  was  compelled 

to  give  up  Bohemia,  but  retained  Lusatia. 
Foundation  of  the  bishopric  of  Bamberg  (1007).     Increase  in  the 
power  of  the  church.     Reform  of  the  monasteries.     Energetic  en- 
forcement of  the  public  peace. 
1014.     Second    expedition  to   Italy.      Henry   crowned^  emperor  in 

Rome.     Ardoin  gives  up  his  resistance  (died  in  a  monastery, 

1015). 
1016-1018.     Henry  went  to  war  to  secure  his  inheritance  in  Bur- 

1  The  battlefield  is  unknown;  it  was  not  at  Basentello.   See  V.  Giesebecht, 
Gesch.  d.  deutschtn  Kaiserzeit,  lA  597. 


198  Meditjeval  History.  A.  d. 

gundy,  which  had  been  resigned  in  his  favor  by  the  last  king 
of  Burgundy,!  Rudolf  III.  (1016). 
1022.     On  the  third  expedition  to  Italy,  Henry  fought  with  the  Gre- 
cians in  lower  Italy,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Normans  who 
had  settled  there  in  lOlo.     Henry  died  July  15,  1024. 

1024-1125.     Franconian  or  Salian  Emperors. 

Election  held  at  Oppenheim  between  Mainz  and  Worms, — 
the  first  election  in  which  princes  of  all  the  tribes  had  partici- 
pated. 
After  hesitating  a  short  time  between  the  two  Conrads,  cousins, 

the  princes  chose  the  elder,  the  son  of  the  Frankish  count  Henry, 

eldest  son  of  Otto  of  Carinthia,  over  the  younger,  the  son  of  Conrad, 

younger  son  of  Otto  of  Carinthia. 

1024-1039.     Conrad  II.  (the  Salian). 

1025-1030.     Revolt  of  the  Babenberger,  Ernst,  duke  of  Swabia,  step- 
son of  Conrad,  son  of  his  wife  Gisela,  resulting  from  the  con- 
flicting claims  of  the  emperor  and  of  Ernst  as  the  personal 
heir  of  Henry  II.,  upon  Burgundy  (Aries).     Ernst  fell  in  bat- 
tle in  1030. 
1026.     Expedition  to  Italy.     Conrad  crowned  king  of  Italy  in  Milan, 
but  obliged  to  bring  Pavia  and  Ravenna  to  submission  by  force 
of  arms.     Crowned  emperor,  1027,  in  the  presence  of  Cnut  the  Great, 
king  of  England  and  Denmark,  and  Rudolf  III.  of  Burgundy  (Aries). 
The  Eider   made  the   boundary  between   Germany  and   Denmark, 
Schleswig,  therefore,  was  abandoned  to  the  Danes. 

Invasion  of  Germany  by  the  Poles  under  Mieczeslav  II.,  where  they 
ravaged  the  country  to  the  Saale,  and  carried  10,000  prisoners  to 
Poland.  Conrad  hastened  from  the  Rhine,  and  provided  defences 
against  a  new  inroad,  but  attacked  the  Hungarians,  though  without 
success  (1030).  In  1031  Conrad  attacked  the  Poles,  forced  them  to 
surrender  their  prisoners,  and  restored  Lusatia  to  the  empire.  Miec- 
zeslav became  the  Emperor's  vassal  (1032). 

After  the  death  of  Rudolf  III.  (1032),  Burgundy,  that,  is,  the 
kingdom  of  Aries,  which  was  formed  in  933,  by  the  union  of  cisjur- 
ane  and  trans jurane  Burgundy  (p.  193),  was,  in  three  campaigns, 
wrested  from  the  hands  of  Odo,  Count  of  Champagne,  who  claimed  it 
as  heir  of  Henry  II.  and  united  with  the  empire.  At  a  later  time, 
however,  the  Romance  portions  of  Burgundy,  the  lands  along  the 
Rhone,  Saone,  here,  and  Durance,  fell  to  France  ;  the  Alamannian  por- 
tions (Franche  Comte,  Switzerland)  remained  a  part  of  the  empire.  In 
Italy  the  small  fiefs  were  made  legally  hereditary,  and  tliis  became 
the  common  custom  in  Germany.  To  counterbalance  this  tendency 
Conrad  seems  to  have  designed  doing  away  with  ducal  offices,  and 
making  the  royal  supremacy  immediate  and  hereditary  throughout  all 
German  lands. 

1036.     On  his  return  from  a  second  expedition  to  Italy,  Conrad 
1039.     died  at  Utrecht.     His  son  had  been  crowned  at  Aachen  in 
June  4th        liis  boyhood,  and  now  succeeded  to  the  throne  as 
1  Otherwise  known  as  the  kingdom  of  Aries. — Trans. 


A..  D.  Italy  and  Germany.  199 

1039-1056.     Henry  III.  (called  "  the  Black  ").     The  imperial 
power  at  its  highest  point. 
King  Henry  was  for  a  time,  also,  duke  of  Bavaria,  Swabia,  and 
Franconia.     The  ducal  throne  in  Carinthia  was  long  vacant. 
1042-1044.     In  Hungary  the  king,  Peter,  whom  Henry  had  rein- 
stated at  the  expense  of  three  campaigns,  became  a  vassal  of 
the   empire.      Extension  of   the  Bavarian   Eastmark   to   the 
Leitha. 
Tedious  wars  with  the  unruly  Godfrey  the  Bearded,  duke  of  upper 
Lotharingia,  which  was  at  last  (1049)  given  to  the  Alsacian  count 
Gerhard,  the  ancestor  of  the  house  of  Lorraine.^     Godfrey  went  to 
Italy  (1054),  where  he  married  Beatrix  of  Tuscany.     Henry  favored 
the  attempt  to  introduce  the  Treuga  Dei  (p.  203).     Proclamation  of 
a  general  king's  peace  in  the  empire. 

1046-1047.  First  expedition  to  Rome.  Henry  caused  a  synod  to 
depose  the  three  rival  Popes  (Sylvester  III.,  Benedict  IX., 
Gregory  VI.),  each  of  whom  was  accused  of  simony,  and  appointed 
a  German,  Suidger,  bishop  of  Bamberg,  Pope,  as  Clement  II.,  who 
crowned  him  emperor  (Christmas,  1046).  After  Clement,  Henry 
appointed  three  German  Popes  in  succession.  He  invested  Drogo,  son 
of  the  Norman  Tancred  of  Hauteville,  with  Apulia. 
1055.  Second  Roman  expedition.  Henry  died  at  Gozlar,  Oct.  28, 
1056.     He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

1056-1106.     Henry  IV.,  six  years  old, 

who  had  been  crowned  king  at  the  age  of  four.  Spoiled  in  his 
youth,  he  grew  to  manhood  passionate  but  weak.  His  mother,  Agnes 
of  Poitou,  the  regent,  gave  Bavaria  to  the  Saxon  count  Otto  of  Nor d- 
heim,  Carinthia  to  Berthold  of  Zdhringen,  Swabia  to  her  son-in-law, 
Rudolf  of  Rheinfeld.  Abduction  of  the  young  king  from  Kaiserswert 
to  Cologne  (1062)  by  Archbishop  Anno,  who  was  soon  obliged  to  share 
the  administration  of  the  empire  with  Adalbert,  the  ambitious  arch- 
bishop of  Bremen  (1065).  Conspiracy  of  the  princes  against  Adal- 
bert of  Bremen.  Imperial  Diet  at  Tribur  (1066).  Adalbert  banished 
from  court  for  three  years  (f  1072). 

Otto  of  Nordheim  deposed  from  the  dukedom  of  Bavaria,  which 
was  given  to  his  son-in-law,  Welf,  son  of  the  margrave  Azzo  of  Este. 
(The  house  of  Welf  was  extinct  in  the  male  line.)  Magnus,  duke  of 
Saxony,  kept  in  confinement.  Revolt  of  the  Saxons,  whom  Henry  had 
displeased  by  the  erection  of  numerous  fortresses  in  their  land. 
Flight  of  Henry  from  the  Harzburg  (1073),  humiliating  peace,  de- 
struction of  the  Harzburg.  Henry  defeated  the  Saxons  on  the  Unstrut 
(1075).     Contest  with  Pope 

1073-1085.     Gregory  VII.  (Hildebrand), 

descended  from  a  family  having  a  small  estate  in  southern 
Tuscany.     He  was  educated  at  the  monastery  of  Cluny.     He  had,  as 

1  In  possession  of  Lorraine  down  to  1737.  See  Modern  History,  Second 
Period,  §  3. 


200  Mediceval  Hutory,  A.  d. 

cardinal-subdeacon,  afterwards  as  archdeacon  and  chancellor,  con- 
ducted the  temporal  affairs  of  the  papacy  under  ^ye  Popes. 

Strict  enforcement  of  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  war  against  simony 
(Acts  viii.  18),  and  lay  investitures,  whereby  is  meant  the  investi- 
ture of  clergy  with  the  secular  estates  and  rights  of  their  spiritual 
benefices  by  the  temporal  power,  by  means  of  the  ring  and  stajf. 

Gregory  in  alliance  with  Robert  Guiscard,  duke  of  the  Normans, 
and  with  the  dissatisfied  prmces  in  Germany.  Henry  excommuni- 
cated (1076);  suspended  from  his  royal  office  by  the  Diet  at  Tribur 
(Oct.  1076),  and  the  ultimate  decision  referred  to  a  Diet  to  be  held  at 
Augsburg  in  February,  1077.  A  few  days  before  Christmas  Henry 
left  Speier  in  secret  with  his  wife,  son,  and  one  attendant;  crossing 
the  Alps  under  great  hardship, 

1077.  Henry  humbled  himself  before  the  Pope  at  Ca- 
Jan.  25-28.      nossa, 

a  castle  belonging  to  the  Pope's  firm  friend,  the  powerful 
Matilda,  marchioness  of  Tuscany.  After  three  days'  delay,  passed 
by  Henry  in  the  garb  of  a  penitent  in  the  snow-covered  castle  court, 
Gregory  admitted  him  to  his  presence,  and  gave  him  a  conditional 
absolution. 

Fortune  turned  in  Henry's  favor.  Rudolf  of  Swabia,  whom  the 
malcontents  in  Germany  had  elected  king  (March,  1077)  at  Forch- 
heim,  was  defeated  and  mortally  wounded  in  the  battle  on  the  Elster 
(1080).  Swabia  given  to  Frederic  of  Hohenstaufen,  Henry's  son-in- 
law  (1079). 

Henry,  a  second  time  excommunicated  (1080),  went  to  Italy,  cap- 
tured Rome,  and  was  crowned  by  Clement  III.,  a  Pope  of  his  own 
creation.  Gregory  VII.,  besieged  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo,  was  re- 
leased by  the  Norman,  Robert  Guiscard,  and  died  (1085)  at  Salerno. 
(Dilexi  justitiam  et  odi  iniquitatem,  propterea  morior  in  exilio). 

The  influence  of  Gregory  VII.  had  been  felt  in  all  parts  of  the 
Christian  world.  It  was  under  his  auspices,  some  have  claimed  at 
his  suggestion,  that  William  of  Normandy  undertook  the  conquest  of 
England. 

Henry  was  involved  in  a  contest  with  a  new  king  set  up  by  the  Sax- 
ons, Hermann  of  Salm,  son  of  the  count  of  Luxemburg.  Hermann, 
liowever,  abdicated  in  1088,  and  died  the  same  year.  Submission  of 
the  Saxons  upon  receiving  assurance  that  their  ancient  privileges 
ehould  be  respected. 

The  church  was  still  hostile.  Marriage  of  Matilda  of  Tuscan}' 
with  Welf  v.,  son  of  duke  Welf  of  Bavaria. 

1090-1097.  Third  expedition  to  Italy.  Henry  captured  Mantua 
after  a  siege  of  eleven  months,  but  was  in  general  unsuccess- 
ful. Revolt  of  his  son  Conrad  (1092).  Henry  returned  to 
Germany  in  1097,  in  which  year  the  bands  of  the  first  cru- 
saders, under  Walter  of  Perejo  and  Peter  the  Hermit,  crossed 
Germany.  War  with  Conrad  (died  1101),  and  afterwards  with 
Henry's  other  son,  Henry,  who  imprisoned  his  father.  Flight 
of  the  emperor  to  Luttich,  where  he  died  Aug.  7,  1106.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  younger  son, 


A^.  D.  France.  201 

1106-1125.  Henry  V. 

The  king  went  to  Rome,  took  Pope  Paschal  II.  prisoner,  and 
forced  him  to  perform  the  coronation  and  acknowledge  the  imperial 
right  of  investiture  (1111).  As  soon  as  the  emperor  had  left  Italy 
the  Lateran  Council  declared  the  concessions  invalid  as  having  been 
extorted  by  force,  and  a  second  council  at  Viemia  excommunicated 
Henry. 

Wars  with  German  princes  who  were  in  revolt,  especially  with 
Lothar  of  Saxony,  and  the  archbishops  of  Mainz  and  Cologne.  Vic- 
tory of  the  Saxons  at  Welfesholze,  near  Mansfeld  (1115).  The  "war 
of  the  investiture  was  ended,  after  a  long  contest  with  Calixtus  II. j 
by  the 

1122.     Concordat  of  Worms. 

Election  of  bishops  and  abbots  in  Germany  to  take  place  in 
the  presence  of  the  emperor  or  his  representatives;  investiture  by  the 
emperor  must  precede  consecration,  but  was  to  be  conferred  not  with 
the  ring  and  st^ff,  but  with  the  sceptre.  In  Italy  and  Burgundy  in- 
vestiture was  to  follow  canonical  election  and  consecration.  Ecclesi- 
astics holding  secular  benefices  were  bound  to  perform  the  feudal 
duties.  {See  p.  218.) 

§  2.    FRANCE.  {See  p.  187. ) 

843-987.     Carolingian  kings  of  the  Franks, 
843-877.     Charles  the  Bald. 

His  rule  was  limited  to  the  neighborhood  of  Laon;  Brittany  and . 
Septimania  were  independent ;  his  supremacy  in  Aquitania  was  but 
nominal.  Ravages  of  the  Northmen  incessant,  daring,  terrible.  Sack 
of  Saintes,  Limoges,  Bordeaux,  Tours,  Rmien,  Orleans,  Toulouse,  Ba- 
yeux,  Evreux,  Nantes.  Some  quarters  of  Paris,  even,  were  ravaged. 
Lotharingia  divided  between  France  and  Germany  by  the  treaty  of 
Meersen  (870).  Ourthe,  Meuse,  Jura,  the  boundary  between  Germany 
and  France.  Charles  wasted  his  energy  striving  for  the  imperial 
crown. 

Fiefs  proclaimed  hereditary  at  the  diet  of  Chiersi  (877).     Charles 
died  on  Mont  Cenis,  returning  from  an  unsuccessful  expedition  to 
Italy.      Rise  of  scholasticism.     Joannes  Scotus  Erigena.     Hincmar  of 
Rkeim<^.     Charles  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
877-879.  Ludwig  the  Stammerer  (Louis  II.,  le  Begue). 
879-882.  Ludwig  ni.  (Louis  III.)  in  the  north  of  France. 
879-884.  Karlmann  in  Aquitaine,  and  over  the  whole  kingdom  after 
882.  The  ravages  of  the  Northmen  increased  in  frequency  and  dura- 
tion in  spite  of  Ludwig's  \detory  at  Saucourt  in  881  (Ludicig- 
slied).     Revolt  of  Boso,   duke  of  cisjurane  Burgundy  (879).     The 
heir  of  Ludwig  II.,  Charles,  being  but  five  years  old,  the  nobles  chose 
884-887.  Charles  the  Fat  of  Germany, 

king,  thus  uniting  the  whole  empire  once  more  in  one  hand. 
Siege  of  Paris  by  the  Northmen  under  Rollo  (Hrolf)  in  885. 
Heroic  defence  by  Eudes  (Odo),  count  of  Paris.  Charles,  consent^ 
ing  to  buy  the  retreat  of  the  Northmen,  wa3  deposed  in  887.  (Died 
in  888  in  Germany.) 


202  Mediceval  History.  A.  D. 

The  empire  of  Charles  reduced  to  six  clearly  distinct  states  :  Italy, 
Germany,  Lorraine,  Provence,  Transjurane  Burgundy  (formed  by 
the  union  of  western  Switzerland  and  Franche  Comte,  under  Rudolf 
I.,  nephew  of  Eudes),  France.  In  France  the  nobles  passed  over 
the  infant  Charles,  and  elected 
888-898.     Eudes,  count  of  Paris,  son  of  Robert  the  Strong*.     The 

opposition  party  among  the  nobles  advocated  the  claims  of 
893-923.     Charles  III.,  the  Simple,  who  was  not  generally  acknowl- 
edged until  after  the  death  of  Eudes.     In  his  reign  the 

911  (?).  Northmen  gained  a  permanent  foothold  on  the 
Seine  (Normandy),  under  Rolf  (Rollo),  the  first  duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, with  feudal  sovereignty  over  Brittany.  Treaty  of  St.  Claire 
sur  Epte,  near  Ghisors.  Baptism  of  Rollo  under  the  name  of  Robert. 
Revolts  against  Charles.  Robert,  duke  of  France,  brother  of  Eudes, 
proclaimed  king,  but  slain  in  the  battle  of  Soissons  (923).  His  place 
was  filled  by  his  son-in-law,  Rudolf  of  Burgundy.  Charles  treacher- 
ously seized  by  Herbert  of  Vermandois  and  imprisoned  (died  in  929). 
His  wife,  Eadgyfu  (Edwina),  fled  to  her  brother  JEthelstane,  king  of 
England,  with  her  three-year-old  son  Ludwig  IV.,  hence  called  d' Outre 
Mer  (Beyond  Seas).  Rudolf  dying  in  936  without  issue,  the  nobles, 
Hugli  the  White,  duke  of  France  (f  956),  Herbert  of  Vermandois,  and 
William  Longsword  of  Normandy,  recalled 

936-954.     Ludwig  from  Beyond  Seas  (Louis  IV.,  d'Outremer), 

in  whose  reign  the  country  was  torn  with  civil  war  between 
the  king,  Hugh  the  White,  or  Great,  and  Otto,  king  of  Germany  (east 
Franks).     Ludwig  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

954-986.    Lothar, 

who  was  under  the  influeuce  of  Hugh  Capet,  son  of  Hugh  the 

Great.     An  imsuccessful  attempt  to  acquire  Lorraine  brought  on  an 

invasion  of  France  by  Otto  II.  of  Germany.     Lothar  was  succeeded 

by  his  son, 

986-987.     Ludwig  V.  (le  Faineant},  who,  after  a  short  and  stormy 
reign,  died  suddenly  (987),  without  issue.     Tlie  direct  line  of 
Charles  the  Great  was  extinct.     The  only  man  who  had  a' 
claim  to  the  succession  was  the  uncle  of  Ludwig,  Charles,  duke 
of  Lorraine,  a  vassal  of  the  emperor. 

987-1328.     Capetian  dynasty,  direct  line. 
987-996.     Hugh  Capet 

was  chosen  king,  but  was  powerless  to  resist  the  great  feudal 
nobles,  each  of  whom  surpassed  the  king  in  military  power  and  ex- 
tent of  territory  (dukes  of  Normandy,  Brittany,  Burgundy,  Aquitaine; 
counts  of  Flanders,  Champagne,  Vermandois^  The  royal  domain 
reached  from  the  Somme  to  the  Loire,  with  Normandy  and  Anjou  on 
the  west  and  Champagne  on  the  east.  Paris  in  the  centre  was  the 
capital  of  the  new  French  monarchy,  as  Laon  had  been  the  capital 
of  the  old  German  kingdom.  Capture  of  Charles  the  Carolingian. 
Gerbert,  archbishop  of  Rheims,  afterwards  Pope  Sylvester  11.  Un- 
der Hugh's  son, 


A.  D.  Migland.  203 

996-1031.  Robert,  the  royal  power  was  wasted  to  a  shadow.  The 
king,  pious,  weak,  and  absurd,  was  involved  in  domestic  trouble 
and  in  constant  wars  with  the  nobles.  Rising  of  the  serfs  (997). 
Famine  (1030-1032).  The  Vexin  on  the  Seine  given  to  Normandy. 
Robert's  son, 
1031-1060.     Henry  I., 

retained  scarcely  a  trace  of  power,  beyond  the  nomination  of 
the  bishops. 

Introduction  of  the  "Tnioe  of  God"  (Treuga  Dei)  by  the  clergy 
(at  first  [1041]  in  Guienne),  whereby  a  cessation  of  all  feuds  was  en- 
joined by  the  church  during  church  festivals  and  from  Wednesday 
evening  to  Monday  morning  iu  eoery  week  (only  80  days  in  a  year  avail- 
able for  warfare).  The  crown  having  now  become  hereditary,  Henry 
was  succeeded  quietly  by  his  son, 
1060-1108.     PhiUp  I., 

whose  long  reign,  distinguished  by  no  deeds  of  his  own,  is  re- 
markable for  two  important  events  :  the  conquest  of  England  by  the 
Normans  (1066),  and  the  first  crusade  (1096).  (See  p.  2S6.) 

§  3.    ENGLAND.  (Seep.  181.) 

828-1066.     England  under  the  West  Saxon  kings. 
828-837.    Ecgberht,  king  of  Wessex  (p.  180),  ruler  of  Sussex,  Kenty 
Essex,  overlord  of  Mercia,  East  Anglia,  Northumbriaf  Wales, 
and  Strathdyde. 

Ravages  of  the  Northmen.  Pouring  in  swarms  from  the  northern 
kingdoms  of  Denmark  and  Scandinavia,  these  pirates,  the  vikings, 
harassed  England  and  the  continent  almost  beyond  belief.  The  Eng^ 
lish  called  the  Northmen  "  Danes,"  although  not  all  their  assailants 
came  from  that  kingdom.  The  Northmen  were  still  heathens.  The 
epoch  of  their  invasions  falls  into  three  divisions  :  I.  (789-866) 
Period  of  invasion  and  ravage  without  settlement.  II.  (866-1003) 
Period  of  settlement  and  conquest  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 
III.  (1003-1066)  Period  of  political  conquest.  The  first  recorded 
attack  was  in  789  (p.  189).  In  834  Sheppey  was  ravaged.  Defeat 
of  the  Danes  at  Hengestesdun  (836). 

Ecgberht  was  succeeded  by  his  son  iEthel^^nlf  (837-858) .  In  851 
the  Danes  took  London  and  Canterbury  ;  m  855  they  wintered  for  the 
first  time  in  Sheppey.  jEthehvulf  msLrried  Judith,  daughter  of  Charles 
the  Bald,  king  of  the  West  Franks.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
iElthelbald  (858-860),  who  married  his  father's  widow.  On  his 
death  Judith  returned  to  the  continent  and  married  Baldwin,  after- 
wards count  of  Flanders.  From  this  union  descended  Matilda,  wife 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  -^thelbald  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
iEtiaelberht  (860-^66),  who  was  followed  by  liis  brother, 

866-871.     iEthelred  I. 

Settlement  of  the  Danes  in  Northumbria  (romance  of  Ragnar 
Lodbrog).    The  Danes  in  East  Anglia  (SQQ),  in  Mercia  (868). 

870.   East  Anglia  conquered  and  settled  by  the  Danes.     Martyrdom 
of  St.  Edmund,  king  of  the  East  Angles. 


204  Mediceval  History.  a.  d. 

Sack  of  Peterborough  and  Croyland.  Danes  in  Wessex  (871).  Nine 
battles  were  fought  with  the  invaders  this  year.  At  jEscesdun  the 
Danes  were  defeated  by  jEthelred  and  Alfred  his  brother. 

871-901.     -Alfred  the  Great. 

In  the  earlier  years  of  his  reign  Wessex  was  at  peace,  but  the 
other  parts  of  England  still  suffered  from  Danish  inroads.  In  876 
Danes  settled  in  Northumbria,  and  Guthorm,  Danish  king  in  East 
Anglia,  entered  Wessex,  In  877  lands  in  Mercia  were  divided  among 
the  Danes. 
878.     The  Danes  ravaged  "Wessex. 

Alfred  took  refuge  in  the  forest.  Erection  of  the  fortress  of 
Athelney.  Defeat  of  the  Danes  at  Ethandun.  Treaty  of  Wedmore, 
between  JElfred  and  Guthorm.  The  Danes  left  Wessex,  but  East 
Anglia  and  a  part  of  Mercia  were  given  up  to  them.  London,  how- 
ever, was  retained  by  iElfred.  The  country  of  the  Danes,  Danelagh^ 
as  it  came  to  be  called,  now  embraced  the  larger  part  of  England. 

880-893.     Peace  in  Wessex. 

Alfred  was  a  skilful  warrior  but  no  lover  of  war.  His  genius 
was  for  civil  government.  Revision  of  the  laws;  separation  of  the 
judicial  from  the  executive  department.  Trial  by  jury  was  not  intro- 
duced by  Alfred;  that  institution  was  of  Norman  origin,  a  develop- 
ment of  principles  of  old  Frankish  law.  Creation  of  a  fleet  (882). 
Submission  of  several  Welsh  provinces.  Encouragement  of  learning. 
Bseda's  Ecclesiastical  History,  Orosius'  History,  and  Bcethius'  Consola- 
tion of  Philosophy,  translated  into  Anglo-Saxon  by  Alfred.  Voyages 
of  Othhere  and  Wulfhere  along  the  northern  shores  of  Europe  under- 
taken at  Alfred's  request.  Asser.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle 
probably  put  mto  shape  in  this  reign. 

The  Danish  war  broke  out  again  in  893  with  an  invasion  of  Kent. 
Defeat  of  the  Danes  at  Buttington.  In  901  Alfred  died.  He 
left  five  children  :  two  sons,  Eadward  and  ^thelweard,  and  three 
daughters,  .Slthelflaed  the  "  Lady  of  the  Mercians,"  wife  of  ^thelred, 
ealdorman  of  West  Saxon  Mercia,  ^thelgifu,  abbess  of  Shaftesbury,, 
^Ifthryth,  wife  of  Baldwin  II.,  count  of  Flanders,  son  of  Baldwin  and 
Judith  (p.  203).  From  this  union  descended  Matilda,  wife  of  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror. 

901-925.     Eadward  the  Elder. 

Erection  of  fortresses  along  the  Mercian  frontier  by  Eadiuard 
and  jEthel^ced.  Conquest  of  the  Five  Boroughs  (Derby,  Lincoln,  Leices- 
ter, Stamford,  Nottingham)  by  iEthelflsed.  Amiexation  of  Mercia  to 
Wessex.  Conquest  of  East  Anglia  and  Essex.  Submission  of  Strath- 
clyde  and  all  the  Scots  (924).  Eadward  lord  of  all  Britain.  Wes- 
sex, Kent,  Sussex,  he  ruled  by  inheritance;  Mercia,  Essex,  East  Anglia, 
by  conquest  f-^om  the  Danes ;  Northumberland,  Wales,  Scotland,  Strath- 
clyde,  as  overlord.  Eadward  died  in  925,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son 

925-940.     JBthelstan. 

League  of  Scots>  Welsh,  and  Danes  crushed  in  926.     Again 


A.  D.  England,  205 

renewed,  it  was  again  broken  up  by  the  defeat  of  the  allies  in 
the 

937.     Battle  of  Brunanburh. 

^thelstan  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Eadmimd  (940- 
946).  Revolt  of  Danes  and  Scots.  Reconquest  of  the  Five  Boroughs 
and  the  Danelagh.  Cumberland  given  as  a  fief  to  Malcolm^  king  of 
Scots.  Dunstan  appointed  abbot  of  Glastonbury.  Murder  of  Ead- 
mund,  who  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Eadred  (946-955).  A 
revolt  of  the  Danes  was  crushed  in  954  ;  final  submission  of  the 
Danelagh.  Bad  wig  (955-959),  nephew  of  Eadred,  quarrelled  with 
Dunstan,  and  drove  him  from  the  country.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother, 

959-975.     Eadgar, 

the  under  king  of  Mercia.  Dunstan,  recalled  in  958,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  959,  was  the  true  ruler.  The  royal  power  stood 
high.  Revision  of  the  laws.  Secular  priests  were  out  of  favor,  and 
monks  were  installed  in  many  of  the  wealthiest  churches.  Mainte- 
nance of  a  large  fleet.  Eadgar  was  followed  by  his  son  Eadward 
(the  martyr),  murdered  978. 
978-1016.     iEthelred  II.,  the  Unready,^  son  of  Eadgar, 

in  whose  reign  the  political  conquest  of  England  was  under- 
taken by  the  Danish  sovereigns  (p.  203).  Danish  invasions  began, 
after  a  long  interval,  in  980.  Death  of  Dunstan,  988.  Battle  of 
Maldon  against  the  Danes  (991),  when  Brihtnoth,  ealdorman  of  the 
East  Saxons,  fell.  (Song  of  Brihtnoth's  Death.)  In  this  year  (991) 
the  plan  of  buying  off  the  Danes  was  adopted,  10,000  pounds  being 
paid,  which  were  raised  by  a  special  tax  (Danegeld).  In  994  Anlaf 
{Ola^f  Tryggvesson)  and  Swegen  (Svend  with  the  Forked  Beard)  rav- 
aged Kent,  and  were  paid  16,000  pounds.  Ravages  of  the  Northmen 
in  997,  998,  999,  1001, 1002, 1003, 1004,  1006, 1009,  1010,  1011, 1013, 
1015. 

1002.  24,000  pounds  paid  to  the  Northmen.  Massacre  of  all  (?) 
Danes  in  England,  upon  one  day  (Nov.  13,  Danish  Vespers) 
by  order  of  JSthelred.  Swegen  resolves  on  the  conquest  of  Eng- 
land. Marriage  of  jEthelred  and  Emma,  daughter  of  Richard  I., 
duke  of  Normandy.  In  1007,  36,000  pounds,  in  1012,  48,000  pounds, 
were  paid  to  the  Northmen.  Death  of  Swegen  (1014).  Election  of 
his  son  Cnut  (Canute)  to  succeed  him.  The  Danes  had  now  recov- 
ered all  that  part  of  England  which  they  had  acquired  by  the  treaty 
of  Wedmore  (p.  204)  in  878.  Upon  the  death  of  jEthelred  the  Danish 
party  in  England  chose  Cnut  king,  but  the  English  party,  which 
centred  in  London,  chose  Eadmund  Ironside  (1016),  son  of  ^thel- 
red.  He  made  a  brave  stand,  and  many  battles  were  fought  this 
year.  After  the  defeat  of  Eadmund  at  Assandun  peace  was  con- 
cluded. Eadmund  received  Wessex,  Essex,  East  Anglia,  and  Lon- 
don ;  Cnut  received  Northumberland  and  Mercia.  The  nominal  over- 
lordship  of  England  remained  with  Eadmund.  After  the  death  of 
Eadmund  (1016)  Cnut  became  king  of  England. 

1  Such  is  his  conventional  title;  probably  "Despiser  of  Counsel"  would  bet- 
ter convey  the  meaning  of  "  Jiedeless.'" 


206  Mediaeval  History.  A.  d. 

1016-1042.     Danish  supremacy  over  England. 
1016-1035.     Cnut. 

England  divided  into  four  governments  :  Wessex,  under 
Cnut;  Mercia,  East  Anglia,  Northumberland,  under  Jarls  or  Earls. 
Huscarls,  Cnut's  personal  following.  Cnut  in  Rome  (1027).  Laws 
of  Cnut  (1028).  Subjugation  of  Malcolm,  king  of  Scots  (1031).  Cnut 
was  succeeded  by  his  sons  Harold  (1035-1040)  and  Harthacnut 
(1040-1042).  Godwine,  earl  of  Wessex  ;  Leofric,  earl  of  Mercia  ; 
Si'ward,  earl  of  Northumberland.  On  Harthacnut's  death  the  son  of 
jEthelredy 

1042-1066.     Eadward,  the  Confessor, 

was  elected  king.  He  had  been  educated  at  the  Norman  court, 
and  during  his  reign  Norman  influence  was  supreme  at  the  court  of 
England.  The  country  was  in  the  hands  of  the  great  earls  Godwine, 
Leofric,  Siward,  In  1051,  Godwine,  father-in-law  of  the  king,  was  ex- 
iled. Recalled  in  1052  he  brought  about  a  general  banishment  of  the 
French.  Upon  the  death  of  Godivine  his  power  passed  to  his  son 
Harold  (1053).  In  1055  Harold's  brother  Tostig  succeeded  Siward 
as  earl  of  Northumberland.  In  1057  Harold's  brother  Gyrth  was 
made  earl  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  and  another  brother  of  Harold, 
Leo/wine,  earl  of  Kent  and  Essex.  Subjugation  of  Wales  by  Harold 
(1063).  Revolt  of  Northumberland  (1065).  Deposition  of  Tos^i^r  and 
election  of  Morkere,  grandson  of  Leofric  of  Mercia,  and  brother  of 
Edwin,  then  earl  of  Mercia.     On  the  death  of  Eadward, 

1066.     Harold, 

earl  of  Wessex,  was  elected  king. 

A  claim  to  the  succession  was  immediately  advanced  by  "Wil- 
liam, duke  of  Normandy,  upon  three  grounds.  1.  The  alleged  be- 
quest of  Eadward  the  Confessor.  2.  An  oath  taken  by  Harold  upon 
occasion  of  his  having  been  shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of  Normandy 
about  1064,  in  virtue  of  which  he  had  become  William's  vassal,  and 
had  promised  to  marry  his  daughter  and  secure  him  the  succession 
after  the  death  of  Eadward.  3.  Tlie  right  of  his  wife,  Matilda  (p. 
204).  The  claim  being  rejected,  William  at  once  prepared  to  assert 
it  by  arms. 

Invasion  of  Yorkshire  by  Harold  Hardrada,  king  of  Norway,  and 
Tostig,  brother  of  Harold  of  England. 

Sept.  25.     Battle  of  Stamfordbridge. 

Defeat  and  death  of  the  invaders.  "William  had  meantime 
landed  at  Pevensey.  Harold  hastened  south,  but  was  defeated 
in  the 

Oct.  14.     Battle  of  Hastings  or  Senlac, 

and  fell  on  the  field.  Eadgar  uEtheling,  grandson  of 
Eadmund  Iro7isides,  was  chosen  king,  but  soon  submitted, 
with  all  the  chief  men,  to  the  victor.  Election  of  Wil' 
liam.  (Seep.  229.) 


A.  D.  The  North,      "  207 


§  4.    THE  NORTH.  {Seep.  1G8.) 

Denmark. 

Northern  historians  of  the  Middle  Age  refer  the  conquest  of  the 
North  to  the  Asas  under  Odin  (p.  168),  who  gave  Denmark  to  his 
son. 

After  him  came  Dan  the  Famous,  who  gave  a  name  to  the  king- 
dom. Under  Frode  the  Peaceful,  who  reigned  at  the  beginning  of 
our  era,  Denmark  enjoyed  a  Golden  Age.  In  the  eighth  century  the 
famous  battle  of  Bravalla  was  fought  between  Harold  Hildetand, 
king  of  Denmark,  and  Sigurd  Ring^  king  of  Sweden,  and  ended  in 
favor  of  the  Swedes. 

Thus  far  all  is  mythical.  The  true  history  of  Denmark  begins  with 
Gorm  the  Old.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  the  Danes  had  settled  in  two 
bands  :  one  occupying  the  peninsula,  Jutland,  Schleswig,  and  Holstein; 
the  other  occupying  the  eastern  islands  Zealand,  FiXnen,  etc.  Both 
divisions,  between  which  there  was  scanty  intercourse,  were  ruled  by 
numerous  petty  chiefs  (smaa-kongar),  among  the  most  famous  of  whom 
was  the  king  and  high-priest  of  Lejre  in  Zealand,  who  was  at  the  head 
of  a  loose  confederacy  of  the  islands.  Wlien  Jutes  and  Angles  in  the 
fifth  century  migrated  to  Britain  (p.  176),  Danes  from  the  islands 
seem  to  have  taken  their  place  in  the  peninsula. 

Godfrey,  king  of  Jutland,  was  embroiled  with  Charles  the  Great,  and 
built  a  Dannevirk  or  line  of  fortresses  across  the  peninsula.  Under 
his  successor.  Hemming,  the  Eyder  was  made  the  boundary  between 
Denmark  and  the  Franldsh  empire. 

In  822  Christianity  preached  in  Denmark  by  Ebbo,  archbishop  of 
Hheims.  In  826  Ansgarius,  "  the  Apostle  of  the  North,"  labored  in 
Denmark,  but  without  lasting  results. 

Gorm  the  Old  (about  860-935),  the  first  king  of  all  Denmark,  was 
a  devout  heathen,  who  persecuted  the  new  faith  until  forced  to  refrain 
by  Henry  I.  of  Germany.  Erection  of  the  great  Dannevirke  between 
the  Sley  and  the  Eyder.  Gorm  ruled  the  peninsula,  the  islands,  and 
Skaania  and  Bleking,  the  southern  provinces  of  Sweden.  Harold 
Blue-tooth  (Blaatand),  935-985.  War  with  Norway.  Otto  II.  of  Ger- 
many, in  975,  forced  Harold  to  consent  to  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity in  his  kingdom.  Svend  Forked  Beard  {Tveskjced),  985-1914. 
Successful  revolt  of  the  tributary  Wends.  Svend  in  England  (p.  205), 
Knut  the  Great  (1014-1035),  king  of  Denmark  and  of  England.  He 
passed  most  of  his  time  in  England,  which  led  to  an  attempt  on  the  part 
of  Ulf-Jarl  to  make  Hardeknut  king  in  Denmark.  It  failed,  and  Knut 
later  had  Ulf  killed.  In  1028  Knut  was  proclaimed  king  of  Norway. 
Hardeknut  (Hathacnut)  (1035-1042)  succeeded  his  father  in  Den- 
mark. His  war  with  Magnus  of  Norway  ended  in  an  agreement 
whereby  whoever  should  outlive  the  other  should  inherit  his  kingdom. 
Under  this  treaty  Magnus  ruled  Denmark,  1042-1047.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Svend  Estridsen,  son  of  Ulf-Jarl  and  Estride,  sister  of 
Knvt  (1047-1074).  War  for  seventeen  years  with  Harold  Hardrada 
of  Norway  was  brought  to  a  close  in  1064.  War  with  the  Wends. 
Svend  raised  Denmark  to  a  position  of  power,  which  was  lost  under 


208  MedicBval  History.  A.  d. 

his  five  sons  who  followed  him:  Harold  Heyn  (1077-1080),  St. 
Knut  (1080-1086),  Olaf  Hunger  (1086-1095),  Erik  Ejegod  (1095^ 
1103),  Niels  (1105-1135).  (5ee  p.  235.) 

Sweden.  (See  p.  209.) 

Sweden  was  the  first  of  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms  to  attain  power. 
According  to  tradition  there  were  two  races  in  the  country  besides 
the  Finns,  the  Gota  or  Gauta  (Goths)  and  the  Svea.  The  Svea  traced 
their  origin  to  the  followers  of  Odin.  Njord,  son  of  Odin,  was  the 
first  king  of  Sweden.  His  son,  Frey  Yngve,  built  the  temple  of 
Uppsala,  and  founded  the  line  of  the  Ynglingar,  wliich  ruled  the  Svea 
until  Ingjald  Ill-raada  so  angered  the  petty  kings  by  his  cruelty  that 
they  revolted.  The  king  burned  himself  and  his  family,  and  his  son 
Olaf  fled  to  Norway.  Ivar  Vidfadme,  king  of  Skaania,  which  was 
independent  before  its  conquest  by  Gorm  of  Denmark,  succeeded  Ing- 
jald.   This  was  in  the  seventh  century. 

In  the  eighth  ( ?)  century  falls  the  mythical  battle  of  Bravalla,  where 
Sigurd  Ring,  king  of  Sweden,  defeated  Harold  Hildetand  of  Den- 
mark. Sigurd's  son,  Ragnar  Lodbrog,  is  even  more  famous  in  story 
than  his  father.  (Tale  of  his  capture  by  -^Ua  of  Northumberland,  and 
of  his  death  in  a  pit  of  serpents,  which  his  sons  avenged  by  the 
slaughter  of  iEUa.  See  p.  203,  where  the  discrepancy  in  date  is  to  be 
noted.) 

In  the  ninth  century  authentic  history  begins.  Mission  of  Ansga- 
rius  (829-865)  to  Sweden,  where  his  preaching  met  with  great  suc- 
cess. Erik  Emundsson,  king  of  Sweden  (died  in  885  ?),  made  im- 
portant conquests  in  the  East.  At  the  same  time  bands  of  Swedes 
settled  around  Novgorod,  subjugated  the  Slavs,  and  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  future  empire  of  Russia  (Varinjar,  Russ.). 

Olaf  the  Lap-king  (993-1024)  was  the  first  Christian  king  of  Swe- 
den. War  with  St.  Olaf  oi  Norway.  The  last  king  of  the  Upsala 
line  was  Emund  Gammle  (the  Old),  who  died  about  1056.  Stenkil 
(1056-1066).  (Seep.2J7.) 

Norway.  (See  p.  209.) 

According  to  tradition  Norway  was  first  settled  by  Olaf  Trcetelje 
of  the  Ynglingar  line,  who  fled  from  Sweden  after  the  death  of  his 
father  Ingjald.  The  country  was  governed  by  numerous  petty  kings, 
and  remained  weak  and  distracted,  like  Sweden  and  Denmark,  until, 
as  in  those  countries,  a  process  of  consolidation  set  in  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury. Halfdan  the  Black  (841-863)  reduced  many  of  the  petty  kings 
to  subjection,  and  his  son,  Harald  Haarfager  (863-932),  completed  the 
work  of  conquest  and  introduced  the  feudal  system.  Defeat  of  the 
Jarls  at  Hafurstfjord,  872.  These  changes,  and  the  repression  of  free- 
booting  which  followed  them,  induced  a  great  migration  of  the  Jarls, 
the  most  famous  of  the  vikings.  Establishment  of  Northmen  under 
Rolf  Ganger  (Rollo)  in  Normandy.  Conquest  of  DuhJ.in  by  Olauf  in 
852.  Discovery  and  settlement  of  Iceland,  861-875,  etc.  ilrik 
Blodiixe  (930-934),  Hakon  (934-961),  Harald  Graafell,  Hakon  Jarl 
(988-995).    Olaf  Tryggvasson  (996-1000).    He  disappeared  at  the 


A.  D.  Spanish  Peninsula.  209 

battle  of  Svold,  where  he  was  defeated  by  Olafthe  Lap-king  of  Nor- 
way, Svend  Tveskceg  of  Denmark,  and  Erik  and  Svend,  sons  of  Hakon 
Jarl.     The  victors  divided  Norway  between  them. 

Discovery  and  settlement  of  Greenland  by  Erik  the  Red  (983). 
Vinland  (America)  seen  by  Bjarne,  and  visited  by  Leif  and  others, 
986-1011.  See  p.  281. 

Norway  was  again  united  under  St.  Olaf  (II.)  1015-1030,  in  whose 
reign  Christianity  was  introduced.  Magnus  the  Good,  son  of  OlaJ 
(1035-1047),  king  of  Denmark  from  1042  to  1047.  The  Graagaas, 
or  book  of  the  law.  Harald  III.,  Hardrada,  founded  Opslo  (Chris- 
tiania),  and  fell  at  Stamford  Bridge  1066  (p.  206).  Magnus  II.  (1066- 
1069),  Olaf  (1069-1093),  Magnus  III.  Barfod  (1095-1103).  Con- 
quest of  the  Orkneys  and  Hebrides  •  of  Dublin.  Death  of  Magnus  in 
Ireland.  (5ee  p.  2S5.') 

§  5.    SPANISH  PENINSULA-  (See  p.  18S.) 

755-1031.     Caliphate  of  Cordova, 

founded  by  the  last  Oramiad,  Abd-er-Rahman  (p.  183).    Most 
brilliant  period  of  the  Moorish  civilization,  in  the  ninth  and  tenth 
centuries.     Abd-er-Rahman  III.,  Hakem  II.,  AlmanzoTj  his  general. 
The  populous  city  of  Cordova,  the  seat  of  science  and  arts. 
1031.     Dissolution  of  the  caliphate  of  Cordova  into  a  number  of 

small  states.  The  Morabethes  or  Almoravides  (Yussuf),  sum- 
moned from  Mauretania,  successfully  opposed  the  Christians  (1086), 
but  made  themselves  masters  of  Mohammedan  Spain. 

Christian  Kingdoms. 

Asturia  (Oviedo),  since  the  conquest  of  the  country  as  far  as  the 
Duero  by  Alfonso  III.  in  the  tenth  century,  called  the  king- 
dom of  Leon,  after  the  new  residence,  Leon. 

Castile,  so  called  from  the  castles  erected  against  the  Arabs,  origi- 
nally a  county  of  Asturia. 

Navarre,  a  border  state  in  the  Pyrenees :  first  a  county  under 
French  supremacy,  then  independent.  Sancho  I.  assumed  the 
title  King  of  Navarre  (905),  and  subjugated 

Aragon,  originally  a  Frankish  county  north  of  Navarre. 

1000-1035.  Sancho  III.  the  Great,  king  of  Navarre,  and, 
by  inheritance,  king  of  Castile,  divided  at  his  death  his  king- 
dom among  his  three  sons.  As  Leon  and  Castile  were  soon 
united,  there  existed  henceforward  three  Christian  kingdoms 
in  Spain  :  1,  Castile-Leon  ;  2,  Navarre ;  3,  Aragon.  We 
must  also  reckon  the  county  of  Barcelona,  which  grew  out  of 
the  Spanish  mark  of  Charles  the  Great,  and  was  independent 
after  the  time  of  Charles  the  Bald. 
Wars  of  Ruy  Diaz,  called  by  the  Arabs  Cid,  i.  e.  Lord  (died 
1099).  {See  p.  240.) 

14 


210  Mediceval  History,  A.  ix 

§  6.    THE  EAST. 
Eastern  Empire. 

527-565.     Justinian   I.,   emperor   of  the   East.     Belisarius. 
Narses  (p.  175). 

Codification  of  the  law  in  the  form  known  as  the  corpus 
juris  civilis  (Trihonianus),  comprising  ;  1.  Institutiones.  2.  Pandectas 
or  Digesta.     3.  Codex.     4.  Novell'ce,  later  additions. 

Parties  of  the  circus :  Greens,  Blues,  Reds,  and  Whites.  Bloody- 
contests  ("  Nika,"  532).  The  church  of  St.  Sophia,  built  by  Con- 
stantine  {Hagia  Sophia),  burnt  and  rebuilt  with  great  splendor. 

Decline  of  the  empire  under  Justinian's  successors  (cruelty,  mutila- 
tions). A  part  of  the  Asiatic  and  African  provinces  conquered  by 
the  Persians  and  afterwards  by  the  Arabs. 

726-842.     Contest  over  images.     Image-breakers  (ilKovoKKAtrrax,  icon- 
oclasts) and  image  worshippers  (fi/covoSoSAoi). 
717-741.     Leo  the  Isaurian.     Image  worship  prohibited. 
780-802.     Irene,  who  out  of  love  of  power  had  her  own  son  blinded, 
restored  image  worship.     The  accession  of  a  woman  to  the 
imperial  throne  served  as  a  pretext  to  legalize  the  transfer  of 
the  imperial  crown  from  the  East  to  the  West. 
842.     Theodora  fully  restored  image  worship. 

867-1057.     Eastern  emperors  of  the  Macedonian  Jine. 

The  empire,  hard  pressed  by  Arabs,  Bulgarians,  and  Magyars. 
The  emperors  Nicephorus  Phocas  and  John  Zimisces,  whom  Theophano, 
widow  of  Ramanus  II.  (died  962),  placed  on  the  throne,  partially 
reconquered  the  provinces  which  the  Arabs  and  Bulgarians  had  torn 
from  the  empire.  {See  p.  2J^0.) 

Caliphate  of  Bagdad  under  the  Abbasides  (750-1258). 

Immediately  after  the  reigns  of  Haroun-al-Raschid  and  Mamun 
(p.  186),  the  power  of  the  caliphs  hegan  to  decline. 
935.     The  Emir  al  Omra  (i.  e.  prince  of  princes)  received  all  the 
secular  power;  the  caliph  remained  only  spiritual  head  of  the 
faithful.     969,  Egypt  independent  under  Fatimites. 
1058.     Seljuk   Turks  (Togrul  Bey,  Alp  Arslan,  Malek  Shah)  at- 
tained the  dignity  of  Emir  al  Omra.     Seljuk  supremacy. 
1092.     The  empire  of  the  Seljuks  separated  into  a  number  of  small 
•  sultanates  (Iran,  Kerman,  Aleppo,  Damascus,  Iconium  or  Roum). 

India. 

The  early  history  is  exceedingly  uncertain,  and  the  most  impor- 
tant events  are  assigned  dates  differing  from  one  another  by  over 
four  centuries.  The  Guptas,  who  succeeded  in  power  the  Sahs  of 
Surdshha  (60  b.  C.-235  a.  d.),  occupied  Kanauj  from  319  to  about 
470,  when  they  were  overthrown  by  Tatar  invaders  (Huns  ?),  and 
the  Valabhis,  who  dwelt  in  Cutch  and  the  northern  part  of  Bombay, 
were  the  principal  power  in  India,  480-722. 


A.  D. 


The  East.  211 


Actual  authentic  history  begins  with  the  Arabic  invasions.  Sind 
was  the  first  province  to  feel  the  Mohammedan  attack.  It  was  con- 
quered in  711,  but  in  750  a  general  uprising  expelled  the  victors. 
About  1000-1*186.     Supremacy  of  the  Sultans  of  Ghazni. 

The  next  great  attack  was  made  by  a  Turk,  Sultan  Mahmud 
of  Ghazni,  (in  Kabul),  who  invaded  India  seventeen  times,  and  con- 
quered the  country  to  the  Ganges.  The  decisive  struggle  took  place 
at  Peshawar,  where  Mahmud  was  victorious.  In  1024  famous  expe- 
dition to  Guzerat.  Destruction  of  the  idol  pillar  filled  with  jewels.  (?) 
Mahmud  was  succeeded  by  fourteen  rulers  of  his  house,  the  last  of 
whom,  Bahram,  was  conquered  by  Allah-ud-din  of  Ghor.  Bahram's 
son,  KhusrUy  founded  at  Lahore  the  first  Mohammedan  dynasty  in 
India  proper. 
1186-1206.     Supremacy  of  the  Afghans  of  Ghor. 

In  1186,  Khusru's  son  was  made  captive  by  Muhammed  Ghori, 
after  which  the  predominance  exercised  by  the  Turks  of  Ghazni 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Afghans  of  Ghor.  Muhammed  Ghori 
was  killed  in  1206.  (See  p.  2^1.) 

China.  {See  p.  32.) 

590-618.  Dynasty  of  Suy,  under  whose  energetic  sway  China  was 
partially  rescued  from  the  confusion  of  the  Three  Kingdoms 
(p.  32). 

618-907.     Dynasty  of  Tang, 

founded  by  the  usurper,  Le  Yuen,  who,  as  emperor,  took  the 
name  of  Kau-tsu.  The  first  part  of  tliis  period  down  to  718  was  a 
brilliant  time  for  China,  and  the  Golden  Age  of  literature.  The 
earlier  rulers  ( Tai-tsung,  627-650  ;  Kaou-tsung,  650-683 ;  Woo  How, 
683-705,  the  wife  of  Kaou-tsung,  who  usurped  the  throne  on  her  hus- 
band's death)  were  valiant  warriors  and  wise  rulers,  who  held  the 
Tatars  in  check,  recovered  much  of  the  former  possessions  of  China 
in  Central  Asia,  and  raised  the  empire  to  a  commanding  position 
among  other  nations  ;  643,  embassies  from  Persia  and  Constantinople 
in  Cliina. 

From  718  the  attacks  of  the  Tatars  increased  in  vehemence.  From 
763  to  780  their  inroads  were  incessant. 

Under  Woo-tsung  (841-847)  temples  were  destroyed,  monasteries 
and  nunneries  closed,  and  all  foreign  priests  (Christian,  Persian,  Bud- 
dhist) banished.  The  reaction  was,  however,  short-lived.  Inven- 
tion of  printing. 

907-960.     Five  dynasties  (Later  Leang,  Later  Tang,  Later  Tsin, 
Later  Han,  Later  Chow)   occupied  the  throne  within  this 
period,  but  the  power  of  each  was  very  limited.    In  Ho-nan,  Sze-chuen, 
and  other  provinces  independent  states  arose. 

960-976.  Chaou-kwang-yin,  as  emperor,  Tai-tsoo,  the  founder 
of  the  dynasty  of  the  Later  Sung,  fought  with  success  against 
the  Khitan  Tatars,  who  had  occupied  the  whole  of  Manchuria,  estab- 
lishing there  the  empire  of  Hia.  Succeeding  emperors  were  less  for- 
tunate, and  paid  tribute  to  the  Tatars  (976-1101).  {Seep.  24I.) 


212  Mediceval  History.  A.  d. 


Japan.i 

From  the  reign  of  Ojin  (270-310,  p.  33)  to  the  close  of  the  sixth 
century,  the  history  of  Japan  is  a  record  of  quiet  progress  in  civiliza- 
tion, under  the  influence  of  continental  intercourse  and  of  increasing 
wealth.  Throughout  this  period,  as  before,  the  Mikados  were  actual 
sovereigns  and  personal  commanders.  The  close  of  this  epoch  Saw 
the  introduction  of  Buddhism  into  Japan  and  its  rapid  spread  (p.  33). 

The  seventh  century  is  of  surpassing  interest  in  the  history  of 
Japan,  for  then  it  was  that  causes  long  working  m  silence  and  un- 
seen resulted  in  changes  subversive  of  the  entire  social  and  political 
life  of  the  Japanese,  —  changes  which  led  to  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Mikado  from  personal  intercourse  with  his  subjects  behind  a  veil  of 
formal  etiquette  and  heightened  reverence,  and  to  the  predominance 
of  the  military  over  the  civil  power,  until  the  actual  government  of 
the  country  passed  from  its  legal  sovereign,  the  Mikado,  into  the 
hands  of  an  usurping  military  chieftain,  thus  creating  a  long-enduring, 
much  misunderstood  system  of  dual  government,  —  changes  whose 
final  outcome  was  a  feudal  system  corresponding  to  that  known  to 
mediaeval  Europe,  which,  with  its  legitimate  oft'spring,  oppression, 
weakness,  anarchy,  lasted  until  1868. 

These  changes  were  the  following :  I.  The  growth  of  a  numerous 
court  nobility  of  imperial,  and  hence  of  divine,  descent.  II.  The 
creation  of  numerous  offices  of  state  which  became  the  property  of 
the  court  nobility.  III.  The  division  of  the  male  population  into  an 
agricultural  and  a  military  class.  IV.  The  separation  of  state  offices 
into  two  sections,  the  dvil  and  the  military,  and  the  continuance  of 
each  in  the  hands  of  one  group  of  noble  families. 

I.  The  huge,  or  court  nobility,  owed  their  numbers  to  the  practice 
of  polygamy,  which  the  necessity  of  providing  against  the  extinction 
of  a  divine  dynastic  line  imposed  on  the  Mikados.  They  comprise  at 
present  one  hundred  and  fifty-five  families,  which  form  among  them- 
selves larger  groups,  or  clans.  Such  clans  are  :  the  Fujiwara,  the 
most  famous  of  all  the  kuge ;  the  Sugawara  ;  the  Taira  (Heike  in 
Chinese  characters)  ;  the  Minamoto  (Genji  in  Chinese  charac- 
ters). 

II.  In  603  the  requirements  of  a  more  extensive  empire  caused 
the  establishment  of  eight  great  administrative  departments,  and  of  a 
host  of  smaller  offices,  which  were  filled  by  members  of  the  kuge,  and 
gradually  became  vested  in  certain  families. 

III.  The  demand  of  the  growing  empire  for  increased  military 
efficiency  led  to  the  division  of  the  whole  male  population  into  two 
classes :  1.  the  class  of  agricultural  laborers,  comprising  all  who 
were  unfit  for  military  service ;  they  were  relegated  to  a  life  of  un- 
broken toil,  and  were  burdened  with  the  annual  payment  of  a  quan- 
tity of  rice  sufficient  for  the  support  of  the  2.  military  class,  the 
Samurai,  which  included  all  the  bravest  and  most  intellectual  men  in 
Japan.  Relieved  from  the  necessity  of  working  by  the  tax  received 
from  the  first  class,  and  not  overburdened  with  military  duties,  these 

1  Qriffis,  The  Mikado's  Empire.    Reed,  Japan.    Adams,  History  of  Japan. 


A.  D.  Crusades.  213 

men  were  free  to  devote  themselves  to  the  pursuit  of  literature  and 
learning,  forming  the  best  element  in  the  nation. 

IV.  The  Fujiwara,  increasing  in  power,  gradually  absorbed  all 
dvil  offices,  while  the  military  offices  were  filled  from  the  two  families 
of  Taira  and  Minamoto,  better  known  as  Hei  and  Gen.  Thus  did  the 
Fujiwara  become  enervated  by  the  luxury  of  palace  life ;  thus  did  the 
Mikado,  while  his  office  gained  in  respect  and  reverence  by  its  envi- 
ronment of  titled  officials,  lose  all  real  power,  and  sink  to  a  mere  pup- 
pet in  the  hands  of  intriguing  nobles,  to  be  installed  and  deposed  at 
will ;  thus  did  both  emperor  and  court  constantly  lose  ground  before 
the  growing  influence  of  those  energetic  families  to  whom  were  given 
the  active  duties  of  military  command.  The  generals,  or  Shogims, 
became  the  "  Mayors  of  the  Palace  "  of  Japan.  So  originated  the 
dual  government,  which  was  not,  as  foreigners  long  thought,  a  con- 
stitutional institution,  whereby  the  civil  and  military  functions  of  gov- 
ernment were  vested  in  the  Shogun  or  temporal  emperor  (Tycoon),  and 
the  religious  functions  in  the  Mikado  or  spiritual  emperor^  but  an  un- 
constitutional innovation,  wherein  a  subordinate  officer  had  usurped 
that  authority  which  belonged  of  right  to  the  only  emperor,  the  Mi- 
kado, and  whose  position  that  emperor  had  never  recognized. 

The  natural  result  of  this  state  of  affairs  was  the  evolution  of  mili- 
tary feudalism,  whose  rise  is  considered  in  the  next  period. 
794.     The  capital  of  the  empire,  the  home  of  the  Mikado  and  tho 

kuge,  permanently  fixed  at  Kioto,  near  Lake  Biwa. 
1156.     Outbreak  of  war  between  the  families  of  Gen  and  Hei  (Mina- 
moto  and  Taira),  which  had  previously  shared  the  military 
offices  in  peace.  (5ce  p.  2^2.) 

THIRD  PERIOD. 

EPOCH  OF  THE  CRUSADES  (1096-1270). 

§  1.    CRUSADES. 

Cause  :  The  pilgrimages  of  the  Christians  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre, 
where  St.  Helena,  mother  of  Constantino  the  Great,  had  built  a  vault 
for  the  Sepulchre  and  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  were  inter- 
rupted after  the  Fatimites,  and  yet  more  after  the  Seljuks  came  to 
power  ;  ill-treatment  of  the  pilgrims. 

The  hermit  Peter  of  Amiens  demanded  of  the  Pope  Urban  II. 
(1088-1099)  assistance  in  freeing  the  holy  places,  and  preached  the 
Crusade  in  Italy  (?)  and  France. ^  Councils  of  the  church  at  Pia- 
cenza  and  Clermont  in  Auvergne  (1095).  Address  by  the  Pope  ;  uni- 
versal enthusiasm.    {It  is  the  will  of  God  /) 

The  undisciplined  bands  led  by  Peter,  by  the  French  knight  Walter 
of  Pacy,  and  his  nephew  Walter  Senzaveir  (the  Penniless),  and  others, 
were  for  the  most  part,  amiihilated  in  Hungary  and  Bulgaria. 

1  v.  Sybel  Gesch.  des  ersten  Kreuzz7ios,  1841,  has  shown  on  conclusive 
pounds  that  the  idea  of  the  Crusades  originated  principally  with  Pope  Urban 
II.  It  has  recently  been  made  doubtful  whether  Peter  of  Amiens  had  been  iu 
the  Holy  Land  at  all  before  the  first  Crusade. 


214  MedicevaL  History.  A.  D. 

1096-1099.    First  Crusade.     Kingdom  of  Jerusalem. 

Leaders  of  the  first  Crusade  ;  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  duke  of 
lower  Lotharingia  ;  his  brothers,  Baldtvin  and  Eustach  ;  Robert,  duke 
of  Normandy,  son  of  William  the  Conqueror ;  Robert  of  Flanders  ; 
Stephen  of  Blois  ;  Raymond  I V.,  count  of  Toulouse  ;  Hugo  of  Ver- 
mandois,  brother  of  Philip  I.,  king-  of  France  ;  Bohemond  of  Taren- 
tum,  son  of  Robert  Guiscard  ;  his  nephew  Tancred.  They  led  200,- 
000  or  300,000  warriors  to  the  East.  Bishop  Adhemar  of  Puy,  who 
was  the  first  to  take  the  Cross  at  Clermont,  went  with  the  expedition 
as  papal  legate  (died  1098).  No  king  took  part  personally  in  this 
Crusade. 

The  princes  went  to  Constantinople,  where  all  except  Raymond 
did  feudal  homage  to  the  emperor,  Alexius  Comnenus.  Attack  upon 
the  territory  of  Kilij  Arslan,  Sultan  of  Iconium  (or  Roum). 

1097.  Niccea  surrendered  to  the  Grecian  emperor  after  a  siege  of 
June,  several  weeks'  duration.  Victory  of  the  Crusaders  at  Dory- 
July  1.   laum   over  the    Sultan  Kilij   Arslan.     Baldwin,   separated 

from  the  main  army,  crossed  the  Euphrates,  and  conquered 
a  principality  for  himself  in  Edessa. 
1097-1098.  The  main  army  besieged  Antiochia  on  the  Orontes  fop 
nine  months    in  vain,  but   finally  the  city  was  betrayed   to 
Bohemund   of   Tarentum   by  the   Armenian  renegade,   Firua 

1098.  (Pyrrhus).  Kerboga,  the  powerful  Emir  of  Mossul,  besieged 
the  Crusaders,  exhausted  through  sickness  and  want,  in  An-- 
tioch,  with  an  immense  army.  Victorious  sally  of  the  Chris- 
tians (the  holy  lance  !)  ;  the  Seljuk  army  defeated  and  scat- 
tered. Long  rest  of  the  Crusaders  in  Antioch  and  quarrels 
among  them. 

1099.  Expedition  along  the  coast  toward  Jerusalem.  Unsuccessful 
siege  of  the  fortress  of  Areas.  In  Maj^  they  advanced  be- 
yond Ccesarea.  On*  the  7th  of  June  the  Crusaders,  now  numbering 
but  21,500  effective  men,  beheld  the  Holy  City,  which  the  Fatimites 
had  reconquered  from  the  Seljuks  in  1098.    After  a  five  weeks*  siege, 

1099.   Stonn  of  Jerusalem. 

July  15.  Terrible  massacre ;   pilgrimage  to  the  Church  of  the 
Resurrection. 

Establishment  of  a  feudal  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  chiefly  French, 
with  vassal  comities  :  Edessa,  Antiochia,  and  afterwards  Tripollf 
(Assises  du  royaume  de  Jerusalem).  Three  chief  officers  :  Senechal, 
Connetable,  Marshall.    Two  patriarchs,  at  Jerusalem  and  at  Antiochia. 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  Protector  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  defeated  the 
Sultan  of  Egypt  at  Ascalon  or  Gaza.  Godfrey  died  1100.  His 
brother,  Baldwin  I.,  king  of  Jerusalem.  Acre,  Trioplis,  Berytus 
(Beirut),  Sidon,  conquered  with  the  aid  of  Pisa  and  Genoa.  Baldwin 
I.  (died  1118)  was  succeeded  by  Baldtvin  II.  (died  1131),  Fuko  of 
Anj^ou  (died  1143),  under  whom  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  reached 
its  greatest  extent,  Baldwin  III.  (died  1162),  Amalric  (died  1173), 
Baldwin  IV.  (died  1184:),  Baldwin  V.  (not  of  age,  died  1186),  VeU 
{Guy)  of  Lusignan. 


A.  D.  Crusades.  215 

1147-1149.    Second  Crusade.     Without  result. 

Cause  :  Conquest  of  Edessa  by  Emadeddin  ('Imad-ed-Deen) 
Zenki,  Emir  of  Mossul  (1144).  Second  conquest  and  destruction  of 
the  city  by  his  son  Noureddin  (Noor-ed-Deen)  (1146).  Bernard,  ab- 
bot of  Clairvaux,  preached  the  Crusade. 

Conrad  III.  of  Germany  and  Louis  VII.  of  France  started  for 
Palestine  ;  the  former  from  Regensburg  (Ratisbon),  the  latter  from 
3Ietz,  somewhat  later.  Both  armies  passed  through  Hungary  to  Asia 
Minor  j  the  German  army,  being  far  in  advance,  entered  Phrygia, 
where  it  was  ahnost  annihilated  by  want  and  by  the  opposition  of  the 
Sultan  of  Iconium,  but  few  regaining  Nicsea.  With  this  scanty  fol- 
lowing Conrad  joined  the  expedition  of  the  French  army  along  the 
coast,  but  returned  from  Ephesus  to  Constantinople,  on  account  of 
ill  health.  Louis  and  the  French  nobility  took  ship  from  Pamphylia 
for  Antiochia.  The  common  soldiery  continued  by  land  to  Cilicia, 
and  were  completely  aimihilated  by  hunger  and  the  enemy.  Conrad 
went  from  Constantinople  to  the  Holy  Land  by  sea  (1148),  and  iu 
conjunction  with  the  French  made  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Da- 
mascus. 

1189-1192.    Third  Crusade.     Conquest  of  Acre  {St.  Jean 
d'Acre),  or  Ptolemais. 

Cause  :  Capture  of  Veit  (Guy)  of  Lusignan,  king  of  Jerusalem, 
at  Tiberias  on  the  sea  of  Genezareth.  Conquest  of  Acre  and  Jerusa- 
lem by  Saladin  (Salah-ed-Deen)  (1187),  the  founder  of  the  dynasty 
of  the  Ayouhites  in  Egypt.  He  treated  the  Christians  magnani- 
mously. 

The  emperor  Frederic  I.,  who  in  his  youth  had  taken  part  in  the 
second  Crusade,  undertook  in  his  old  age  an  expedition  from  Regens- 
burg (Ratisbon)  in  the  spring  of  1189,  passed  through  Hungary, 
spent  the  winter  in  Adrianople,  crossed  (1190)  to  Asia  Minor,  con- 
quered Iconium,  and  went  to  Cilicia,  where  he  was  drowned  in  the 
Calycadnus  (Seleph).  His  son,  Frederic  of  Swabia,  led  a  part  of 
the  pilgrims,  many  having  turned  back,  by  way  of  Tarsus,  Antiochia, 
and  Tyrus  to  Accon  (Ptolemais,  St.  Jean  d'Acre).  He  died  (1191) 
during  the  siege  of  this  city,  which  was  conducted  by  the  king  Guy 
of  Lusignan,  who  had  gained  his  freedom. 

Richard  the  Lion-Hearted  (Coeur-de-Lion),  king  of  England, 
but  French  in  nationality  and  language,  and  Philip  II.,  Augustus 
(French  Auguste,  a  title  of  respect  wliich  was  given  him  later),  king  of 
France,  went  by  sea  to  the  Holy  Land  (1190),  —  Richard  from  Mar- 
seilles, Philip  from  Genoa  ;  participation  of  Genoa,  Pisa,  and  Venice. 
After  a  long  stay  in  Sicily  and  many  quarrels  the  two  kings  reached 
Acre,  which  Lusignan  had  already  besieged  for  nearly  two  years. 
The  city  was  now  soon  forced  to  surrender  (July,  1191). 

Philip  having  quarrelled  with  Richard,  returned  to  France  (1191). 
Heroic  deeds  (and  cruelty)  of  Richard,  who,  however,  was  twice 
obliged  to  turn  back  from  before  Jerusalem.  Armistice  with  Saladin. 
The  strip  of  coast  from  Joppa  to  Acre  given  to  the  Christians  ;  pil- 
grimages to  the  holy  places  permitted.     Richard  gave  Cyprus,  which 


216  MedicBval  History,  a.  d. 

he  had  conquered  in  1191,  as  a  fief  to  Veit  {Guy)  of  Lusignan  (au- 
tumn of  1192),  who  transferred  his  title  of  "  King  of  Jerusalem  "  to 
Henry  of  Champagne. 

Richard  on  his  return  suffered  a  shipwreck  at  Aquileia,  was  recog- 
nized in  Vienna,  detained  by  Leopold,  duke  of  Austria,  at  the  com- 
mand of  the  emperor  Henry  VI.,  kept  a  prisoner  by  the  emperor 
thirteen  months  in  Trifels  (near  Annweiler  in  the  county  Palatine) 
and  in  Worms,  and  released  only  upon  payment  of  a  ransom  and  ren- 
dering homage.^ 

1202-1204.  Fourth  Crusade.  Latin  empire  (1204-1261). 
At  the  instance  of  Pope  Innocent  III.  (preaching  by  Fulco  of 
Neuilly)  a  Crusade  directed  originally  against  Egypt  was  undertaken 
by  powerful  French  barons,  assisted  by  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders,  and 
Boniface,  marquis  of  Montferrat.  The  Crusaders  undertook  the  siege 
of  Zara  in  Dalmatia,  which  the  king  of  Hungary  had  seized,  for  the 
Venetians  (Doge  Henry  Dandolo'),  partly  in  payment  for  transport. 
At  the  urgent  request  of  Alexius,  son  of  the  Eastern  emperor  Isaac 
Angelus,  who  had  been  dethroned  by  his  brother,  a  request  strongly 
supported  by  Philip  of  Swdbia,  the  Crusaders  went  to  Constantinople 
with  the  Venetian  fleet  of  480  sail,  captured  the  city,  and  replaced 
Alexius  and  his  father  on  the  throne  (1203).  The  emperor  was  un- 
able to  fulfill  his  compact  with  the  Crusaders.  (Union  of  the  Greek 
Church  with  that  of  Rome  ;  large  payments  in  money.)  Contention, 
during  which  the  city  caught  fire.  Revolt  of  the  Greek  populace. 
(Isaac  died.)  After  the  murder  of  Alexius  by  the  Greeks,  second 
capture  of  the  city,  pillage,  new  conflagration,  which  consumed  many 
works  of  ancient  literature. 

Establishment  of  the  Latin  empire  (Baldioin,  emperor)  ;  many 
coast  districts  and  islands  fell  to  the  Venetians;  the  marquis  of  Mont- 
ferrat became  king  of  Thessalonica  ;  French  dukes  in  Athens,  Achaia, 
etc.     Villehardouin,  historian  of  the  expedition. 

Establishment  of  a  Greek  empire  at  Niccea  by  Theodore  Lascaris, 
and  a  second,  the  empire  of  Trebizond  on  the  coast  of  the  Pontus  Eu- 
xinus,  by  a  descendant  of  the  Comnenes.  Michael  PalcBologus,  of  the 
Nicsean  empire,  put  an  end  to  the  Latin  empire  in  1261. 

1212.  The  children's  Crusade.     Thousands  of  German  and  French 
boys  started  for  the  Holy  Land.     Many  died  on  the  way,  many 
were  sold  into  slavery. 
1217.  Crusade  of  Andrew  II.,  king  of  Hungary,  without  result. 
1218-1221.     Unsuccessful  attack  upon  Egypt  under  John  of  Brienne, 
"  king  of  Jerusalem." 

1228-1229.      Fiftli  Crusade.      Jerusalem  regained  for  a 
short  time. 
Frederic  II.,  emperor  of  the  West,  who  was  under  the  papal  ban 

1  It  is  probable  that  the  story  of  the  Austrian  banner  having  been  trodden  fn 
the  filth  at  Acre  by  Richard's  command  is  not  a  fable  (cf.  Tceche,  Kaiser 
Heinrich,  VI.  pp.  256,  558),  but  the  imprisonment  of  Richard  had  doubtless 
higher  political  motives,  and  is  sufficiently  explained  by  the  alliance  of  Richard 
with  the  Welfic  party  in  Germany,  see  p.  223. 


A..  Do 


Crusades.  217 


for  not  having  fulfilled  his  promise  of  undertaking  a  Crusade,  went  to 
Acre  by  sea,  and  received  Jerusalem  (where  he  crowned  himself), 
Nazareth,  and  a  strip  of  land  reaching  to  the  coast,  together  with 
Sidon,  from  Sultan  Kameel  {El  Kdmil),  on  condition  of  a  ten  years' 
armistice.     Jerusalem  was  lost  again,  and  finally,  1244. 

1248-1254.     Sixth  Crusade.     Without  result. 

Louis  IX.,  king  of  France  (St.  Louis),  went  to  Cyprus  and 
passed  the  winter  there.  In  order  to  destroy  the  Saracen  power  in 
its  stronghold  of  Egypt,  he  went  in  the  spring  of  1249  to  Damietta 
and  captured  the  city.  On  the  expedition  which  he  undertook  in 
November  against  Cairo,  Louis  was  defeated  by  the  Ayoubite  Sultan 
Toordn-shdh  (Almoadan),  cut  off  from  Damietta,  and  captured  with 
the  entire  French  army  (April,  1250).  The  execution  of  the  treaty 
of  peace,  whereby  the  king  was  to  be  liberated  on  condition  of  evacu- 
ating Darmietta  and  paying  a  heavy  ransom,  was  delayed  by  the  over- 
throw of  the  Ayoubites  by  the  Mamelukes.  Louis  coasted  along 
Palestine,  fortified  Acre  and  other  cities  of  the  coast,  in  the  course 
of  a  residence  of  almost  four  years,  and  returned  to  France  in  1254. 
1268.     Antiocliia  lost  to  the  Mohammedans. 

1270.     Seventh  Crusade.     Without  result. 

Louis  IX.  went  to  Tunis,  where  he  and  the  greater  part  of  tho 
army  were  carried  off  by  sickness. 
1291.  Acre  (Ptolemais)  stormed  by  the  Mamelukes  ;  the  Christians 
abandoned  their  last  possessions  in  Palestine  {Tyre,  BerytuSy 
Sidon). 
The  Crusades  were  the  greatest  events  of  the  Middle  Age.     In 
spite  of  the  excesses  and  cruelties  of  many  of  the  Crusaders  they  lend 
to  the  time  to  which  they  belong  an  ideal,  a  religious  character. 

Results  of  the  Crusades  :  1.  Increased  power  and  authority  of  the 
Church  and  the  Papacy.  2.  Increase  of  the  personal  power  of  princes, 
owing  to  the  reversion  of  many  feudal  holdings  which  became  vacant. 
3.  Rise  of  independent  communities,  who  bought  their  freedom  from 
their  overlords  who  needed  funds  for  the  pilgrimage.  4.  Devel- 
opment of  commerce.  The  Italian  republics  at  the  height  of  their 
power.  5.  Intellectual  growth  resulting  from  the  new  ideas  brought 
back  from  the  East ;  especial  advance  in  the  knowledge  of  geography 
and  natural  history.  6.  Perfection  of  the  institution  of  knighthood 
(chivalry)  ;  the  three 

Religious  Orders  of  Knighthood. 

1.  Ejiights  of  St.  John,  or  Hospitalers;  i.  e.  knights  of  the  hospital 

of  St.  John  in  Jerusalem,  founded  by  merchants  from  Amalji, 
1070.  The  brotherhood  was  enlarged  after  the  first  Crusade 
(^Gerhard),  and  converted  into  an  order  of  knighthood  after  the 
manner  of  the  Templars  {Raimund  Dupuis).  Black  mantle, 
white  cross.  The  order  was  transferred  to  Cyprus  (1291),  to 
Rhodes  (1310),  whence  they  were  called  Knights  of  Rhodes. 
Rhodes  lost,  1522  ;  in  1526  the  order  received  a  gift  of  Malta 
from  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  thence  called  Knights  of  Malta. 

2.  Knights  of  the  Temple  or  Templars  (from  the  temple  of  Solomon, 


218  Medimval  History.  A.  D. 

on  whose  site  stood  the  house  of  the  order  in  Jerusalem),  orig- 
inating in  a  union  of  nine  French  knights  in  1118  (Hugo  de 
Pay  ens).  White  mantle,  red  cross.  In  1291  the  order  was 
transferred  to  Cyprus;  in  1312  dissolved  by  Pope  Clement  V. 
at  the  Council  of  Vienne. 
3.  The  Order  of  Teutonic  Knights,  originally  brotherhood  of  the 
German  hospital  founded  in  1190,  was  in  1198  raised  to  an 
order  of  knighthood  by  Frederic  of  Swabia  before  Acre,  dur- 
ing the  third  Crusade.  White  mantle,  black  cross.  Seat  of  the 
order  at  Acre.  Under  the  grand  matter  Hermann  of  Salza 
a  band  of  knights  went  to  Prussia,  then  occupied  by  the  heathen 
Wends,  in  1226.  Hermann  of  Balk,  first  Landmeister  in  Prus- 
sia, which  was  subjugated  by  bloody  wars  (1226-1283).  In 
1291  the  seat  of  the  grand  master  was  traiiferred  to  Venice, 
1309  to  Marienburg,  1457  to  Konigsberg.  The  land  of  the  order 
was  secularized  in  1525.  Those  knights  who  remained  Catho- 
lic maintained  possession  of  the  German  estates.  Residence 
of  the  grand  master  at  Mergentheim  at  Franconia.  The  or- 
der was  dissolved  in  1809.  In  all  three  orders,  knights,  priestSy 
brothers  in  service. 


§2.    GERMANY  AND  ITALY.  (See  p.  201,) 

1125-1137.     Lothar  of  Saxony, 

supported  by  his  son-in-law  Henry  the  Proud,  duke  of  Bavaria, 
of  the  house  of  Welf,  whom  he  later  appointed  duke  of  Saxony  as 
well,  and  Berthold,  duke  of  Zahringen.  Lothar  fought  (until  1135) 
against  the  two  powerful  Hohenstaufens,  Frederic,  duke  of  Swabia, 
and  Conrad,  nephew  of  the  last  emperor,  Henry  V.  Their  father  was 
Frederic  of  Biiren  and  Stauf en,  son-in-law  of  the  emperor  Henry  IV. 
(p.  200). 
1132-1133.     On  his  first  Roman  expedition  Lothar  was  crowned  by 

Pope  Innocent  II.,  and  accepted  the  allodial   possessions  of 

Matilda  of  Tuscany  as  a  fief  from  the  Pope. 
1136-1137.     On  his  second  Roman  expedition  Lothar  attacked  the 

Norman  Roger  II.,  who  had  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  the 
iwo  Sicilies,  and  drove  him  for  a  short  time  to  Sicily.  On  his  return 
Lothar  died  at  Breitenwang  in  upper  Bavaria  (Dec.  3-4,  1137). 

Under  Lothar's  reign  German  influence  made  great  advances  in 
the  North  and  East.  The  Danish  king  Magnus  recognized  anew  the 
overlordship  of  the  Emperor  ;  Bohemia  did  feudal  homage.  The  Wends 
were  driven  back,  and  in  increasing  numbers  converted  to  Christianity. 
Holstein  given  to  Adolf,  count  of  Schaumburg,  the  margravate  of  Meis- 
sen to  Conrad  of  Wettin,  the  Nordmark  or  Altmark,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Havel  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  to  Albert  the  Bear,  of  the 
house  of  Ballenstddt  or  Askania  (1134),  who  had  done  Lothar  im- 
portant service  on  the  first  Roman  expedition.  Albert  crossed  the 
Elbe  and  conquered  almost  the  entire  Mittelmark,  which  then  received 
the  name  of  Brandenburg,  from  its  chief  city. 


A.  D.  Germany  and  Italy.  219 

1138-1254.  House  of  Hohenstaufen  (Staufer),^  so  called 
from  the  castle  of  Staufen  in  Swabia. 

1138-1152.     Conrad  III., 

elected  by  the  party  opposed  to  the  Saxon  house,  without  par- 
ticipation of  the  Saxons  and  Bavarians. 
War  of  the  Ghibellines  (Italian  corruption  of   Waiblingen,  the 
name  of  a  castle  of  the  Hohenstaufens)  and  the  Welfs,  or  Guelfs 
(cf.  the  genealogical  table). 

Conrad  put  Henry  the  Proud  under  the  ban,  and  gave  Saxony  to 
Albert  the  Bear^  and  Bavaria  to  Leopold  /F.,  margrave  of  Austria. 

1139.  During  the  changing  fortunes  of  the  war  Henry  the  Proud 
died.  The  claims  of  his  ten-year-old  son  Henry  (afterwards 
called  the  Lion)  to  Saxony  were  maintained  by  the  latter's 
mother  and  grandmother  and  their  connection.  Bavaria  was 
claimed  by  Welf  VI.,  brother  of  Henry  the  Proud.  Welf  ad- 
vanced to  the  relief  of  the  city  of  Weinsberg,  which  Conrad 
besieged.     In  the 

1140.  Battle  ^  of  Weinsberg  Conrad  conquered,  and  the  city  was  com- 
pelled to  surrender.  ("  The  Faithful  Wives  of  Weinsberg," 
poem  by  Burger.) 

After  the  death  of  Leopold  of  Austria  (Oct.  18,  1141),  Bavaria 
fell  to  his  brother,  Henry  Jasomirgott,^  who  married  Gertrude,  Henry 
the  Proud's  widow  (1142).  Her  son,  Henry  the  Lion,  received  Saxony. 
Albert  the  Bear  gave  up  his  claim  to  Saxony  ;  the  mark  of  Bran- 
denburg, which  was  a  fief  held  directly  from  the  emperor  (reichsun- 
mittelbar),  and  his  other  possessions,  which  his  enemies  had  occupied, 
were  restored  to  him. 

Conrad's  Crusade  (p.  215).  Conrad,  whose  eldest  son,  Henry,  who 
had  already  been  elected  king,  died  before  him,  appointed  as  his  suc- 
cessor not  his  second  son,  a  minor,  but  his  nephew,  Frederic  of  Swabia, 
who  was  unanimously  elected  by  the  princes.  Conrad  died  Feb.  11, 
1152,  at  Bamberg. 

1152-1190.     Frederic  I.,  Barbarossa, 

one  of  the  most  heroic  figures  of  the  Middle  Age. 

Diet  at  Merseburg.  Frederic  settled  the  disputed  succession  to  the 
Danish  crown.  Sven  became  king  of  Denmark  as  a  vassal  of  the 
empire  (1152). 

Frederic's  main  •  object  was  to  make  good  the  imperial  authority, 
and  in  particular  to  restore  the  imperial  rights  in  northern  Italy, 
which  had  become  narrowed  by  neglect.  Hence  war  with  the  power- 
ful republican  cities  of  Lombardy.  Six  expeditions  to  Italy. 
1154^1155.  First  expedition.  Frederic  destroyed  some  small  places 
which  opposed  him,  and  was  crowned  king  of  Italy  in  Pavia, 

1  v.  Baumer,  Gesch.  der  HoJienstaufenu.  ihrer  Zeit;  JBiS4y  Gesch.  desd.  R. 
unter  Konrad  III. ;  Prutz,  Geschichte  Friedrichs  I. 

2  Recent  investigators  deny  that  the  cry  of  Hie  Welf!  Hie  Waiblingen  !  was 
heard  here  for  the  first  time. 

*  So  called  from  his  favorite  oath. 


220 


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A.  D.  Germany  and  Italy.  221 

and  emperor  at  Rome  by  Hadrian  IV.,  who  had  appealed  to  him  for 
aid  against  the  Romans.  Arnold  of  Brescia,  scholar  of  the  schoolman 
Ahelard,  a  popular  preacher,  who  inveighed  against  the  secular  power 
of  the  clergy  and  possession  of  estates  by  the  church,  was  condemned 
and  burnt. 
1153.   Convention  of  Constance  between  Frederic  and  the  Papal  See. 

1156.  Henry  the  Lion  received  Bavaria   again.      Austria  was  sep- 

arated from  Bavaria,  and  raised  to  a  duchy,  hereditary  in  the 
female  as  well  as  the  male  line. 

1157.  Diet  at  Wiirzburg.  Nearly  all  the  states  of  the  "^est  did 
homage  to  the  imperial  power  (Holy  Roman  Empire).  In 
Besan<jon  the  Burgundian  nobles  submitted  again  to  the  em- 
pire. The  Bohemian  duke  Vladislav  received  from  Fred- 
eric the  royal  crown. 

1158-1162.  Second  expedition  to  Italy.  The  Lombard  cities, 
including  Milan  itself,  submitted.  At  the  diet  on  the  Ron- 
calian  Fields  the  rights  of  the  emperor  were  defined  as  against  the 
cities.  Jurisdiction  in  the  cities  transferred  from  the  consuls  to  an 
officer  of  the  empire,  the  Podesta.  Prohibition  of  the  right  of  pri- 
vate war  between  the  cities.  The  Milanese  revolted.  Quarrel  be- 
tween the  Pope  and  the  emperor.  Tedious  war  with  Milan,  which 
surrendered  after  a  two  years'  siege.     At  the  emperor's  command 

1162.  Milan  -was  destroyed  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighboring 

cities. 
1159-1177.  Schism  in  the  Church.  Alexander  III.  elected  by 
tlie  majority  of  the  cardinals,  Victor  IV.  by  the  minority 
(who  favored  the  emperor),  and  recognized  by  the  coimcil 
which  Frederic  convened  at  Pavia.  Alliance  between  Alex- 
ander III.  and  the  Lombard  cities. 

1163.  Third  Expedition  without  an  army.  After  the  death  of  Victor 
IV.  (April,  1164),  a  new  anti-pope,  Paschal  III.,  was  elected 
by  the  imperial  party.  New  disturbances  in  Italy  soon 
broke  out. 

1166-1168.  Fourth  Expedition.  Paschal  III.  conducted  to  Rome  by 
Frederic. 

1167.  Lombard  League  between  the  cities  of  Lombardy  (Cremona, 
Bergamo,  Brescia,  Mantua,  and  Ferrora.)  and  the  cities  of  t}\e 
Veronese  March  (Verona,  Vicenza,  Padua,  Treviso),  which  had 
united  in  1164.  Union  of  Guelfs  with  Ghibellines.  They 
rebuilt  Milan,  built  Alessandria  (so  called  after  their  allv. 
Pope  Alexander  III.),  and  occupied  the  passes  of  the  Alps. 
The  emperor,  whose  army  was  almost  anniliilated  by  a 
plague  wliich  broke  out  in  Rome,  with  difficulty  escaped  to 
Germany. 
In   Germany  a  great  feud  had  been  raging  since  1166  between 

Henry  the  Lion  and  his  enemies,  the  archbishops  of  Magdeburg  and 

Bremen,     Albert    the  Bear,   Otto  of  Meissen,  etc.     The  emperor  put 

an  end  to  the  strife  at  the  Diet  of  Bamberg  (1168).     Henry  the  Lion 

undertook  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  (1172). 

1174-1177.  Fifth  Expedition.  The  emperor  entered  Lombardy 
over  Mont  Cenis.     He  besieged  Alessandria  in  vain.    Henry 


222  Mediaeval  History.  A.  d. 

the  Lion  deserted  him  and  returned  to  Germany.  Tho  em- 
peror attacked  the  Lombards,  but  in  spite  of  his  heroic  cour- 
age, at  the 

1176.  Battle  of  Legnano,  was  completely  defeated.     Negotiations 

and  armistice  with  Alexander  III.  and  the  Lombard  cities. 

1177.  Reconciliation  between  the  emperor  and  the  Pope  at  Venice. 

1183.  The  definitive  peace  with  the  Lombard  cities  was  concluded 
at  Constance.  The  emperor  renounced  all  regal  privileges 
which  he  had  hitherto  claimed  in  the  towns  ;  acknowledged 
tjie  right  of  the  confederated  cities  to  levy  armies,  to  fortify 
themselves,  and  to  exercise  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction. 
By  the  popular  nomination  the  consuls  acquired  the  rights  of 
imperial  vicars.  The  extension  of  the  confederacy  for  the 
purpose  of  maintaining  these  rights  was  authorized.  The 
cities  agreed  to  maintain  all  just  rights  of  the  emperor,  a 
recognition  of  the  overlordsliip  bi  the  emperor,  which,  how- 
ever, they  were   allowed  to  redeem  by  an  aimual  payment. 

Henry  the  Lion  humbled  in  Germany.  After  his  neglect  to  appear 
at  four  diets,  he  was  put  under  the  ban  of  the  empire  and  his  fiefs 
declared  forfeited  (1180).  He  defended  himself  bravely  and  de- 
•feated  the  archbishop  of  Cologne.  Upon  the  approach  of  the  em- 
peror Henry's  vassals  gradually  deserted  him.  Henry  threw  himself 
at  the  emperor's  feet  in  Erfurt  (1181),  but  was  allowed  to  retain  his 
allodial  estates  only,  Braunschtceig  (^Brunswick}  and  Liinehurg.  Divis- 
ion of  the  old  duchy  of  Saxony.  Part  of  Westphalia  was  given  to 
the  archbishopric  of  Cologne.  Liibeck,  Hamburg,  and  Bremen  became 
in  the  course  of  tune  free  cities,  owing  allegiance  to  the  empire  only. 
The  archbishop  of  Magdeburg  and  Bremen,  the  bishops  of  Halber- 
stadt,  Hildesheim,  Liibeck,  etc.,  the  counts  of  Holstein , and  Oldenburg, 
etc.,  became  immediate  vassals  of  the  empire*. 

Eastern  Saxony  and  the  ducal  title  were  given  to  Bernard  of  As- 
kania,  son  of  Albert  the  Bear.  Otto  of  Wittelsbach  received  Bavaria. 
Henry  the  Lion  was  obliged  to  leave  the  country  for  three  years. 
He  went  to  the  court  of  Henry  II.  of  England,  his  father-in-law. 

1184.  Brilliant  court  festival  at  Mainz. 

1184^1186.  Sixth  expedition  to  Italy  (peaceful).  The  emperor 
gave  his  son  Henry,  who  was  now  twenty-one,  but  had  long 

1186.  been  king  elect  of  Germany,  in  marriage  to  Constance, 
daughter  of  Roger  II.,  aunt  and  heiress  of  William  II.,  the 
last  Norman  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily. 

1190.  Frederic's  crusade  and  death  (p.  215).     His  son.  King  Henry, 

whom  he  left  behind  as  vicegerent,  was  obliged  to  take  the 
field  against  Henry  the  Lion,  who,  upon  the  emperor's  departure,  had 
been  sent  out  of  the  empire  for  another  three  years,  but  had  since  re- 
tiirned  from  England.  The  death  of  William  II.  of  Sicily  in  Nov- 
ember, 1189,  led  Henry  to  come  to  an  understanding  with  Henry  the 
Lion.      In  the  mean  time  came  the  news  of  the  emperor's  death. 

1190-1197.  Henry  VI.,  a  highly  educated  statesman,  but 
stern  and  relentless. 

1191.  First  expedition  to  Italy.    Henry  received  the  imperial  crown  at 


A,  D.  Germany  and  Italy.  223 

Rome,  after  he  had  abandoned  Tuscuhim,  which  had  ever  been 
true  to  his  father,  to  the  Romans.  The  city  was  destroyed  ;  Frascati 
grew  up  near  its  site.  Henry  went  to  Naples  to  rescue  the  inher- 
itance of  his  wife,  Constance,  from  Tancred  of  Lecce,  whom  the  native 
party  in  Palermo  had  elected  king.  Unsuccessful  siege  of  Naples 
for  three  months.  Sickness  in  the  army  compelled  the  emperor  to 
return  to  Germany. 

1192-1194.   New  war  with  Henry  the  Lion,  who  had  not  kept  the  first 
treaty.     The  war  ended  in  a  compromise,  the  conclusion  of 
which  was  assisted  by  the  liberation  of  the  brother-in-law  of  Henry 
the   Lion,  Richard    Coeur-de-Lion   of  England    (p.   216),  and   by  a 
marriage  between  Agnes,  daughter  of  the  emperor's  uncle,  Conrady 
count  palutine  of  the  Rhine,  with  Henry,  son  of  Henry  the  Lion. 
1194.  Second  expedition  to  Italy,  where  Tancred  had  died.     War 
with    his  widow  and  his  son  William.     The  emperor  subju- 
gated   the   kingdom   of    the  two  Sicilies,  and   punished  with 
severity  the  participants  in  a  conspiracy  against  himself. 
1194.  Henry  threatened  with  excommunication  for  withholding  the 
estates  of  Matilda  (p.  200)  from  the  Pope. 

1196.  Diet  at  Wtirzburg.  Henry's  plan  of  making  Germany  (united 
with  the  Sicilies)  an  hereditary  monarchy,  on  condition  that 
all  fiefs  should  become  hereditary,  even  in  the  female  line, 
failed  in  consequence  of  the  resistance  of  the  princes  and  the 
lesser  nobility. 

1197.  Third  expedition  to  Italy.  Henry  suppressed  a  second  con- 
spiracy with  cruel  severity.  In  the  midst  of  his  great  plans 
(conquest  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  Crusade),  he  died  suddenly 
in  Messina,  thirty-two  years  old  (28  Sept.  1197).  Double 
election  in  Germany. 

1198-1208.     Philip   of    Swabia,   youngest   son  of   Frederic 

Barbarossa. 
1198-1215  (1218).     Otto  IV.  of  Brunswick,  son  of  Henry 

the  Lion. 
1198-1215.     War  for  the  crown  between  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen 

and  of  Welf.  Otto  IV.,  recognized  by  Pope  Innocent  III., 
was  defeated  by  Philip  and  his  power  reduced  almost  to  the  limits  of 
Brunswick.  In  the  midst  of  preparations  for  a  last  and  decisive 
combat  Philip  was  assassinated  at  Bamberg  by  the  count  palatine 
Otto  of  Wittelshach.  Otto  IV.  was  universally  recognized  and  crowned 
at  Rome  by  Innocent  III.  (1209),  after  having  abandoned  the  estates 
of  Matilda  to  the  papal  chair  and  made  other  concessions.  He  was 
soon  involved  in  a  quarrel  with  the  Pope,  however,  and  the  latter  put 
forward  his  ward  Frederic,  son  of  Henry  VL,  as  anti-emperor  (1212). 
Otto  IV.,  in  alliance  with  England,  was  defeated  at  Bouvines  (near 
Lille)  by  Philip  II.  Augustus  (1214),  and  returned  to  his  own  do- 
mains. Died  at  the  Harzburg  (May  10,  1218). 
1212-1250.     Frederic  II.  also  king  of  the  two  Sicilies, 

a  prince  of   remarkable  gifts,  but   passionate,  more   Italian 
than  German,  having  been  born  in  Sicily  and  educated  by  his  Italian 


224  MedicBval  History.  A.  D. 

mother.     He  was  an  energetic  opponent  of  the  spiritual  supremacy, 
having  indeed  but  little  liking  for  the  church  ;  in  his  hereditary  estates 
he  favored  the  Saracens. 
1215.     Frederic  went   to  Germany,  was  crowned  German  king  in 

Aachen,  where  he  promised  to  undertake  a  crusade,  and 
1217.  gave  Swabia  to  his  young  son  Henry y  and 
1220.  had  him  elected  king  of  Rome  (the  title  given  to  the  Ger- 
man king  elect).  Frederic  left  Germany  for  fifteen  years.  Expe- 
dition to  Rome.  After  renewing  the  promises  which  he  had  for- 
merly made  to  Pope  Innocent  III.  (feudal  supremacy  of  the 
papal  chair  over  his  hereditary  domain,  which  should  never  be  united 
with  Germany,  crusade),  he  was  crowned  by  Honorius  III.  at  Rome. 
1222.     The  emperor's  son  Henry,  solenmly  cro^vned  king  at  Aachen. 

His  chief  adviser  and  chancellor  was  Engelbert,  archbishop  of 

Cologne  (murdered  1225). 

1225.  Frederic  took  as  his  second  wife,  lolanthe,  daughter  of  John 
of  Brienne,  titulary  king  of  Jerusalem.  Promise  of  a  crusade 
renewed. 

1226.  Diet  at  Cremona  ;  quarrels  with  the  Lombard  cities. 

1227.  The  Crusade  which  had  been  commenced  was  broken  np  by  a 
contagious  disease.  The  successor  of  Pope  Honorius  III.,  the 
octogenarian  Gregory  IX.,  placed  the  emperor  under  the  ban. 

1227.  Battle  of  Bornhovede.  The  Danes,  who  under  Waldemar 
II.  had  extended  their  power  over  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic, 
were  decisively  defeated. 

1228-1229.     Crusade  of  Frederic  II.  (p.  216). 

1229.  Frederic  drove  from  his  dominions  the  papal  (key)  troops, 
who  had  invaded  them. 

1230.  Peace  with  the  Pope  at  S.  Germano.     Removal  of  the  ban. 
1230-1240.     Legislation  of  Frederic  in  his  Sicilian  kingdom. 

Regulation  of  feudal  relations.     Representation  of  the  cities. 
1234.     Revolt  of  the  young  king  Henry,  in  alliance  with  the  lower 

German  nobility  and  the  Lombard  cities,  against  his  father,  sup- 
pressed by  Frederic  with  the  aid  of  the  princes  of  the  empire  and  the 
imperial  cities.  Henry  submitted,  was  kept  in  strict  confinement, 
then  sent  to  Italy,  where  he  died,  1242.  Reconciliation  with  the 
Welfs.  Erection  of  a  new  duchy,  Brunsmck-Lunehurg,  for  Otto  the 
Child.  Third  marriage  of  the  emperor  at  Worms  with  Isabella, 
sister  of  Henry  III.  of  England.  Diet  at  Mainz.  Enactment  of  a 
public  peace  {first  publication  of  a  law  in  German  as  well  as  in 
Latin). 

1236.  Victorious  campaign  against  the  Lombards.  In  Germany 
Frederic  the  Warlike  of  Austria,  a  follower  of  the  rebel  Henry, 
deposed  and  put  under  the  ban. 

1237.  Frederic  11.  in  Vienna,  which  was  proclaimed  an  imperial 
city.  Afterwards  Frederic  the  Warlike  received  Austria  and 
Styria  again. 

1237.     Diet  at  Speier.     Election  and  coronation  of  Conrad,  the  sec- 
ond son  of  the  emperor  as  German  king. 
1237.     Brilliant  victory  of  Frederic  over  the  Lombards  at  Corte- 
Nov.     nuova.     Frederic's   obstinacy  in   pressing   his  demands  too 


A.  D.  Germany  and  Italy,  225 

far,  prevented  ibhe  complete  subjugation  of  Lombardy.     Interference 

of  the  Pope,  who  had  claims  on  Sardinia,  and  was  offended  at  the 

assumption  by  Frederic's   natural  son  Enzio  (an  Italian  corruption 

of  Heinz),  the  husband  of  Adelisay  heiress  of  a  part  of  the  island,  of 

the  title  of  king  of  Sardinia. 

1239-1250.  War  of  Frederic  II.  with  the  Popes  Gregory  IX.  and 
Innocent  IV. 

1239.  Frederic  accused  of  heresy  by  Gregory  and  excommunicated 
anew.     Ancona  conquered  by  Enzio. 

1241.  Kaval  victory  of  Enzio  at  Elba  over  the  Genoese  fleet  which 
was  conveying  some  ecclesiastics  to  the  council  at  Rome.  Death 
of  Gregory.  His  successor,  Innocent  IV.  (1243-1254),  fled  to 
Lyons. 

Germany  threatened  with  a  Mongol  invasion  (p.  240). 
Innocent  IV.  called  a  council  at 

1245.  Lyons,  renewed  the  ban  against  the  emperor,  formally  de- 
posed him,  summoned  the  German  princes  to  a  new  election, 
and  urged  all  subjects  of  the  emperor  to  revolt.  In  Ger- 
many the  spiritual  princes  elected 

1246-1247.  Heinrich  Haspe,  landgrave  of  Thuringia,  who,  though 
at  first  victorious,  was  defeated  by  Conrad,  Frederic's  son, 
at  Ulm,  and  died  (1247)  at  the  Wartburg.  The  house  of 
the  landgraves  of  Thuringia  ending  with  Heinrich  Raspe,  the 
eastern  part  of  that  state  was  jomed  to  the  margravate  of 
Meissen,  while  the  western  part  became  the  landgravate 
Hessen. 

1247-1256.     William  Of  Holland,  second  anti-king,  attained  no 

authority  in  Germany. 
- 1248.     Frederic,  at   first  successful  in   Italy,  was  repulsed  before 
Padua.     His  son  Bnzio  was  captured  by  the  Bolognese  in  the 

1249.  Battle  of  Fossalta  (died  after  an  imprisonment  of  twenty-two 
years  in  a  dungeon). 

Treason  (?)  ot  Peter  of  Vinea  (Vineis),  Frederic's  chancellor. 

1250.  Ftederic  med  in  Fiorentino  in  the  arms  of  his  son  Manfred 
(Dec.  19).     He  was  succeeded  by  his  son. 

1250-1254.  Conrad  IV.  ^  (anti-king :  William  of  Holland) 
fought  since  1252  for  his  hereditary  realm  only,  in  Italy. 

1256.  William  of  Holland  fell  in  battle  with  the  Frisians  (twenty- 
seven  years  old). 

1256-1273.  Interregnum  in  Germany.  Club-law,  Fatts- 
trecht. 

Richard^  Earl  of  Cornwall,  younger  son  of  King  John  (Lack- 
land) of  England,  elected  by  a  part  of  the  princes,  and  crowned  at 
Aachen,  was  recognized  along  the  Rhine  only  (died  1272).  Alphonso 
X.  of  Castile,  grandson  of  Philip  of  Hohenstaufen,  son  of  Frederic 
Barbarossa,  elected  by  the  other  princes,  never  came  to  Germany. 

In  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies  the  brave  Manfred,  son  of 
Frederic  IL,  was  at  first  chancellor  for  the  minor  king  Conradin, 
son  of  Conrad  IV.,  afterwards  (1258)  king.    Charles  ofAnjou,  brother 
15 


226  Mediceval  History.  a.  d. 

of  Louis  IX.  of  France,  to  whom  the  Pope  gave  the  crown,  defeated 
Manfred,  who  was  betrayed  by  his  barons,  at  Beneventum  (1266),  and 
made  himself  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily.     Manfred  fell  on  the  field. 
Conradiu  went  to  Italy  with  Frederic  of  Baden,  also  called  Fred- 
eric of  Austria  (bemg  the  son  of  the  Babenberg  heiress  of  Austria). 
He  was  defeated  between  Scurcola  and  Tagliacozzo  on  Lago  di 
Celano  (1268),  and  executed  at  Naples. 
1282.     Sicilian  vespers,  so  called  because  the  conspiracy  broke 
out  on  Easter  Monday  at  vesper  time.     Slaughter  of  all  the 
French  in  Sicily.     John  of  Procida.     Peter  of  Aragon,  king  of  Sicily, 
Charles  of  Anjoa  limited  to  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

{See  pp.  2U,  262.-) 
§  3.    FRANCE.1  {Seep.  203.) 

The  royal  domain  of  the  Capetians  was  at  first  limited  to  the  duchy 
of  France  {Isle  de  France  and   Orleanais).     The  great  vassals,  who 
were,  in  the  beginning,  almost  independent,  were  gradually  reduced 
to  submission  in  this  and  the  following  period. 
1060-1108.     Philip  I.     Quarrel  with  Gregory  VII.     First  Crusade. 

A  long  reign,  in  which  the  king  accomplished  nothing. 
1108-1137.     Louis  VI.,  the  Fat,  an  able  and  good  king,  who  had, 

moreover,  the  good  sense  to  avail  himself  of  the  talents  of 
Suger,  abbot  of  St.  Denis,  whom  he  made  minister.  Perceptible 
growth  of  the  royal  power.  Marriage  of  the  king's  son,  Louis  {  VII.), 
with  Eleanor,  daughter  of  William  of  Aquitaine,  heiress  of  Poitou, 
Guyenne,  and  GasccHiy. 
1137-1180.     Louis  VIL     Second  Crusade   (p.  215).     Louis  was  a 

weak  king,  a  favorite  with  the  clergy,  whose  reign  was  less 
disastrous  than  might  have  been  expected,  because  of  the  influence  of 
Suger,  who  administered  the  kingdom  during  Louis'  absence  in  the 
East.  After  his  return  Louis  obtained  a  divorce  from  Eleanor,  who 
married  Henry  of  Anjou,  conveying  to  this  prince,  who  soon  became 
king  of  England,  Poitou,  Guyenne  and  Gascony,  for  which 
Henry  did  homage  to  Louis.  In  this  transfer  lay  one  germ  of  the 
hundred  years'  war. 

1180-1223.  Philip  IL,  Augustus, 

one  of  the  ablest  of  the  kings  of  France  ;  unscrupulous,  cold, 
but  of  great  political  sagacity.  (Third)  Crusade  with  Richard  Cceur- 
de-Lion.  After  Philip's  return  in  1190  he  attacked  Normandy,  but 
made  little  headway  during  the  lifetime  of  Richard.  (Erection  of  the 
Chateau  Gaillard  by  Richard,  on  the  Seine,  above  Rouen.) 

After  Richard's  death  (1199)  Philip  took  up  the  claims  of  Arthur, 
son  of  Richard's  brother  Geoffrey,  who  had  been  passed  over  in  Nor- 
mandy in  favor  of  Richard's  younger  brother  John,  but  he  was  hin- 
dered from  prosecuting  them  by  his  quarrel  with  Innocent  III.  in 
relation  to  the  divorce  which  Philip  had  secured  from  his  wife, 
Ingehorg  of  Denmark,  in  order  that  he  might  marry  Agnes  of  Meran. 
Submission  of  Philip  (1200). 

After  the  death  of  Arthur  (1203)  Pliilip  moved  upon  Normandy 

1  Kitchin,  Histoty  of  France. 


( 


A.    D. 


France.  227 


anew.  Rejection  of  the  Pope's  claim  to  arbitrate  between  the  kings. 
The  fall  of  the  Chateau  Gaillard  was  followed  by  the  submission  of 
Normandy  (1204).  John  having  refused  to  obey  the  summons  of 
Philip  to  appear  for  trial  on  account  of  the  murder  of  Arthur,  Philip 
declared  his  fiefs  forfeited. 

Crusade  against  the  Albigenses,  Waldenses  and  Cathari,  rationalist 
sects  protected  by  Raymond,  count  of  Toulouse,  and  the  viscount  of 
Beziers  and  Carcassonne  (1207-1244).  Storm  of  Beziers  (1207.  "  Slay 
all,  God  will  know  his  own.").  Conquest  of  the  county  of  Toulouse 
by  Simon  of  Montfort  (1211-1215).  Death  of  Simon  at  the  siege  of 
revolted  Toulouse  (1218). 

War  in  Flanders  with  the  feudal  lords,  supported  by  John  of  Eng- 
land and  Otto  of  Germany.  Philip,  assisted  by  the  cities,  victorious  in 
the 

1214.     Battle  of  Bouvines  : 
Aug.  29.     Unsuccessful  expedition  of  Philip's  son  Louis  to  England 

(1216). 
1223-1226.    Louis  Vm.    New  crusade  against  the  count  of  Tou- 
louse, whose  lands  had  been  declared  forfeit. 
1229.  Establishment  of  the  Inquisition  as  a  regular  tribunal  by  Pope 
Gregory  IX.,  inquisitors  having  existed  since  1203  under  In- 
nocent III. 
1226-1270.    Louis  IX.,  St.  Louis. 

During  the  king's  minority  regency  of  his  mother  Blanche,  who 
repressed  a  revolt  of  the  barons.  The  war  with  the  Albigenses  ended 
by  the  extermination  of  the  sect  (1244).  (Sixth)  Crusade  of  St.  Louis 
(p.  217).  Blanche  regent  during  his  absence.  After  the  king's  re- 
turn, 1254,  wise  government.  Surrender  of  Perigord,  the  Limousin 
and  southern  Saintonge  to  Henry  of  England,  whereupon  Henry  re- 
nounced his  claim  to  Normandy,  Anjou,  Maine,  Touraine,  Poitou, 
northern  Saintonge.  Prohibition  of  wager  of  battle.  Limitation  of 
feudal  jurisdiction.  Establishment  of  right  of  appeal  to  the  king 
from  the  feudal  courts  in  all  cases.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  attrib- 
ated  to  St.  Louis  is  probably  a  forgery,  but  Louis'  attitude  toward 
Rome  was  one  of  assertion  of  all  regal  rights. 

During  this  reign  the  domain  of  the  crown  received  the  following 
additions  :  The  part  of  the  county  of  Toulouse  between  the  Rhone, 
the  sea  and  the  Pyrenees  (1229),  Chartres,  Blois,  Sancerre,  ceded  by 
Theobald  of  Champagne  and  Navarre  (1234)  ;  Macon,  by  purchase 
(1239)  ;  Perche  (1257) ;  Aries,  Forcalquier,  Foix  and  Cah&rs  (1262). 
Second  (seventh)  Crusade  and  death  of  St.  Louis  (1270). 

(^Seep.25^.) 


228  Medicevul  History,  A.  d 

ENGLISH  SOVEREIGNS  FROM  ECGBERHT  TO  HENRY  ILL 
ANGLO-SAXON. 


Ecgberht. 
802-837. 


.ffitlielwulf= 

837-858. 


Charles  the  Bald. 
Emperor. 


FliANDERa 


=  (1)  Judith,  who 

afterwards  m. 
(2)  iEthelbald.  (3): 

1 


r  i  I 

^thelbald. -ffithelberht.  -fflthelred   Alfred. 
858-860.  860-866.        866-871.     871-901. 


-  Baldwin  I 
1     t879. 


Baldwin  II. 
1918. 


NORMANDY. 


Eadward 

the  Eider.  901-925. 

I 


1  son,  2  dau.        .ffilfthryth  = 


I  I  I 

.^thelstan.  Eadmund.  Eadred. 

925-940.        940-946.        946-955. 


Rollo. 

"William 
Longsword. 


I 
Eadwig.  955-959. 


Eadgar.  959-975. 
I 


Richard 
the  Fearless. 

I 


Eadward  the  Martyr. 
975-978. 
1 


^thelred  II.=2  Emma.  Richard 
978-1016.  the  Good. 


God  wine 
Earl  of  Mercia. 

I 


Eadmund 

Ironsides. 
1016. 

Eadward 

J 

Eadgar  Mihoimg.  Margaret 


Arnulf  I. 

t  965. 

I 

Baldwin  (III.) 

t  962. 


Amulf  II. 

t  988. 

I 

Baldwin  IV. 

t  1036. 


Baldwin  V. 


I  I  Eadward         Robert 

Harold.   Eadgy th  =  the  Confessor,  the  Magnificent  f  1067. 
1066.  1042-1066.         or  the  Devil.  I 

I 


"William  the  Conqueror  =  Matilda. 
1066-1087. 


Eadgar 
king  of  Scots. 


:  Malcolm 
king  of  Scots. 


Robert.    "William  Ruf  us.  Henry  I.     Adela 
1087-1100.        1100-1135.  m.Stephen 
Matilda—  •      c.  of  Bloia 

I  I 

Matilda  =  Geoffrey  of  Anjou,       Stephen 
I      Plantagenet.  1135-1154. 

Henry  II.  1154-1189. 

I 


Henry.      Richard      Geoffrey. 
Coeur-de-Lion.  | 

1189-1199.         Arthur, 
t  1203. 


John  Lackland. 
1199-1216 
I 
Henry  III.  1216-1272. 


ll 


A.  D.  England. 


§4.    ENGLAND.  {Seep.»06.) 

1066-1154.    Norman  kings.^ 
1066-1087.     William  I.,  the  Conqueror, 

completed  the  subjection  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  who  were  robbed 
of  their  estates  and  terribly  ill-treated.  Two  nationalities  and  two 
languages  existed  for  a  long  time  side  by  side  in  England,  English,  or 
Anglo-Saxon,  and  French.  The  king  and  the  nobility  were  French 
Normans  or  Frenchmen. 

The  submission  of  1066  was  partial,  Mercia  and  Northumbria  re- 
maining aloof. 

1068.  Revolt  in  the  north,  incited  and  aided  by  a  Danish  fleet  under 
Swegen.     Returning  from  Normandy  William  bought  off  the 
Danes,  and  crushed  the  insurgents  by  a  masterly  winter  campaign. 
Northumberland  ravaged  with  fire  and  sword. 

1071.  Revolt  of  the  English  under  Eadwin  and  Morkere,  which  ended 
with  the  defeat  and  death  of  Eadwin,  and  the  capture  of  Ely 
in  the  fens  where  Morkere  had  taken  refuge  with  the  outlaw  Here- 
ward, 

1075-76.  Rebellion  of  the  Norman  barons  in  England  easily  crushed. 
Revolt  of  the  conqueror's  son  Robert  in  Normandy  (1077-1080). 
Imprisonment  of  William's  brother,  Odo,  bishop  of  Bayeux,  for  trouble- 
some and  intriguing  conduct.  A  threatened  invasion  from  Norway 
and  Denmark  averted,  1085.  William  met  his  death  by  accident 
while  engaged  in  a  struggle  with  Philip  of  France  about  the  Vexin 
(Sept.  9,  1087).     After  the  revolt  of 

1071.  the  four  large  earldoms  were  abolished,  and  the  shire  became 
the  largest  political  division.  SheriJBPs  appointed  by  the  king 
in  each  shire.  William  introduced  feudalism  in  its  continental 
form,  placing  Norman  barons  over  the  lands  of  the  English  nobility, 
who  gradually  sank  to  the  position  of  a  middle  class.  In  1086  the 
power  of  the  barons  was  weakened  by  the  exaction  of  an  oath  of 
fealty  from  all  under  tenants  to  the  king  direct.  The  same  year 
saw  the  completion  of  the  great  survey  whose  results  were  inscribed 
in  the  Domesday  Book,  an  inventory  of  all  lands  "burthened 
with  special  dues  to  the  crown."  The  lower  local  courts  were  pre- 
served, but  their  subordination  to  the  king's  court  was  strongly  in- 
sisted on. 

William  reformed  and  reorganized  the  English  Church,  assisted  by 
Lanfrano,  abbot  of  St.  Stephen  at  Caen,  whom  he  appointed  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  Homage  to  the  Pope,  however,  William  ex- 
pressly refused  to  render.  He  kept  the  appointment  of  bishops  in 
his  own  hands.  No  papal  letter  could  be  received,  no  papal  synod 
held  in  England,  no  English  bishop  appeal  to  Rome  without  the  king's 
consent. 

1  AuKustin  Thierry,  Histoire  de  la  conquetede  V  Angleterre.  dreen,  Hif 
iory  of  the  English  People. 


230  Mediceval  History.  A.  d. 

1087-1100.     WiUiam  II.,  the  Red, 

second  son  of  William  I.  obtained  the  English  crown,  while 
Robert,  the  eldest  son,  succeeded  in  Normandy.  A  revolt  of  the  Nor- 
man barons  in  favor  of  Robert  was  suppressed  by  help  of  the  English 
in  1090.  Death  of  Lanfranc,  1089.  Ascendency  of  Ranulf  Flambard. 
Extortions  of  William.  Formation  of  the  New  Forest. 
1093.  Anselm,  abbot  of  Bee,  appointed  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
He  was  soon  involved  in  a  quarrel  with  the  king  on  the  ques- 
tion of  investitures  and  on  other  matters.  In  1097  Anselm  appealed 
to  Rome  and  left  England. 

1097.     Edgar,  son  of  Margaret  (sister  of  Eadgar  Aetheling),  ob- 
tained the  Scottish  crown,  thus  closing  the  civil  war  in  Scotland 
between  the  Celtic  and  English  parties.     William  was  found  dead  in 
the  New  Forest,  Aug.  2,  1100  (murdered  ?). 

1100-1135.     Henry  I.,  Beauclerc, 

on  learning  of  the  death  of  William  II.,  hastened  to  England 
and  secured  the  crown  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  those  barons  who 
pressed  the  claim  of  Robert  of  Normandy,  then  returning  from  the 
Crusade.  Issue  of  a  charter,  wherein  the  exactions  and  abuses  of 
William  the  Red  were  prohibited  and  the  "  Law  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor "  restored. 

Henry  married  Matilda,  daughter  of  Malcolm  of  Scotland,  and 
Margaret,  sister  of  Eadgar  Aetheling.  Recall  of  Anselm. 
1101.  Invasion  of  Robert  of  Normandy,  with  the  connivance  of  many 
of  the  Norman  barons  on  both  sides  of  the  Channel,  ended  by 
treaty  without  a  battle.  Punishment  of  the  rebel  barons.  Robert  of 
Belesme,  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  driven  from  England.  In  1104  Henry 
invaded  Normandy.  Robert  was  defeated  at  the 
1106.  Battle  of  Tinchebrai  and  kept  in  captivity  until  his  death 
(1134).     Henry  took  poss:ssion  of  Normandy. 

Quarrel  with  Anselm  in  regard  to  investitures,  ending,  after  the 
exile  and  return  of  Anselm,  in  a  compromise  (1106).  Introduction 
of  the  Cistercians  in  England.  Suppression  of  the  great  feudatories 
and  substitution  of  a  class  of  lesser  nobles.  Death  of  Henry's  son 
William  by  the  smking  of  the  "  White  Ship  "  in  the  Channel  (1120). 
Marriage  of  Henry's  daughter  Matilda  to  Geoffrey,  son  of  Fulk  the 
Black,  count  of  Anjou  (1128).  Normandy  and  Maine  definitely  S3- 
cured  by  Henry.     Henry  died  1135. 

1135-1154.     Stephen  of  Blois, 

son  of  Adela,  daughter  of  William  I.,  and  the  count  of  Blois, 
seized  the  crown  in  defiance  of  the  rights  of  Matilda  and  her  son 
Henry,  and  was  elected  at  London  principally  by  the  citizens.  Char- 
ter of  Oxford  (1136).  (Second)  invasion  of  the  Scots  repulsed  in 
the 

1138.     Battle  of  the  Standard, 

at  Cowton  Moor  in  Yorkshire.  Arrest  of  Roger  of  Salisbury 
and  the  bishop  of  Lincoln  (1139).     In  the  same  year  Matilda  landed 


I 


A.  D.  England.  231 

in  England.  Stephen  defeated  and  captured  at  the  hattle  of  Lincoln 
(1141).  Matilda  was  elected  Lady  of  England  by  the  clergy.  Her 
severe  and  impolitic  government  soon  alienated  her  followers.  Fin- 
ally Stephen,  having  been  exchanged,  took  up  the  war  again,  which 
went  on  with  varying  success  until  1147  when  Robert  of  Gloucester  died 
and  Matilda  left  England.  In  1153  Henry  of  Anjou  landed  in  Eng- 
land to  make  good  his  claim.  Without  a  battle  an  understanding  was 
reached  and  Henry  was  recognized  as  the  heir  of  the  crown  (Treaty 
of  Wallingford  1153). 

The  reign  of  Stephen  was  one  of  the  darkest  periods  in  English 
history.  His  weakness,  and  the  confusion  of  civil  war  had  given 
the  feudal  nobles  full  liberty.  Castles  were  erected  in  great  num- 
bers throughout  England,  and  each  was  the  home  of  oppression  and 
cruelty.     Stephen  died  1154. 

1154-1399.     House  of  Anjou  (Plantagenet)^  in  the  di- 
rect line. 

1154-1189.     Henry  H. 

Outside  of  England  Henry  possessed  :  1.  Normandy  and  the 
suzerainty  over  Brittany,  as  the  heir  of  the  Norman  kings.  2. 
Anjou  and  Maine,  inherited  from  his  father.  3.  Poitou,  Guyenne 
and  Gascony,  acquired  by  marriage  with  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine 
(1152)  ;  in  all  more  than  half  of  France. 

The  reign  of  Henry  is  the  period  of  full  amalgamation  of  the  Eng- 
lish and  the  Normans. 

The  accession  of  Henry  (at  21  years  of  age)  was  welcomed  as  the 
beginning  of  a  better  time.  Banishment  of  the  mercenaries  main- 
tained by  Stephen.  Demolition  of  the  castles.  Resumption  and  res- 
toration of  estates,  which  was  attended  with  difficulty,  some  of  the 
new  nobles  requiring  to  be  dislodged  by  force. 
1158.     First  Welsh  war  not  successful. 

1162.  Thomas  Becket,  the  chancellor,  made  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury.   Reestablishment  of  the  exchequer^  a. bureau  for  assessing 

and  collecting  the  taxes.  Introduction  of  scutage,  a  commutation  in 
money  for  personal  service  in  the  army  permitted  to  the  lower  ten- 
ants. 

1163.  Second  Welsh  war. 

As  chancellor,  Becket  had  been  the  king's  servant  and  friend  ;  as 
archbishop,  he  became  at  once  his  opponent,  resistmg  his  wishes  even 
in  financial  matters  ;  an  opposition  which  seems  to  have  led  to  the 
abolition  of  danegeld  (p.  205).  Becket  bitterly  opposed  the  king's 
reform  of  the  ecclesiastical  law  relating  to  the  punishment  of  eccle- 
siastics for  criminal  offenses.  Henry  demanded  that  after  ecclesias- 
tical punishment  had  been  administered  the  offender  should  be  handed 
over  to  receive  the  punishment  of  the  civil  law.  The  wishes  of  the 
king  in  this  respect  and  on  other  points  involving  church  and  state 
were  formulated  in  the 

1  So  called  from  the  bit  of  broom  (ffenet)  wh\ch.  Geoffrey  of  Anjou,  son  of  king 
Fulk  of  Jerusalem  (p.  230),  was  wont  to  wear  in  his  helm. 


232  Mediaeval  History.  a.  d. 

1164.  Constitutions  of  Clarendon. 

The  jurisdiction  of  secular  courts  over  clerical  offenders  was 
affirmed,  appeal  to  Rome  in  such  cases  was  prohibited,  the  election 
of  bishops  in  the  presence  of  royal  officers,  and  with  the  king's  con- 
sent, was  insisted  on,  as  was  the  investiture  of  the  bishop  or  abbot 
elect  with  liis  secular  lands  by  the  king.  At  first  Becket  accepted 
the  constitutions  ;  but  afterwards  he  withdrew  his  acceptance  and 
appealed  to  Rome.  Brought  to  trial  and  condemned  on  some  mat- 
ters comiected  with  his  chancellorship,  Becket  fled  to  France. 

1165.  Third  Welsh  war. 

1166.  Assize    of    Clarendon.     Reestablishment  of  Frank-pledge, 
or  mutual  responsibility  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  village.     In 

each  shire  criminals  were  to  be  presented  by  twelve  men  from  the 
shire  and  four  from  each  town  (grand  jury) ;  abolition  of  compurgation 
(proof  of  iimocence  by  oath  of  neighbors)  for  which  the  ordeal  or 
judgment  of  God  was  substituted. 

1170.  Henry  mider  threat  of   interdict  was  reconciled  with  Beckety 
who  returned  to  England.     He  soon  became  embroiled  with 

the  king,  and  was  murdered  by  four  knights  of  Henry's  court,  in 
consequence  of  Henry's  passionate  outbreak  against  him  (December 
29,  1170). 

Establishment  of  itinerant   or  circuit  judges.      Court  of  appeal, 
afterwards  the  great  and  privy  council. 

1171.  Expedition  of  Heiu^y  to  Ireland.     A  bull  of  Adrian  IV.  in 
1157  had  given  this  country  to  Henry,  but  no  use  had  been 

made  of  the  authority  until  Dermod,  king  of  Leinster,  fled  to  Henry, 
did  him  homage,  and  sought  aid  in  his  wars.  Aid  was  sent  in  1169, 
and  in  1171  Henry  went  in  person.  Richard  of  Clare  (Strongbow), 
son-in-law  of  Dermod,  made  earl  of  Leinster.  The  southeastern  part 
of  Ireland  submitted  to  Henry. 

1172.  Absolution  of  Henry.     Penance  at  Becket's  tomb,  1174. 

1173.  Rebellion  of  Henry's  eldest  son  Henry,  and  general  league  of 
French  and  English   lords,  Louis  VII.  and  WiUiam  the  Lion 

of  Scotland  against  the  king.      Defeat  of  Louis.     Capture  of    William 
who  was  released  only  after   acknowledging  Henry  as  his  suzerain 
(1175).     Death  of  Henry  the  younger,  1183. 
1181.   Assize  of  arms.     Restoration  of  militia  service. 
1189.    Conspiracy  of  Henry's  sons,  Richard  and  John,  with  Philip  of 
France.     Humiliation  and  death  of  Henry  II. 

1189-1199.    Richard  I.,  Cceur-derLion. 

His  reign  was  passed  almost  entirely  away  from  England, 
Crusade  (p.  215).  On  his  return  Richard  was  captured  by  Leopold 
of  Austria,  delivered  to  the  emperor,  and  detained  thirteen  months  in 
captivity,  being  released  at  last  for  a  heavy  ransom.  During  his 
absence  Eleanor,  his  mother,  was  regent.  Persecution  of  the  Jews. 
The  intrigues  of  Philip  of  France  and  the  king's  brother  John 
resulted  in  war  in  England,  which  was  quickly  suppressed  after  the 
return  of  Richard  (1194).  For  the  rest  of  his  reign  Richard  was  in 
France  at  war  with  Philip.  Erection  of  the  Chateau  Gaillard  on  the 
Seine.     Death  of  Richard  before  the  castle  of  Chalus-Chabrol  (1199>, 


A.  D.  England.  233 

During  his  absence  England  was  governed  by  Hubert  Walter,  and 
after  his  resignation  in  consequence  of  a  refusal  of  money  by  the 
great  council,  by  Geoffrey  Fitz  Peter. 

1199-1216.     John  Lackland. 

John  was  recognized  in  England  without  opposition  and  secured 
Normandy,  but  Anjou,  Maine  and  Touraine  acknowledged  the  claim 
of  Arthur  son  of  Geoffrey. 
1203.    Death  of  Arthur  while  in  John's  power.     Philip  at  once  secured 

the  sentence  of  John  and  the  forfeiture  of  his  fiefs.  Nor-^ 
mandy,  Anjou,  Maine,  Touraine  and  a  part  of  Aquitaine  were  at  one* 
lost  to  John.  Henceforward  John  was  restricted  to  his  English  king, 
dom.  The  death  of  Hubert  Walter,  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1205) 
was  followed  by  a  disputed  election.  A  reference  to  Rome  resulted 
ill  the  election  of  Stephen  Langton  by  command  of  Innocent  III, 
(1207).  John  refused  to  receive  him  and  the  kingdom  was  visited 
with  an  interdict  (1208).  Moved  by  fear  of  deposition,  John  finally 
yielded,  received  Langton,  and  accepted  his  kingdom  as  a  fief  of 
the  papacy  (1213). 

John's  exactions  and  misgovernment  had  embroiled  him  with  the 
barons  since  1199.  Refusal  of  the  barons  to  follow  John  to  France 
(1213). 

1214.  Defeat  of  John  at  Bouvines  in  Flanders  (p.  227).     On  John's 
return  negotiations  were  opened  with  the  barons,  but  failed, 

and  the  confederated  lords  occupied  London. 

121 5.  Magna  Charta  granted  by  John  at  Runnymede. 
June        The  provisions  of  this  charter  applied  to  the  commons 

15-23.  as  well  as  to  the  nobles  and  clergy,  and  directed  that 
its  benefits  should  reach  the  lower  tenants.^  Principal 
provisions  :  1.  Ratification  of  Henry's  charter.  2.  Security 
for  personal  freedom ;  no  freeman  should  '•  be  taken, 
imprisoned  or  damaged  in  person  or  estate,  but  by 
the  judgmant  of  his  paers  '  or  *'  by  the  law  of  the 
land  "  (Art.  39)."^  3.  Regulution  of  feudal  dues  and  obligations. 
4.  Regulation  of  national  taxation  ;  limitation  of  the  aid  {aux- 
iliiim)  which  could  be  colle(;ted  without  the  consent  of  the  great 
council  to  the  three  ancient  and  well  known  cases  (ransom  of 
the  lord ;  knighting  of  his  eldest  son  ;  marriage  of  his  eldest 
daughter).  5.  Specification  of  members  of  the  great  council, 
and  of  the  cases  for  which,  and  manner  in  which  it  should  be 
convened. 

The  charter  declared  null  and  void  by  the  Pope.  Suspension  of 
Langton.  War  soon  broke  out  ;  the  French  party  among  the  barons, 
declaring  the  crown  forfeited,  bestowed  it  upon  Louis,  son  of  Philip 

1  Stubbs,  Early  Plantogenets,  149. 

2  Xullus  liber  homo  capiatur  vel  imprisonetur  aut  dissaisiatur  aut  utlaghetur 
aut  exuletur  aut  aliquo  modo  destruatur,  nee  super  eum  ibimus,  nee  super  eum 
mittemus,  nisi  per  legale  judicium  pariura  suorum  vel  per  legem  terras. 


234  Mediceval  History.  A.  D. 

of  France,  who  in  1216  came  to  England.     Death  of  John  (October 
19, 1216). 

1216-1272.    Henry  III.,  of  Winchester,  son  of  John. 

The  death  of  John  was  fatal  to  the  hopes  of  Louis.  The 
English  party  which  secured  the  coronation  of  the  nine-year  old 
Henry,  though  small  at  first  soon  outnumbered  the  French.  The  de- 
feat of  the  French  fleet  off  Tkanet  determined  Louis  to  give  up  the 
contest  and  return  to  France.  Regency  of  William  Marshall  (1216- 
1219).  The  Magna  Charta  was  twice  reissued  in  a  modified  form. 
After  the  death  of  William  Marshall,  England  was  governed  by 
Peter  des  Roches,  Pandulf,  the  papal  legate,  Hubert  de  Burgh,  the 
justiciary,  and  archbishop  Langton,  who  had  returned  and  soon  super- 
seded Pandulf  as  legate  (1221).  Second  coronation  (1220).  Third 
reissue  of  the  charter  (1223).  Henry's  personal  government  began 
in  1227,  and  soon  involved  the  country  in  difficulties.  Heavy  taxa- 
tion necessitated  by  the  demands  of  the  Pope  and  by  the  foreign 
policy  of  the  king.  Fall  of  Hubert  de  Burgh  (1232)  ;  of  Peter  des 
Roches  (1234).     Marriage  of  Henry  to  Eleanor  of  Provence  (1236). 

Struggle  over  the  money  grants  in  the  great  council,  which  hence- 
forward was  called  Parliament.  Papal  exactions  of  enormous  sums 
of  money. 

Of  the  French  possessions  of  the  Angevines  Henry  had  retained 
only  Aquitaine  and  Gascony. 

1253.  Return  of  Simon  of  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester  (son  of 
Simon  of  Montfort,  who  had  led  the  crusade  against  the  Albi- 
genses),  to  England  from  the  government  of  Gascony.  Simon  soon 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  parliamentary  struggle  which  now  as- 
sumed formidable  proportions. 

1258.  Parliament  of  Oxford.  The  barons  presented  a  list  of  griev- 
ances, the  Provisions  of  Oxford,  the  reforms  demanded  in 
which  were  to  be  carried  out  under  a  commission  of  twenty-four 
barons.  Permanent  council  of  fifteen  barons  to  meet  three  times  a 
year. 

1263.  Outbreak  of  war  between  the  king  and  the  barons.     Arbitra- 
tion of  Louis  IX.  of  France   (1264).     Provisions  of  Oxford 

annulled.     This  decision  resulted  in  a  renewal  of  the  war.     The  king 
and  his  son  Edward  were  defeated  in  the 

1264.  Battle  of  Lewes. 

May  14.  Treaty  {Mise  of  Lewes)  between  the  parties.     Native  coun- 
selors presented  and  a  new  council  arranged  by  a  parlia- 
ment in  which  four  knights  from  each  shiro  were  added  to  the 
clergy  and  nobility.     Council  of  Nine. 

1265.  Parliament  of  Simon  of  Montfort,  the  first  Parliament 
Jan,  20.    to  which  representatives  of  the  boroughs  were  called  (yet 

this  did  not  become  a  legal  custom  until  in  the  next  reign). 
Edward  released.     Arms  were  again  taken  up.     In  the 
1265.     Battle  of  Evesham, 

Aug.  4.   Earl  Simon  was  defeated  and  fell  on  the  field.     Death  of 
Henry  (Nov.  16,  1272). 
In  this  reign  the  begging  friars  came  to  England.     Revival  of 


A.  D.  The  NoHh,  235 

scholasticism.  Fame  of  Oxford.  Roger  Bacon,  author  of  Opus 
Magnum,  "the  encyclopaedia  of  the  thirteenth  century."  Mathew 
Paris.  Revival  of  Welsh  literatui-e.  Mabinogion.  Geoffrey  of  Mori- 
mouth.     Romances  of  Arthur.  rsee  p.  263.) 

§  5.    THE  NORTH. 

Denmark.  {Seep.  208.) 

1134^1397. 

The  extinction  of  the  direct  line  of  Estridsen  (p.  208)  was  followed 
by  a  period  of  confusion  and  wars  over  the  succession  {Erik  Emun, 
1134-1137,  Erik  Lamb,  1137-1147)  until, 
1157-1182.   Waldemar  I.,  <Ae  GVea^ 

was  elected  to  the  throne.     Subjugation  of  the  Wends,  who 
had  long  harassed  Denmark.     Capture  of  Ancona  on  the  island  of 
Rugen.    Suppression  of  a  revolt  in  Skaania,  caused  by  the  severity  of 
bishop  Absalon.     Waldemar's  son 
1182-1202.  KnutVI. 

was  even  more  successful  than  his  father,  and  refused  to 
acknowledge  the  suzerainty  of  the  emperor,  Frederic  Barbarossa,  as 
Waldemar  had  done.  Defeat  of  a  naval  expedition  of  the  Wends, 
who  received  aid  from  the  emperor,  by  bishop  Absalon  (1184)  ; 
Hither  Pommerania  submitted,  as  did  a  part  of  Mecklenburg.  Knut, 
"  King  of  the  Slavs."  Expedition  to  Esthonia.  War  with  the  count 
of  Holstein  and  other  German  princes.  Conquest  of  Liibeck  and  Ham- 
burg. Capture  of  Adolf  of  Holstein.  Quarrel  with  Philip  Augustus 
of  France  over  his  treatment  of  Ingebord  (p.  226) c  Knut  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother, 
1202-1241.    "Waldemar  II.,  the  Conqueror, 

the  first  portion  of  whose  reign  forms  one  of  the  most  bril- 
liant epochs  of  Danish  history.  Adolf  of  Holstein  released  on  condi- 
tion of  ceding  all  Holstein  to  Waldemar,  who  granted  it  as  a  fief  to 
his  nephew,  Albert  of  Orlamund.  Unsuccessful  interference  in  Nor- 
way and  Sweden.  Conquest  of  Oesel  and  of  a  large  part  of  Prussia. 
In  return  for  his  recognition  of  Frederic  II.  over  his  rivals  as  em- 
peror, Waldemar  obtained  a  cession  of  all  conquests  in  Germany, 
north  of  the  Elbe  and  the  Elde  {Holstein,  Lauenburg,  part  of  Meck- 
lenburg). Expedition  to  Esthonia.  The  Danneborg,  or  national 
standard  (1219).  Waldemar's  power  fell  more  rapidly  than  it  was 
acquired.  In  1223  the  king  and  his  son  were  treacherously  captured 
by  Henry,  count  of  Schwerin,  and  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Danne- 
borg, in  Hanover,  for  three  years.  Waldemar  obtained  his  release  by 
the  payment  of  a  heavy  ransom,  and  the  renunciation  of  all  his  con- 
quests south  of  the  Elbe,  and  in  the  Slavic  countries.  Holstein 
ceded  to  Adolf  the  Young  (1225).  This  renunciation  was  annulled  by 
the  Pope,  and  Waldemar  tried  to  regain  Holstein,  but  was  defeated 
in  the  battle  of  Bornhceved  (1227).  The  rest  of  his  reign  was 
passed  for  the  most  part  in  peace.     He  died  in  1241.     Of  all  his  con- 


236  Mediceval  History.  A.  T>, 

quests  only  Rugen,  some  places  in  Mecklenburg,  Prussia,  Estho- 
nia,  remained  to  Denmark.  Waldemar's  code  of  laws.  Waldemar 
was  twice  married  :  1.  Margrete  of  Bohemia,  a  well-beloved  princess 
(Dagmar).  2.  Berengaria  of  Portugal,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons 
who  mounted  the  throne  in  succession.  Waldemar  committed  the 
political  blimder  of  dividing  the  kingdom  among  his  sons  so  that  the 
nominal  king  possessed  only  a  small  part  of  the  monarchy  ;  Schleswig 
was  conferred  on  Abel.  This  led  to  disputes,  so  that  the  following 
period  was  one  of  civil  strife,  wars  of  succession,  murder,  and  exile 
of  khigs.  Enk  (1241-1250).  Abel  (1250-1252).  In  this  reign  the 
towns  began  to  send  representatives  to  the  council  {Danehof). 
Christopher  (1252-1259).  War  about  Schlestdg,  the  king  claiming 
that  it  had  been  granted  to  Abel  as  a  personal  fief,  while  the  descen- 
dants of  Abel  declared  that  it  was  an  hereditary  fief.  Conflict  with 
the  archbishop  Jacob  Erlandsen.  Erik  Glipping  (1259-1286).  Oc- 
cupation of  Schlesivig.  Erik  Menved  (1286-1319).  Regency  of  the 
queen  mother.  Miserable  condition  of  Denmark.  The  larger  part 
of  the  kingdom  granted  out  to  Danish  and  German  nobles.  Chris- 
topher II.  (132(>-1334).  The  nobles  and  clergy  extorted  from  the 
king  certain  capitulations,  which  materially  weakened  the  power  of 
the  crown  for  340  years.  Confirmation  of  privileges  of  the  clergy. 
No  ecclesiastic  could  be  tried  in  a  secular  court,  neither  could  the 
tenants  of  ecclesiastical  foundations.  No  bishop  could  be  imprisoned 
without  the  consent  of  the  Pope.  The  property  and  persons  of  the 
clergy  were  free  from  all  taxation.  The  nobles  could  not  be  com- 
pelled to  follow  the  king  beyond  the  limits  of  the  kingdom  ;  if  they 
were  captured  in  war  the  crown  was  obliged  to  ransom  them  within  a 
year,  or  lose  the  right  of  holdmg  them  to  military  service.  The  king 
could  declare  war  only  with  the  consent  of  the  nobles  and  clergy. 
No  person  could  be  imprisoned  without  having  been  tried  and  con- 
denmed  in  a  local  court  and  in .  the  king's  court,  whence  an  appeal 
lay  to  the  national  Diet.  Laws  could  be  made,  repealed,  and  amended, 
only  upon  the  motion  of  the  nobles  in  the  annual  Diet,  and  with  the 
consent  of  the  whole  nation.  Peasants  must  not  be  unjustly  treated 
by  the  king's  agents,  nor  compelled  to  carry  the  king's  baggage  be- 
yond their  own  township.  Commerce  should  be  free  and  not  bur- 
dened with  extraordinary  dues.  War  with  Geert,  count  of  Holstein, 
who  invaded  the  kingdom,  and  with  the  aid  of  discontented  nobles 
drove  Christopher  from  the  kingdom.  Election  of  Waldemar,  duke  of 
Schlesivig;  soon  after,  Christopher,  by  great  concessions,  acquired  the 
crown  again.  Eight  years  of  anarchy  (1332-1340).  Skaania,  Hal- 
land,  Bleking  attached  themselves  to  Sweden.  After  the  death  of 
Geert,  the  youngest  son  of  Christopher, 

1340-1375.  "Waldemar  HI.,  Attadag, 

was  made  king,  and  devoted  himself  to  acquiring,  by  pur- 
chase or  by  force,  the  alienated  crown  lands,  in  which  he  met  with 
success.  In  1359  Waldemar  regained  Skaania,  Halland,  and 
Bleking  from  the  Swedish  king,  Magnus  Smek,  and  affianced  his 
daughter  Margaret  to  Hakon,  son  of  the  Swedish  king.  Denmark 
restored  to  her  boimdaries  as  they  had  been  under   Waldemar  I. 


A.  D.  The  North.  237 

This  success  was  followed  by  a  general  war  with  Sioeden,  Mecklen- 
burg, the  Hanseatic  League,  etc.,  which  in  spite  of  the  sack  of  Copen- 
hagen ended  disadvantageously  for  the  Hanse  towns,  1363.  In  1368, 
however,  the  Hansa,  in  alliance  with  Holstein,  Mecklenburg,  and 
Sweden,  began  war  again,  and  in  1370  obtained  from  the  Danish  es- 
tates a  treaty  which  secured  for  them  the  most  extensive  commercial 
privileges.  In  1372  Waldemar  accepted  this  peace  of  Stralsund.  In 
1375  Waldemar  died.  Passing  over  the  claim  of  Albert,  duke  of 
Mecklenburg,  the  son  of  Waldemar's  eldest  daughter,  the  estates 
elected  the  son  of  his  youngest  daughter  Olafj  (1376-1387),  then  six 
years  of  age.  In  1380  Olaf  succeeded  his  father  Hakon  as  king  of 
Norway,  and  both  lands  were  well  governed  by  his  mother  Margaret, 
the  regent,  who,  after  Olaf^s  death,  1387,  was  elected  queen  in  both 
countries.  In  1388,  Sweden  revolted  against  the  king,  Albert,  and 
Margaret  accepted  an  offer  of  the  crown.  In  the  battle  of  Falkoe- 
ping  (1389),  Albert  was  defeated  and  captured.  In  1397,  the 
three  kingdoms  were  united  by  the  Union  of  Calmar.   {See  p.  276.) 

Sweden.  (Seep.  208.) 

1066-1397. 

After  the  death  of  Stenkil  (p.  208),  the  country  was  distracted  by 
wars  between  the  Svea  and  the  Gauta,  which  lasted,  with  slight  inter- 
ruptions, for  two  hundred  years  ;  whereby  the  people  suffered 
greatly,  the  free  peasants  disappeared,  and  a  nobility  of  warriors 
arose  wliich  was  exempt  from  taxation  and  possessed  its  own  juris- 
diction. These  nobles  acquired  supremacy  in  the  Diet,  and  re- 
duced the  power  of  the  king  to  a  shadow.  Under  Erik  IX.,  the 
Saint  (1150-1162),  Christianity  was  introduced  throughout  the  king- 
dom. Establishment  of  the  archbishopric  of  Upsala  (1163).  The 
family  of  the  Bonder,  which  began  with  Erik  the  Saint,  became  ex- 
tinct with  Erik  Eriksson  Lcespe  (1223-1250).  Under  this  family  the 
power  of  the  clergy  had  so  increased  that  in  1248  they  were  forbid- 
den to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  king.  At  the  same  time 
celibacy  was  introduced.  The  Bonder  dynasty  was  succeeded  by  that 
of  the  Folkunger,  which  came  to  the  throne  with  Waldemar  (1250- 
1275),  son  of  Birger  Jarl,  who  continued  until  liis  death  (1266)  the 
actual  ruler  of  Sweden,  as  he  had  been  under  Erik  Lcespe.  Founda- 
tion of  Stockholm  (1255).  Birger  assigned  his  other  sons  large 
duchies  in  Sweden,  thereby  planting  the  seeds  of  future  discord.  In 
1275,  Waldemar  was  imprisoned  by  his  brother  Magnus,  duke  of 
Sodermanland,  and  remained  a  captive  until  his  death  (1302).  Mag- 
nus (1279-1290)  proved  a  good  ruler  and  left  a  prosperous  kingdom 
to  his  son  Birger  (1290-1319).  The  regent  Torkel  governed  wisely 
until  his  fall  in  1306,  when  war  broke  out  between  Birger  and  his 
brothers  Erik  and  Waldemar.  In  1317  Birger  made  his  brothers  pris- 
oners and  starved  them  to  death.  This  caused  a  popular  revolt 
which  expelled  Birger  and  placed  on  the  throne  the  son  of  Erik, 
Magnus  Smek  (1320-1363).  During  the  regency  Norway  fell  to 
Magnus,  through  his  maternal  grandfather  Hakon,  and   Skaania, 


238  Mediaeval  History.  A.  D, 

Halland,  and  Bleking,  which  belonged  to  Denmark,  but  had  been 
pawned  to  Holstein,  submitted  to  Magnus,  who  paid  the  mortgage. 
Magnus,  after  he  became  of  age  (1333)  made  a  poor  ruler.  In 
1360,  he  surrendered  Skaania,  Halland,  Bleking  to  Waldemar 
Attadag  of  Denmark,  and  betrothed  his  son  Hakon  to  Waldemar's 
daughter  Margaret.  In  1365  A  Ibert  of  Mecklenburg  was  proclaimed 
king,  and  in  the  battle  of  Enkoeping  (1365)  captured  Magnus  who  was 
released  in  1371  upon  making  renunciation  of  the  crown  of  Sweden. 
Albert  (1365-1388)  was  king  in  name  only,  the  power  bemg  in  the 
hands  of  the  nobles.  In  1388  the  nobles  deposed  the  king  and  offered 
the  crown  to  Margaret  of  Norway  and  Denmark,  by  whom  it  was  ac- 
cepted. At  the  battle  of  Falkoeping  Albert  was  made  prisoner  and, 
after  an  imprisonment  of  six  years,  renounced  the  crown.  In  1397 
Sweden  joined  Norway  and  Denmark  in  the  Union  of  Calmar. 

(See  p.  276.) 
Norway.  (Seep.  209.) 

1103-1397. 

After  the  death  of  Magnus  Barfod  in  Ireland  (p.  209),  liis  three 
sons  Ejsten,  Sigurd,  and  Olaf,  reigned  in  conjunction  until  the  death 
of  Ejsten  and  Olaf  left  Sigurd  sole  ruler.  Sigurd  made  a  pilgrim- 
age to  Jerusalem.  He  was  followed  by  his  son  Magnus  the  Blind, 
who  in  1134  was  obliged  to  cede  half  the  kingdom  to  Harald  Gille, 
who  came  from  Ireland  and  claimed  to  be  a  son  of  Magnus  Barfod. 
There  followed  a  wretched  period  of  civil  war  ;  strife  between  the 
Birkebenerne,  or  national  party,  and  the  Baglerne,  or  clerical  party,  in 
which  the  former  finally  got  the  upper  hand.  Magnus  V.  (1161- 
1184),  Sverre  (1177-1202),  Hakon  III.  (1202-1204),  GutKyrm  the 
child  (1204),  Inge  Baardsen  (1204-1217). 
1217  (1223)-1262.  Hakon  IV. 

son  of  Hakon  III.,  grandson  of  Sverre.  He  crushed  his  rivals, 
weakened  the  power  of  the  clergy,  restored  quiet  to  the  country,  and 
raised  Norway  once  more  to  an  influential  position  among  European 
nations.  Conquest  of  Iceland  (1260)  and  submission  of  Greenland. 
Hakon  died  in  1262,  after  suffering  a  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Scots 
in  an  expedition  which  he  had  undertaken  against  Scotland.  He  was 
followed  by  his  son  Magnus  Lagabceter  (1262-1280)  who  ceded  the 
Isle  of  Man  and  the  Hebrides  to  Scotland.  Collection  and  publication 
of  a  new  code  of  laws  (1264-1279).  Erik  Priest-hater  (1280-1299). 
War  with  Denmark  over  the  dowry  of  his  mother,  Ingeborg.  War 
with  the  Hanse  towns,  wherein  the  king  was  worsted  and  obliged  to 
grant  the  towns  full  privileges  in  Norway,  and  to  join  the  league. 
Death  of  Margaret  ("  The  Maid  of  Norway  "),  daughter  of  Erik, 
and  granddaughter  on  her  mother's  side  of  Alexander  III.  of  Scot- 
land, while  on  her  way  to  claim  that  crown  after  the  latter's  death. 
Hakon  F.  (.1299-1319).  War  with  Sweden  and  Denmark.  Dying 
without  male  issue,  he  left  the  crown  to  his  daughter's  son,  Magnus, 
king  of  Sweden,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1320.  In  1350  Magnus 
bestowed  the  crown  of  Norway  on  his  son  Hakon  VI.  (1350-1380), 
who  in  1362  became  co-regent  for  Sweden.     In  1363  Hakon  married 


The  North. 


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240  MedicEval  History.  A.  d. 

Margaret  the  heiress  of  Denmark.  Hakon  was  succeeded  by  his 
minor  son  Olaf  (1380-1387),  whose  mother  Margaret  administered 
the  kingdom  of  Norway  as  she  had  done  that  of  Denmark,  which  Olaf 
had  inherited  in  1376.  After  Olaf's  death  in  1387  Margaret  (1387- 
1412)  was  recognized  as  queen  of  both  Norway  and  Denmark.  The 
union  of  the  two  monarchies  was  completed  by  the  Union  of  Calmar 
and  endured  until  1814.  At  the  Union  of  Calmar  (1397)  Sweden 
^  was  united  with  the  two  kingdoms.  rSee  p.  276.) 

§  6.     SPANISH  PENINSULA.  {See,p.  S09.) 

Arabic  Spain  was  conquered  from  the  Morabethes  or  Almoravides 
(p.  209)  by  the  Almohades  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century. 
Since  the  defeat  at  Tolosa  (1212)  steady  decline  of  the  power  of  the 
Arabians,  who  since  the  reign  of  Alfonso  X.  of  Castile  were  con- 
fined to  the  kingdom  of  Granada. 

1095.   County    of  Portugal,  between  the  Duero  and  Mitiho,  granted 
as  a  Castilian  fief  to  the  Burgundian  count  Henry,  whose  son 
liberated  himself  from  the  overlordship  of  Castile,  and  called  him- 
self King  of  Portugal  (1140). 

Aragon  and  Catalonia  (county  of  Barcelona)  united  (1137). 
Leon   and   Castile   separated   again    (1157) ;  finally  definitely 

united  (1230). 
About  1150.     Origin  of  the  three  orders  of  knighthood  which  took 

their  names  from  the  cities  guarded  by  them  :  1.  San  J  ago  di 
Compostella  (Galicia),  2.  Alcantara  (on  the  Tajo),  3.  Calatrava  (on 
the  Guadiana.  (^See  p.  275.) 

§  7.     THE  EAST. 

Eastern  Empire.  (^See  p.  210.) 

1057-1185.   Eastern  emperors  of  the  houses  of  the  Ducaa  and  the 

Comnenes. 
1185-1204.    Dynasty  of  Angelus. 
1204^1261.   Latin  empire  (p.  216).  (Seep.  278.) 

The  Mongols. 

1206.  The  Mongols  elected  on  the  Amur,  TemucMn,  their  chief.  He 
took  the  honorary  title  Jenghiz  Khan,  under  which,  rather 
than  under  his  true  name,  he  is  known  in  history.  The  Mongols  con- 
quered a  part  of  China,  destroyed  the  empire  of  the  ChowaresmianSy 
which  reached  from  India  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  subjugated  south- 
ern Russia. 

Terauchin's  grandson  Batu  made  plundering  expeditions  through 
Russia,  defeated  the  Poles  and  fought  the 

1241.     Battle  of  "Wahlstatt,   against  the  Germans  under 

Henry  the  Pious,  duke  of  Liegnitz,  The  Mongols,  although 
victorious,  retired  to  the  East,  and  ravaged  Hungary.  A  Christian 
army  under  Wenzel,  king  of  Bohemia,  cut  them  off  from  Austria. 


A.  D.  The  East.  241 

The  greater  part  of  the  Mongols  went  back  to  Asia,  but  Russia  was 
under  their  sway  till  1480. 

1258.  The  Mongols  conquered  Bagdad  and  destroyed  the  Caliphate. 
Their  immense  empire  separated  into  Khanates,  {China,  Khan- 
ate of  Kaptchak  on  the  Volga,  Jagatai  in  Turkestan,  Iran^ 
etc.)  {See  p.  278.) 

India.  {See  p.  211.) 

1206-1500. 

The  Afghan  empire  broke  up  after  the  death  of  Muhammad  Ghari 
(p.  211),  and  the  vicegerency  of  the  Punjab  and  Hindustan  became 
an  independ^it  sultanate  under  Kutah-ud-dm,  sultan  of  Delhi  (1206- 
1210),  who  was  originally  a  slave,  and  founded  the  slave  dynasty 
(1206-1288).  He  extended  the  Mohammedan  rule  as  far  as  the 
Brahma-putra.  Under  his  successors  the  sultanate  suffered  from  Mon- 
gol invasions.  Allah-ud-din,  viceroy  of  Oude,  who  had  made  daring 
expeditions  into  the  Deccan,  murdered  the  sultan  Jeldl-ud-din,  his 
uncle,  and  made  himself  sultan.  Conquest  of  Ghxzerat.  Capture  of 
Chitor  in  Rajputana  (1300).  Conquest  of  portions  of  the  Deccan. 
After  the  death  of  Allah-vd-din  (1316)  revolts  occurred  which  were 
suppressed  by  the  Turkish  governor  of  the  Punjab,  Tughlak,  who 
mounted  the  throne  of  Delhi,  and  founded  a  new  line  of  sultans,  who 
transferred  their  residence  to  Tughlakahad.  Tuglath  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Muhammad  Tughlak  (1325-1351),  who  was  obliged  to  pur- 
chase the  retreat  of  the  Mongols  from  the  Punjab.  A  terrible  famine 
induced  him  to  remove  the  population  of  Delhi  to  Deoghur,  and  the 
misery  of  those  who  survived  the  journey  of  700  miles  induced  him 
to  send  them  back  again.  Large  issue  of  copper  coinage,  followed 
by  financial  panic.  Rebellions  broke  out  everywhere,  and  the  Mo- 
hammedan empire  separated  into  numerous  small  states.  Firuz-Shah 
(1350-1388). 

1398.  Invasion  of  Hindustan  by  Timiir  Shah.  Allah-ud-din  had  ex- 
tended his  power  over  a  large  part  of  the  south,  but  the  Hindu 
revolt  of  1316  had  shattered  it.  The  southern  part  of  the  peninsula 
was  comprised  in  the  Hindu  empire  of  Vijayanagar  (Narsinga),  about 
1300.  In  1350,  on  the  death  of  Muhammad  Tughlak,  the  Moham- 
medan army  in  the  Deccan  had  set  up  a  sultan  of  its  own,  whose 
capital  was  at  Kulbarga.  These  Bahmani  sultans  were  soon  in- 
volved in  a  series  of  horrible  wars  with  the  empire  of  Vijayanagar. 
The  Bahmani  empire  endured  until  1500,  when  it  was  broken  up  into 
five  kingdoms.  {See  p.  353.) 

China.  {Seep.  211.) 

1101-1398. 

The  Khitan  Tatars  having  established  themselves  firmly  in  Leaou- 
tsung,  Hwy-tsung  (1101-1126)  conceived  the  idea  of  inviting  the 
Neu-che  Tatars  to  take  the  field  against  them ;  they  did  so  and  ex- 
pelled the  Khitan,  but  occupied  the  province  themselves,  and  thence 
spread  over  Chili-li,  Shen-se,  Shun-se,  and  Ho-nan.  Under  Kaou- 
16 


242  Mediceval  History.  A.  d. 

tsung  (1127-1163)  the  Neu-che  Tatars^  or  as  they  now  called  them- 
selves, the  Kins,  reached  to  the  Yang-tse-Keang. 

The  new  empire  of  the  Kins  invited  attack  from  the  Mongol  Tatars, 
who  experienced  at  this  period  a  wonderful  development  of  power.  In 
1213  Jenghiz  Khan  invaded  the  Kin  province  of  Leaou-tsung;  ninety 
cities  were  razed  to  the  ground.  After  the  death  of  Jenghiz  (1227) 
his  son  Ogdai  (1227-1241)  continued  the  work  of  conquest. 
1232.  Fall  of  the  Kin  dynasty,  brought  about  by  an  alliance  of  the 
Mongols  with  the  independent  kingdom  of  Sung,  in  the  south. 
Mangu  (1248-1259),  son  of  the  warrior  Too~le,  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother, 

1259-1294.     Kublai  Khan, 

Mongol  emperor.  The  complete  fall  of  Sung  in  1280  left 
Kublai  lord  over  all  China,  as  well  as  ruler  of  almost  all  the  rest  of 
Asia,  excepting  Hindustan  and  Arabia.  China  was  never  more  illus- 
trious or  powerful.  Visit  of  Marco  Polo,  the  Venetian,  to  the  court 
of  Kublai.     Unsuccessful  attack  upon  Japan  (1281,  p.  243). 

The  immediate  successors  of  Kublai  were  men  of  little  note :  Yuen- 
ching  (1294-1307),  Woo-tung  (1307-1311).  Jin-tsung  (1311-1320) 
endeavored  to  blend  the  two  races,  and  admitted  many  Chinese  to 
official  positions.  After  his  death  matters  went  from  bad  to  worse, 
until  Shiin-te  (1333-1368)  was  driven  from  the  empire  by  Choo- 
yuen-chang,  the  son  of  a  Chinese  laborer,  who,  in  1368,  proclaimed 
himself  emperor  under  the  name  of 

1368-1398.     Hung-woo, 

the  founder  of  the  Ming  dynasty.     Subjugation  of  Tatary. 

(Seep.SrS.) 
Japan.  (See  p.  213.) 

1156-1392. 

1156.  The  wars  of  Gen  and  Hei,  which  began  in  this  year,  are  very 
famous  in  Japanese  annals.  In  the  first  battle  (1156)  the 
Taira  (Heishe)  were  victorious,  under  Kiyomori,  and  obtained  control 
of  the  royal  palace.  Exiled  from  Kioto,  the  Minamoto  (Genji),  under 
the  enterprising  brothers,  Yoritomo  and  Yoshitsune,  founded  a  power 
in  the  plain  of  the  Koanto,  with  Kamakura  as  their  capital.  The  death 
of  Kiyomori  (1181)  was  the  signal  for  the  downfall  of  the  house  of 
Hei.  Kioto  was  captured  by  the  Minamoto.  The  final  struggle 
occurred  in  the 

1185.   Naval  battle  of  Dan  no  ura, 

near  Shimonoseki.  The  Taira  were  utterly  defeated,  many 
perished  in  the  fight,  and  the  family  was  exterminated  throughout 
the  islands,  save  a  few  who,  escaping  to  Kiushiu,  transmitted  their 
name  to  the  present  day. 

Secure  in  victory,  Yoritomo  left  the  Mikado  and  the  kuge  in  Kioto 
undisturbed,  while  he  strengthened  his  power  at  Kamakura.  Five 
men  of  his  family  were  appointed  governors  of  provinces,  an  office 
previously  filled  only  by  civilians.  A  special  tax  was  levied  through- 
out the  empire  for  the  support  of  standing  garrisons  in  all  the  prov- 


A.  D.  The  East.  24;i 

inces,  and  these  troops  were  under  military  rulers  of  his  own  race, 
who  shared  the  government  of  the  province  with  the  civil  governor^ 
and  were  subordinate  to  Yoritomo  himself.  In  1192  Yoritomo  was 
appointed  Sei-i  Tai  Shogun,  or  generalissimo.  He  was  henceforward 
known  as  the  Shogun.  With  the  death  of  Yoritomo  (1199)  fell  the 
power  of  the  Minamoto. 

1200-1333.  Supremacy  of  the  family  of  Hojo.  The  founder  of  the 
Hojo  ascendency  was  Tokimasa,  father-in-law  of  Yoritomo, 
who  exercised  absolute  control  over  the  degenerate  descendants  of 
that  able  Shogun.  None  of  the  Hojo  ever  held  the  office  of  Shogun^ 
but,  vassals  of  a  vassal,  they  ruled  the  Shogun  and  the  Mikado  as 
Yoritomo  had  ruled  the  Mikado  alone.  The  line  of  Yoritomo  ended 
in  1219,  when  the  Shogunate  was  transferred  to  the  Fujiwara,  who 
held  it  until  1251,  when  their  vassal-masters  handed  it  over  to  one  of 
the  sons  of  the  reigning  Mikado,  in  whose  family  it  remained  until 
1333. 

Since  the  conquest  of  China  by  the  Mongm-Tatars,  the  victors  had 
kept  the  subjugation  of  Japan  steadily  in  view.  Embassy  after  em- 
bassy had  demanded  submission  and  been  repulsed  ;  the  last,  in  1279, 
was  beheaded. 

1281.    Invasion  of  Japan  by  the  Mongol  Tatars. 

Destruction  of  the  armada  by  a  typhoon ;  defeat  and  massacre 

of  the  survivors  upon  the  island  of  Taka. 
By  this  repulse  Hojo  Tokimune  won  great  praise ;  he  was,  indeed,  a 
man  of  great  capacity  and  good  sense.  After  him,  however,  the  Hojo 
grew  more  and  more  outrageous  in  their  treatment  of  the  Mikado 
until  a  revolt  broke  out,  headed  by  Kusunoki-Masashige  and  Nitta 
Yoshisada,  which  ended  in  the 

1333.  Capture  and  destruction  of  Kamakura,  and  the  exter- 
mination of  the  Hojo  family. 

For  a  time  (1333-1336)  the  Mikado  Go-Daigo  (1319-1338)  was 
monarch  in  fact  as  in  name,  but  his  weakness  cost  him  his  newly 
found  authority. 

Ashikaga  Takauji,  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  revolt  against  the  Hojo, 
revolted  against  his  new  master,  seized  Kioto,  and  set  up  a  rival 
Mikado  who  appointed  him  Sei-i  Tai  Shogun. 

1336-1392.     "War  of  the  Chrysanthemums, 

between  the  false  Mikado  at  Kioto  and  the  true  Mikado  at 
Yoshino,  each  displaying  the  imperial  emblem,  the  chrysanthemum. 
Peace  was  concluded  in  1392  under  the  condition  that  the  imperial 
throne  should  be  occupied  by  mikados  taken  alternately  from  the 
rival  houses.  The  northern  branch  died  out  after  a  few  generations. 
During  this  period  (since  the  establishment  of  the  Shogun  at 
Kioto)  feudalism  reached  its  full  development.  The  country  was 
di\'ided  among  the  soldiers  of  the  Shogun,  who  held  their  estates  as 
iiefs  from  the  Shogun,  to  whom  they  owed  service.  Gradually  the 
agricultural  and  other  classes  became  attached  to  certain  of  these 
military  lords,  daimios,  and  received  their  lands  from  them  as  fiefs. 
The  taxes  which  supported  the  Mikado  and  the  court  were  absorbed 
by  the  daimios,  and  the  kuge  was  left  to  abject  poverty.   (See  p.  278.) 


244  Mediceval  History.  A.  n. 


FOURTH  PERIOD. 

FROM   THE   CONCLUSION    OF  THE   CRUSADES  TO  THE   DIS- 
COVERY OF  AMERICA. 
1270-1492. 

§  1.     GERMANY.  {See  p.  ^£6.) 

1273-1347.     Kings  and  Emperors  of  various  houses. 
1273-1291.     Rudolf  I.,  count  of  Hapsbuxg  and  Kyburg, 

landgrave  in  Alsace,  the  most  powerful  prince  in  Helvetia,  was 
elected  by  the  three  archbishops  of  Mainz,  Cologne  and  Trier  and  the 
count  Palatine  of  the  Rhine,  through  the  influence  of  his  cousin,  the 
burggrave  Frederic  of  Hohenzollem. 

Strict  enforcement  of"  the  public  peace.  War  with  Ottocar,  king 
of  Bohemia,  who  had  taken  possession  of  Austria,  after  the  extinction 
of  the  Babenberg  line  (1246),  had  reconquered  Styria  from  the  Hun- 
garians, and  had  inherited  Carinthia  and  Carniola.  Ottocar  was  put 
under  the  ban  and  his  fiefs  proclaimed  forfeited.  Rudolf  took 
Vienna,  and  was  on  the  point  of  crossing  the  Daiuibe  when  Ottocar 
agreed  to  a  treaty  (Nov.,  1276),  whereby  he  abandoned  Austria^ 
Styria,  Carinthia  and  Carniola,  but  received  Bohemia  and  Moravia 
again  as  fiefs  of  the  empire.  Ottocar  however  soon  renewed  the 
war. 

1278.  Victory  of  Rudolf  on  the  Marchfeld  (near 
Vienna).  Death  of  Ottocar.  Peace  with  the  guardian  of  his 
son  Wenzel  who  received  Bohemia  and,  later,  Moravia.  Development 
of  the  family  power  of  the  Hapsburgs.  Austria,  Styria,  Carinthia, 
given  as  imperial  fiefs  to  Rudolf's  sons,  Albert  and  Rudolf.  Carin- 
thia was  given  to  Meinhard,  count  of  Tyrol,  Rudolf's  brother-in-law. 
Campaigns  of  Rudolf  in  Burgundy  and  Swabia,  particularly  against 
Eherhard  of  Wiirtemberg.  In  Swabia  since  the  fall  of  the  Hohen- 
staufens  the  most  powerful  princes  were  the  counts  of  Wiirtem- 
berg, and  the  margraves  of  Baden.  The  ducal  title  in  Swabia  de- 
scended to  Rudolf's  son  Rudolf,  and  from  him  to  his  son  John 
(Parricida),  but  this  title  designated  only  authority  over  the  Haps- 
burg  estates  in  Swabia.  .  Formation  of  a  great  number  of  fiefs  held 
immediately  of  the  empire  in  Swabia.  Through  the  exertions  of  the 
archbishop  of  Mainz,  Rudolf's  son  Albert  was  not  elected  his  succes- 
sor, but  the  choice  fell  on  a  relative  of  the  archbishop, 

1292-1298.  Adolf  of  Nassau,  w  hose  reign  was  devoted  to 
the  attempt  to  establish  a  dynastic  power  by  the  acquisition  of 
Thuringia  and  Meissen  (in  opposition  to  the  brothers  Frederic  ^ 
and  Diezmann).  Adolf  was  deposed  at  the  Diet  of  Mainz,  by 
the  influence  of  his  former  patron,  the  archbishop  of  Mainz, 

l-The  title  "with  the  bitten  cheek"  appears  to  have  been  a  later  invention  ; 
his  contemporaries  called  this  Frederic,  son  of  Margaret,  daughter  of  Frederic 
II.,  by  the  surname  "  the  Cheerful."     See  "Wegele,  Fried,  der  Frtidige,  1868. 


A.  D.  Germany.  245 

without  the  approval  of  the  archbishops  of  Cologne  and  Trier 
and  the  count  Palatine.  He  fell  at  Gollheim  in  personal  con- 
flict with 

1298-1308.  Albert  I.,  of  Austria,  son  of  Rudolf  I.  who 
had  been  elected  king  by  the  opposing  party.  Alliance  with 
Philip  the  Fair,  king  of  France,  against  the  Pope.  Albert  tried  in 
vain  to  recover  Holland  as  a  vacant  fief  of  the  empire.  Alliance  of 
the  three  ecclesiastical  electors  and  the  count  Palatine  against  the 
king,  who  was  victorious  (1301),  and  reduced  the  princes  to  obedience 
(siege  of  the  castle  of  Bingen).  Unsuccessful  wars  with  Bohemia, 
and  with  Frederic  and  Diezmann  of  Meissen,  who  defeated  the  im- 
perial armv  under  the  burggrave  of  Nuremberg  at  Lucka,  not  far  from 
Altenburg''(1307). 

Albert  was  murdered  by  his  nephew  John  (Parricida)  between  the 
Aar  and  Reuss,  near  the  Hapshurg.  His  widow  Elizabeth  and  his 
daughter  Agnes  took  terrible  vengeance  for  this  murder.  Through 
the  influence  of  the  archbishop  of  Trier  the  princes  elected  as  king 
bis  brother 

1308-1313.     Henry  VII.,  count  of  Liitzelnburg  or  Lux- 
emburg, a  half-Frenchman. 

1309.     The  Swiss  Cantons  received  from  Henry  VII.  doc- 
June  3.  umentary  confirmation  of  their  immediate  feudal  re- 
lation to  the  empire. 

Origin  of  the  Swiss  Confederacy. 

Of  the  inhabitants  of  the  cantons,  those  dwelling  in  Schioyz  seem  to 
have  been,  for  the  most  part,  free  peasants  ;  while  in  Uri  and  Unter- 
walden  the  majority  were  in  a  condition  of  servitude,  as  regarded 
either  their  persons  or  their  estates.  The  most  extensive  landowners 
were  monasteries  (e.  g.  the  Frauenmilnster  in  Ziirich),  and  nobles  re- 
siding out  of  the  country,  like  the  counts  of  Lenzburg  and  those  of 
Hapshurg.  After  the  extinction  of  the  former  (1172),  at  any  rate 
since  the  thirteenth  century,  the  counts  of  Hapshurg  exercised,  under 
various  legal  titles  as  landgraves  or  advocates,  full  jurisdiction  and 
presided  in  the  assemblies.  Under  the  imperfectly  developed  admin- 
istration of  that  time,  the  holder  of  these  privileges  was  considered 
the  actual  ruler  of  the  country. 

As  early  as  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  cantons  had 
resisted  the  efforts  of  the  Hapsburgers  to  develop  their  stewardship 
into  an  actual  sovereignty  over  them  ;  indeed  they  had  even  attempted 
in  part  to  witlidraw  themselves  from  the  stewardship  of  the  Haps- 
burgers. In  1231  Henry,  regent  for  his  father  Frederic  II.  in  Ger- 
many (p.  224),  granted  the  people  of  Uri  a  charter  which  removed 
t-hem  from  under  the  protection  of  the  Hapsburgers  and  replaced 
them  under  that  of  the  empire.  In  1240  Frederic  II.  gave  the  peo- 
ple of  Schwyz  a  charter  which  promised  them  an  immediate  tenure 
from  the  empire.  After  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
the  Hapsburgers  were  nevertheless  still  in  possession  of  their  office 


246  3Iedi(Bval  History,  A.  d. 

of  steward  or  advocate  (Vogt)  for  the  cantons.  Rudolf  I.  seems  to 
have  recognized  the  charter  of  Uri,  but  not  that  of  Schwyz.  Imme- 
diately upon  his  death,  on  Aug.  1,  1291,  the  cantons  Uri,  Schwyz,  and 
Nidwalden  (which  was  afterwards  united  with  the  towns  of  Obwalden 
under  the  name  Unterwalden)  concluded  a  perpetual  league.  Al- 
though intended  only  to  insure  the  maintenance  of  existing  condi- 
tions, this  league  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  beginning  of  the  Con- 
federacy. By  making  shrewd  use  of  the  confusion  that  followed  in 
Germany,  but  not  without  many  changes  of  fortune  (after  the  battle 
of  Gbllheim  (p.  245)  the  cantons  were  obliged  to  recognize  the  su- 
premacy of  the  Hapsburgers),  the  confederates  in  1309  attained  the 
object  for  which  their  ancestors  had  striven. 

The  Swiss  narrative,  to  which  the  popular  poetry  has  added  many 
ornaments,  and  which  condenses  the  facts  of  the  gradual  acquirement 
of  an  immediate  relation  to  the  empire  into  a  short  space  of  time, 
and  exaggerates  their  effects,  can  no  longer  be  regarded  as  historical 
in  view  of  the  results  of  modern  investigation.^  It  is  first  found  in 
chronicles  which  were  written  between  two  and  three  hundred  years 
after  the  events,  and  is  often  contradicted  by  the  documents.^  Neither 
the  Oath  on  the  Riltli  (1307,  Werner  Stauffacher,  Walther  Fiirst,  Ar- 
nold Melchthal),  nor  the  expulsion  of  the  bailiffs  on  the  1st  of  January 
1308,  is  historically  authenticated. 

The  Swiss  confederacy  was  not  formed  by  the  exertions  of  three  or  of 
thirty  individuals,  but  was  the  result  of  many  historical  events  which 
united  in  powerfully  assisting  the  energetic  and  enduring  efforts  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  cantons  to  free  themselves  from  all  foreign  su- 
premacy. 

As  regards  the  story  of  Tell,  it  is  now  established  that  neither  the 
shooting  of  the  apple  from  the  head  of  his  son,  nor  the  murder  of  the 
bailiff  Gessler  in  the  hollow  way  at  Kiissnacht  can  be  in  any  way  re- 
garded as  an  historical  event.  It  has  been  proved  that  among  the 
Kiissnacht  bailiffs  of  that  tune  there  was  no  Gessler.  The  legend  of 
the  shooting  of  the  apple  occurs  five  times  outside  of  the  cantons, 
agreeing  almost  to  the  wording  of  the  answer  which  the  archer  gives 
the  tyrant :  in  Norway,  in  Iceland,  in  Denmark,  in  Holstein,  and  on 
the  middle  Rhine,  and,  with  an  altered  motive,  a  sixth  time  in  Eng- 
land. Hence  it  is  tolerably  certain  that  we  have  here  to  do  with  a 
common  Germanic  tradition.  Moreover,  the  resemblance  of  the 
Swiss  version  to  the  elder  narrative  of  Saxo  Grammaticus  (twelfth 
century)  of  the  shot  of  Toko,  tho  Dane,  who  is  said  to  have  lived  in 
the  tenth  century,  is  so  striking  as  to  render  it  probable  that  the  Swiss 
chroniclers  had  that  historian  before  them. 

Whether  a  man  of  the  name  of  Tell  ever  lived  in  Uri  is  a  question 
which  cannot  be  answered  with  certainty  either  in  the  affirmative  or 
the  negative.^     It  is  one,  moreover,  which  has  but  little  interest  when 

1  A.  Huber:  die  Waldstdtte  Uri,  Schwyz,  Unterwalden,  ISQl ;  a.nd  B.ooh- 
holz,  Tell  und  Gessler  in  Sage  und  Geschichte,  1877. 

2  The  honor  of  having  first  used  this  fact  after  a  true  scientific  fashion  to  dis- 
prove the  tradition  belongs  to  the  Swiss  historian  Kopp  ( Urkunden  zur  Ge- 
schichte der  eidgenossischen  Biinde,  1835 and  1857;  Reichsyeschichte,  1845-1858). 

8  According  to  the  investigations  of  Kopp,  who  examined  all  the  archives  in 
Uri,  and  Kochholz  (p.  257,  note),  the  latter  is  almost  certainly  the  case. 


A.  D.  Germany.  247 

it  is  admitted  that  the  main  features  of  the  legend  are  unhistorieal. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  Tell,  even  in  the  legend,  plays  no  part  at  all  in 
the  common  insurrection,  after  the  murder  of  the  bailiff.     It  was  not 
until  later,  when  the  Swiss  had  actually  worked  out  their  freedom, 
that  his  deed  was  invented,  and  surrounded  by  the  halo  of  popular 
belief,  his  name  made  a  symbol  of  Swiss  energy  and  love  of  freedom 
The  Tell  chapels  and  the  memorial  festivals  are  no  proof  that  Tell  was 
an  historical  personage,  since  the  erection  of  the  former  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  latter  can  be  shown  to  date  from  a  time  when  the  tradi- 
'  tion  was  already  fully  developed.    The  document  concerning  a  public 
meeting  of  1388,  when  more  than  a  hundred  people  are  said  to  have 
declared  that  they  knew  Tell,  is  evidently  a  later  interpolation. 
1310.     Henry's  son,  John,  was  placed  on  the  throne  of  Bohemia  by 
the  national  assembly,  in  spite  of  the  claims  of  the  Hapsburg- 
ers,  whereby  the  Liitzelnburgers  acquired  a  family  power. 
1310-1313.     Henry's  Roman  expedition.     He  was  crowned  king  of 
Italy  in  Pavia,  and  emperor  in  Rome  (1312). 

1314-1347.     Ludwig  of  Upper  Bavaria  at  war  with 

1314-1330.     Frederic  of  Austria,  son  of  Albert. 

1315.  Victory  of  tlie  Swiss  confederates  in  the  pass  between  lake 
Nov.  Ie5.     Ageri  and  the  mountain  Morgarten  over  Leopold  of  Aus- 
tria, Frederic's  brother.     The  flower  of  the  Austrian  chivalry 
(1500  in  number)  slaughtered. 

Dec.  9.  Renewal  of  the  league  between  iTn,  Schwyz  and  Unterwalden 
at  Brunnen. 

1316.  Recognition  of  the  immediate  dependence  of  the  cantons 
upon  the  empire,  by  king  Ludwig.     During  the  fourteenth 

and  fifteenth  centuries  the  people  generally  bought  off  the  ever 
diminishing  rights  of  the  landed  monasteries.  Rapid  growth  of  the 
league  of  the  confederates,  which  was  joined  by  one  after  another  of 
the  remauiing  districts,  who  thus  withdrew  themselves  from  the  control 
of  the  territorial  lords.  At  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  Austria 
had  been  entirely  driven  out  of  the  lands  south  of  the  Rhine.  After 
1340  no  imperial  bailiff  is  mentioned  in  the  cantons,  which  in  conse- 
quence of  the  weakness  of  the  imperial  power  soon  became  republics, 
so  that  the  proclamation  of  the  independence  of  Switzerland  in  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648)  was  only  the  legal  recognition  of  a  state 
of  things  wliich  had  long  existed  in  fact. 

1322.  Battle  at  Ampfing  near  Muhldorf  Frederic  of  Austria  de- 
feated and  captured  (Schwepperm^nn  j,  the  story  is  probably 
unhistoric). 

1324.  Ludwig  gave  the  mark  Brandenburg,  which  had  reverted  by 
the  extinction  of  th&  Askanian  line,  to  his  son  Ludwig,  whom  he 
afterwards  married  with  Margaret  Maultasch,  the  heiress  of 
Tyrol  and  Carinthia. 

1325.  Frederic  set  at  liberty  upon  renouncing  his  claim  to  the  throne. 
He  surrendered  himself  again  as  prisoner,  was  made  co-regent 
by  Ludwig,  died  1330. 

1327-1330.  Ludwig's  Roman  expedition.  Crowned  emperor  in  Rome. 
(Anti-pope  Nicholas  V.) 


248  Mediceval  History.  A.  D. 

The  Electoral  meeting  at  Rense  (1338)  declared  every  legally- 
elected  German  king  to  be  thereby  constituted  Roman  emperor, 
even  without  papal  coronation. 

The  violent  means  adopted  by  Ludwig  to  increase  his  domestic 
power  led,  a  year  befoi-e  his  death,  to  the  election  of  Charles,  son  of 
John,  king  of  Bohemia  (f  1346  in  the  battle  of  Crecy).  Charles  was 
not  universally  recognized  until  after  Ludwig's  death. 

1347-1437.      Emperors  of  the  Luxemburg  —  Bohe= 
mian  line. 

1347-1378.     Charles  IV. 

A  prince  with  nothing  knightly  in  his  character,  but  wise  in 
statecraft,  and  shrewd  in  calculation  ;  a  scholar  (he  studied  at  Paris 
and  Bologna,  spoke  and  wrote  Bohemian,  German,  Latin,  French, 
Italian).  War  with  the  Bavarian  party.  In  opposition  to  Ludwig 
there  appeared  in  Brandenburg  the/aZse  Waldemar  (1348-1350),  who 
was  assisted  by  Charles. 

The  emperor's  first  care  was  his  hereditary  kingdom,  Bohemia 
(whence  he  was  styled  by  Maximilian  L,  "Bohemia's  father,  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire's  arch-step-father").  The  emperor  in  1348 
founded  a  university,  after  the  pattern  of  that  in  Paris,  at  Prague, 
the  first  in  Germany.     The  Bavarian  party  elected  in  opposition 

1349.   Giinther  of  Sch-warzburg,  king  of  Germany,  but  he  died  in 
Jan.    June  of  the  same  year  (poisoned  ?). 

Plague  (Black  Death)  in  Germany,  and  throughout  nearly  all 
Europe.     Persecutions  of  the  Jews.     Flagellants. 
1353.   Berne  joined  the  Swiss  confederacy  which  now  included  Uri^ 
Schwyz^  Unterwalden,  Lucerne,  Zurich,  Glarus,  Zug,  and  Bemey 
the  so-called  eight  old  cantons. 

1354-1355.     Charles's  first  expedition  to  Rome.      He  was  crowned 
emperor  at  Rome  with  a  humiliating  ceremony. 
Silesia  and  Lower  Lusatia  (^Niederlausitz)  united  with  Bohemia. 

1356.    Golden  Bull.^     Fundamental  law  of  the  empire. 

The  election  of  the  emperor  was  definitively  intrusted  to  the 
seven  electors,  who  had  practically  exercised  this  right  for  a  long 
time  ;  ^  three  ecclesiastics :  1.  Archbishop  of  Mainz  (arch-chancellor 
of  Germany)  ;  2.  Archbishop  of  Trier  (arch-chancellor  of  Burgundy) ; 
3.  Archbishop  of  Cologne  (arch-chancellor  of  Italy)  ;  four  secu- 
lar :  4.  King  of  Bohemia  (arch-seneschal) ;  5.  Coimt  Palatine  of  the 
Rhine  (arch-steward);  6.  Duke  of  Saxon-Wittenberg  (arch-mar- 
shall);  7.  Margrave  of  Brandenburg  (arch-chamberlain).  Estab- 
lishment of  the  indivisibility  and  inalienableness  of  the  electoral 
states,  which  were  made  hereditary  in  the  male  line  and  received  cer- 
tain regalia  (privilegium  de  non  appellando,  etc.).  The  electoral  vote 
went  with  the  land. 

1  So  called  from  the  gold  case  which  contained  the  seal. 

2  The  electoral  vote  had  been  disputed  between  the  two  Saxon  lines  and 
the  two  lines  of  Wittelsbach.  It  was  now  assigned  to  Snxon-Wittenherg  sm^ 
the  County  Pahitine,  but  refused  to  Saxon- Lauenb'irg  and  Bavaria. 


i 


A.  D.  Germany.  249 

1363.     Austria  acquired    Tyrol,      The   heiress   of  Tyrol,   Margaret 

Maultasch,  who  outlived  her  husband,  the  Bavarian  Ludwig, 
elector  of  Brandenburg  (p.  247),  and  her  only  son,  Meinhard,  gave 
her  county  after  the  latter's  death  to  duke  Rudolf  of  Austria. 
1368.    Second  expedition  of  Charles  to  Italy  in  alliance  with  the  Pope 

against  the  Visconti. 
1373.   By  the  treaty  of  F'drstenwalde,  Otto  the  Finne  (lazy),  the  last 

Bavarian  margrave  of  Brandenburg,  transferred  the  mark  to 

Charles  IV.,  in  return  for  an  annuity. 

Leagues  of  the  Cities. 

The  Hanseatic  League.  The  union  of  several  seaports  and  trad- 
ing cities,  between  the  Baltic  and  the  Elbe,  formed  in  the  thirteenth 
century  (between  1255  and  1262  ?),  was  the  beginning  of  this  league. ^ 
Separate  alliance  between  LUbeck  and  Hamburg. 

In  the  fourteenth  century  the  league  attained  wide  extent  and 
great  power.  After  this  time  the  name  Hansa  (i.  e.  trade  guild)  was 
commonly  applied  to  the  league.  Since  1350  over  ninety  cities  ex- 
tending from  the  mouth  of  the  Schelde  to  Esthonia,  besides  many 
inland  cities  (e.  g.  Magdeburg,  Berlin,  Thorn),  belonged  to  the  Hansa. 
Object  of  the  alliance :  common  defense,  security  of  sea  and  land 
routes,  settlement  of  disputes  between  members  by  arbitration,  ac- 
quirement and  m^aintenance  of  trading  privileges  in  foreign  countries. 
Capital  of  the  league  :  Lubeck.  Division  of  the  league  into  three, 
afterwards  four,  quarters  :  1.  Prussian  and  Livonian;  principal  town, 
Danizig ;  2,  Wendic,  including  also  the  cities  of  Mecklenburg,  Pom- 
merania,  and  the  Marches ;  chief  town,  Lubeck;  3.  Saxon;  chief  town, 
Brunswick ;  4.  Westphalian ;  chief  town,  Cologne.  Principal  trading 
ground,  all  northern  Europe.  Principal  trading  stations  :  Novgorod, 
Stockholm,  Wisby  (in  Gothland),  Bergen,  Bruges,  London.  Ships  of 
war  {Orlogschiffe). 

1361.  War  with  Waldemar  IV.,  king  of  Denmark,  under  the  conduct 
of  the  burghermaster  of  Liibeck,  John  Wittenborg,  who  captured 
and  plundered  Copenhagen,  but  was  afterwards  defeated  before  Hel- 
singhorg,  and,  in  consequence,  beheaded  at  Liibeck. 
1367-1370,  Second  war  with  Waldemar  IV.  The  king  compelled  to 
fly.  Copenhagen,  Helsingor,  and  other  cities  conquered.  A 
glorious  and  advantageous  peace  for  the  Hansa,  concluded  at  Strain 
sund,  ended  the  war. 

The  League  of  Rhine  cities,  founded  about  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century  (league  of  Worms  and  Mainz),  to  insure  stricter 
enforcement  of  the  public  peace,  comprised  at  various  times  more 
than  seventy  cities,  not  all  upon  the  Rhine  (e.  g.  Bremen,  Regensburg, 
Nuremberg) ;  both  temporal  and  spiritual  princes  joined  the  league. 

The  S"wabian  city  league  concluded  in  1376,  particularly  as  a  de- 
fense against  the  counts  of  Wiirtemberg.  Eberhard  the  Greiner  (i.  e. 
Quarreler),  also  called  Rau^chebart.    (Uhland's  ballads.) 

^  Unions  of  German  merchants  in  foreign  countries  under  this  aamebadlong 
existed,  the  oldest  being  in  London. 


250  Mediaeval  History,  A.  D. 

Associations  of  Nobles  founded  by  members  of  the  middle 
nobility,  the  imperial  knights,  particularly  in  Swabia,  Franeonia,  and 
on  the  Rhine,  to  maintain  their  independence  against  the  cities  on  the 
one  hand  and  against  the  higher  nobility,  the  princes  of  the  empire,  who 
were  everywhere  trying  to  acquire  territorial  sovereignty  on  the  other. 
The  princes  of  the  empire  were  either  spiritual  (archbishops,  three  of 
whom  were  electors  (p.  248),  bishops,  abbots),  or  secular  (dukes,  counts- 
palatine,  margraves,  burggraves).  The  following  associations  of  nobles 
deserve  mention :  the  Martinsvogel  (named  after  the  day  of  their 
union),  the  Schlegler,  the  Lowenbund. 

1377.  Beginning  of  the  wars  between  the  cities  and  the  nobles. 
Battle  of  Reutlingen.     Brilliant  victory  of  the  Swabian  league 

(  Ulm,  the  capital)  over  (Jlrich,  son  of  Eberhard.    The  Swabian  league 
recognized  by  the  emperor. 

1378.  Death  of  Charles  IV.,  after  he  had  so  divided  his  lands  among 
his  three  sons  that  Wenzel  received  Bohemia  and  Silesia  (Lux- 
emburg fell  to  him  afterwards  also),  Sigismund,  the  mark  of  Branden- 
burg, John,  Lusatia.  In  Moravia  two  nephews  of  Charles,  Prokop 
and  Jobst,  were  margraves.  The  election  to  the  German  throne  had 
already  fallen  upon 

1378-1400.     W^enzel,  Charles  IV.'s  oldest  son. 

1381.   The  Swabian  league  united  with  that  of  the  Rhine,  and  after- 
wards entered  into  alliance  with  a  part  of  the  Swiss  confed- 
eracy. 
1384.   Wenzel  proclaimed  a  new  public  peace,  the  so-called  Heidel- 
berger  Stallung  (Stallung  =  preserve  of  game,  etc.),  for  four 
years,  which,  however,  was  broken  after  the  king  had  returned  to- 
Bohemia.  ^ 

Leopold  of  Austria,  who,  in  the  division  of  Hapsburg  estates  had  re- 
ceived the  western  lands,  attacked  the  Swiss  confederacy  in  alliance 
with  the  south  German  nobility.     In  the 

1386.  Battle  of  Sempach  (Arnold  von  Winkelried?),^  he 
was  defeated  and  lost  his  life.  His  second  son,  Leopold^ 
renewed  the  war  and  was  defeated  in  the 

1388.  Battle  of  N of  els,  by  the  men  of  Glarus  and  Schwyz.      The 

war  with  the  cities  broke  out  anew.  Eberhard  the  Greiner 
defeated  the  Swabian  cities  at  Dojfingen,  where  his  son  Ulrich 
fell.  Rupert,  count  Palatine,  defeated  the  Rhine  towns  at 
Worms.  These  victories  restored  the  superiority  of  the 
princes  over  the  cities. 

1389.  New  public  peace  for  eight  years  proclaimed  by  Wenzel  at 
the  council  of  the  princes  at  Eger. 

Wenzel,  who  was  hated  in  Bohemia  for  his  cruelty  and  indolence, 
and  had  been  several  times  made  a  prisoner  in  civil  quarrels,  was  de- 
posed by  a  section  of  the  princes  of  the  empire  (1400).  He  died 
1419  as  king  of  Bohemia. 

1  See  O.  Kleissner,  die  QuellenzurSempacherSchlachtunddieWinkelried- 
sage,  1873. 


( 


A.  D.  Germany.  251 

1400-1410.  Bupert,  Count  Palatine, 

who  was  barely  able  to  make  the  royal  authority  respected 
within  his  own  paj^y. 

1401.  Unsuccessful  expedition  to  Italy.  The  German  army  was  de- 
feated at  Brescia  by  John  Galeazzo  Visconti,  whom  Wenzel  had 
appointed  hereditary  duke  of  Milan  (1395). 

1409.  In  consequence  of  the  Hussite  troubles  (p.  252)  in  Prague 
and  a  change  in  the  university  statutes,  all  Germans,  profes- 
sors and  students  alike  (5000  in  number),  left  the  imiversity 
of  Prague  and  went  to  Leipzig,  where  Fredeiic  the  Warlike  of 
Meissen  founded  a  university. 
The  councU  of  Pisa,  convened  to  restore  papal  unity  (Pope  Gregory 

Xll.y  against  Pope  Benedict  XIII.),  elected  Alexander  V.  as  a  third 

Pope,  not  having  been  able  to  induce  the  former  two  to  abdicate. 

1410-1437.   Sigismund,  brother  of  Wenzel, 

in  right  of  his  wife,  daughter  of  Ludwig  the  Great,  king  of 
Hungary,  margrave  of  Brandenburg  since  the  death  of  Charles  IV. 
Sigismund  was  at  first  elected  by  the  votes  of  Trier,  the  County 
Palatine,  and  Brandenburg,  whose  vote  he  himself  cast  through  his 
plenipotentiary  Frederic,  hurggrave  of  Nwremherg.  The  other  princes 
elected /oftsf  of  Moravia  (f  1411).  By  the  skillful  management  of  his 
plenipotentiary,  and  the  recc^nition  of  the  successor  of  Alexander  V., 
John  XXIII.,  Sigismund  gained  the  votes  of  the  opposition  at  a 
second  election,  went  to  Italy,  fought  unsuccessfully  with  Venice  and 
Milan,  but  induced  Pope  John  XXIII.,  who  was  hard  pressed  by 
Naples,  to  summon  an  oecumenical  council  in  German  territory. 

1414-1418.    Council  of  Constance  (Kostnitz). 

At  once  a  council  of  the  empire  and,  ui  a  certain  way,  a  Euro- 
pean congress,  visited  by  Italian,  German,  French,  English,  and  after- 
wards by  Spanish  prelates  (5  patriarchs,  33  cardinals,  200  arch- 
bishops and  bishops),  and  by  numerous  princes  with  imposing  trains, 
so  that  at  times  there  were  as  many  as  80,000  strangers  in  the  city. 

The  council  had  three  objects  :  1.  Suppression  of  heresy  (causa 
fdei).  2.  Healing  of  the  schism  (causa  wiionis).  3.  Reformation  of 
the  church  {causa  reformationis).^ 

The  party  of  reform  secured  the  adoption  of  the  plan  of  voting 
by  nations,  Germans,  French,  English,  Italian,  having  each  one  common 
vote.  Pope  John  XXIII.,  who  appeared  in  person,  was  first  induced 
to  public  abdication,  but  afterwards  escaped  to  Schaffhausen  with  the 
help  of  Frederic,  duke  of  Austria,  who  being  put  under  the  ban  was 
forced  to  submit.  Upon  the  motion  of  Gerson,  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Paris,  the  council  proclaimed  its  superiority  over  the 
Pope,  but  proceeded  to  take  up  the  causa  fdei  next.  Condemnation 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  Englishman  Wiclif  (1327-1384)  (opposition 
to  confession,  transubstantiation,  and  absolution),  and  the  chief  mis- 
sionary and  developer  of  this  doctrine,  John  Hus  (a  Bohemian  of 
Czechish  descent,  born  at  Hussinec,  1369  ;  1398,  professor  ;  1409,  rec- 

1  Cf.  Hiibler,  die  Konsianzer  Reformation,  1867. 


252  Mediceval  History.  a.  d. 

tor  of  the  University  of  Prague  ;  since  1412  under  the  ban),  who,  re- 
lying upon  a  safe  conduct  from  the  emperor,  had  appeared  in  Con- 
stance. Hus  burnt  (July,  1415,  his  friend  Hieronymus  of  Prague, 
1416).  After  the  execution  of  Hus,  the  causa  unionis  was  again  taken 
up.  John  XXIII.  was  deposed  ;  Gregory  XII.  abdicated  voluntarily. 
Sigismund  went  to  Spain  to  secure  the  abdication  of  Benedict  XIII. 
During  the  long  absence  of  the  emperor,  discussion  of  the  causa  ref- 
ormationis.  After  Sigismund's  return  (1417)  Benedict  XIII.  was 
deposed  by  the  council. 

It  was  now  demanded  by  the  party  of  reform  that  a  thorough  re- 
form of  the  church  in  all  its  parts  should  precede  the  election  of  a 
new  Pope  ;  the  Ultramontanes  {i.  e.  the  Italians) ^  reinforced  by  the 
Spaniards  as  ^  fifth  nation,  succeeded  in  bringing  about  an  immediate 
election,  so  that  the  reform  fell  through.  Martin  V.  elected  Pope, 
Nov.  1417  (although  with  the  condition  :  de  Jienda  reformatione  post 
electionem),  dissolved  the  council  1418,  as  an  agreement  could  not  be 
reached.  The  three  concordats  which  were  concluded  with  the  Ger- 
mans, the  English,  and  the  Romans,  brought  about  no  real  abolition 
of  abuses. 

At  Constance  in  1415  Sigismund  invested  Frederic  burggrave  of 
Nuremberg  with  the  mark  Brandenburg,  the  electoral  vote,  and  the 
office  of  archchamberlain,  as  a  reward  for  the  important  services  he 
had  done  him  (especially  at  his  election),  and  the  empire.  The  cere- 
mony of  investiture  took  place  in  1417.^ 

1423.  After  the  extinction  of  the  Askanian  house,  Sigismund  in- 
vested Frederic  the  Warlike,  of  the  house  of  Wettin,  margrave 
of  Meissen,  with  the  electoral  duchy  of  Seixony  (Witten- 
berg). 

1419-1436.   Hussite  War. 

Terrible  indignation  of  the  Bohemians  at  the  execution  of 
Hus.  His  followers,  the  Hussites,  also  called  Utraquists,  because 
they  demanded  communion  in  both  kinds,  bread  and  wine  {sub 
utraque  specie),  for  the  laity  as  well  as  for  the  clergy,  attempted  to 
spread  their  doctrine,  which  the  council  had  rejected,  by  force.  Re- 
volt in  Prague.  Ziskti,  leader  of  the  Hussites.  After  the  death  of  king 
Wenzel  (1419),  Sigismund  was  heir  to  the  Bohemian  throne.  He 
was  crowned  in  Prague,  but  was  soon  obliged  to  leave  the  country. 
The  imperial  troops  were  driven  back  as  they  entered  Bohemia 
(1421).  Sigismund  was  disgracefully  defeated  (1422)  at  Deutsch-Brod. 
The  Hussites  ravaged  the  neighboring  countries  (skillful  use  of  gun- 
powder and  clumsy  cannon  \  ramparts  of  wagons).  The  coun- 
cil of  Basel  (1431-1449)  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  moderate  Hus- 
sites (Calixtinians),  (compact  of  Prague  1433)  ;  the  Taborites,  whose 
leaders  (the  two  Prokops)  fell  in  battle,  were  defeated  and  amiihilated 
at  Bbhmisch-Brod  (1434). 
1420-1460.   Epoch  of  the  greatest  power  of  the  secret  tribunals  of 

Westphalia  (Vehmgerichte). 

1  The  mortgaging  the  mark  for  a  sum  of  money  was  only  a  form.  There 
was  no  so/e,  only  a  "  remunerative  present."  Cf.  Biedel,  Gesch.  des  Preuss 
Konigshauses,  II.  269. 


A.  D.  Germany,  253 

1438-1740.   Emperors  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg. 

1438-1439.  Albert  II.,  son-in-law  of  Sigismund,  whom  he  succeded 
in  Bohemia  and  Hungary  as  well,  died  after  returning  from  an 
expedition  against  the  Turks. 

1440-1493.    Frederic  III.  (IV.),^  cousin  of  Albert, 

the  last  emperor  who  was  crowned  in  Rome  (1452).  He  was 
powerless  both  in  Germany  and  in  his  own  lands,  and  involved  in  war 
with  his  brothers. 

JEneas  Silvius  Piccolomini  (when  Pope,  Pius  II.},  his  adviser. 
Civil  war  in  Switzerland  ;  Zurich  allied  with  Austria  (1440-1446). 
The  troops  of  Ziirich  defeated  by  the  confederates.  Ziirich  besieged. 
At  the  request  of  Frederic,  Charles  VII.  of  France  sent  the  Dauphin 
(afterwards  Louis  XI.),  with  the  unbridled  bands  of  the  Armagnacs, 
against  Basel,  to  raise  the  siege  of  Ziirich.  Heroic  death  of  1600 
Confederates  at  St.  Jacob  (1444).  Peace  with  France.  Since 
their  victory  at  Ragaz  (1446)  over  the  German  troops,  the  Swiss  con- 
federacy was  practically  independent.  Native  kings  elected  in  Him- 
gary  and  Bohemia  (1457)  whom  Frederic  was  obliged  to  recognize. 

The  reforms  resolved  upon  in  the  Council  of  Basel  (1431-1449) 
were  abandoned  by  the  Concordat  of  Vienna  concluded  with  Pope 
Eugenius  IV.  (1446). 

About  1450  John  Gutenberg  ^  practised  (at  Mainz)  the  art  of 
printing.     (Joha?in  Fust,  Peter  Schoffer). 

Frederic,  obliged  to  give  up  parts  of  the  duchy  of  Austria  to  his 
brother  and  his  cousin,  besieged  by  them  in  Vienna,  and  released  by 
George  Podiebrad,  king  of  Bohemia  (1462). 

The  marriage  of  Frederic's  son,  archduke  Maximilian,  with  Mary, 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy  (f  1477), 
caused  several  wars  with  France,  and,  after  the  death  of  Mary  (1482), 
with  the  revolted  Netherlands.  Maximilian,  however,  succeeded  in 
keeping  the  Burgundian  inheritance  for  his  son  by  Mary,  the  arch- 
duke Philip.  Only  the  duchy  of  Burgundy  (la  Bourgogne,  capital 
Dijon),  fell  to  France. 

Frederic  III.,  involved  in  a  war  with  Matthias  Corvinus,  king  of 
Hungary,  was  driven  out  of  Austria  and  restored  by  Maximilian  (only 
after  the  death  of  Corvinus,  1490).  Maximilian,  after  the  extinction 
of  a  branch  line,  received  Tyrol,  which  the  house  of  Hapsburg  had 
acquired  in  1363  (p.  249),  and  at  Frederic's  death  was  in  possession 
of  all  the  Austrian  lands.  (5ee  p.  300.) 

1  If  Frederic  of  Austria,  opponent  and  co-regent  of  Ludwig  of  Bavaria,  be 
counted,  he  was  Frederic  IV. 

2  His  family  name  was  Gensfleisch ;  the  name  Gutenberg  was  that  of  his 
mother's  patrician  family.  The  claim  brought  forward  in  the  Netherlands  that 
Lorenz  Jansson  (  CWer)  in  Haarlem  was  the  true  inventor  of  printing  (1423)  has 
been  proved  by  Van  der  Linde  to  rest  upon  a  forgery.  His  investigations 
assign  Fust  and  especially  Schoffer  a  much  less  important  position  than  ha$ 
been  commonly  attributed  to  them. 


■ 


254  Mediceval  History.  A.  d. 

§  2.    FRANCE.  {See  p.  227.) 

1270-1285.   Philip  III.,  le  Hardi,  the  RasTi.     A  quiet  reign  whose 
troubles  were  mostly  from  outside.     Sicilian  Vespers  (p.  226). 
Philip  married  his  son, 
1285-1314.   Philip  IV.,  le  Bel,  the  Fair,  with  Johanna,  heiress  of 
Navarre. 
Systematic  introduction  and  development  of  the  Civil   (Roman) 
Law.     Increased  importance  of  parliament,  from  which  ecclesiastics 
were  removed  in  1287  ;  in  1302  it  was  fixed  at  Paris.     (The  French 
parliament  was  a  court,  not  a  legislature). 

Agreement  between  Philip  and  Edward  I.,  of  England,  Edward 
renouncing  his  claims  upon  Normandy  and  receiving  from  Philip 
10,000  livres  and  a  guarantee  of  non-forfeiture  for  the  rest  of  his 
French  fiefs. 

1292-1293.     Conflicts  between  English  and  Norman  sailors  ;  sack  of 
La  Rochelle.     Edward  I.  of  England,  summoned  before  the 
court  of  his  suzerain,  sent  instead  his  brother,  earl  of  Lancas- 
ter, who  surrendered  Guienne  to  Philip  as  security  for  a  satis- 
factory arrangement.      Pnilip,  hereupon,  declared  Edward's 
fiefs  forfeited,  by  reason  of  his  non-appearance. 
1294-1297.     War  between  France  and  England,  carried  on  in  Gas- 
cony  and  in  Flanders,  Philip  being  successful  in  both  fields. 
1299,  June  19.     Peace  was  concluded  between  France  and  England 
at  Montreuil-sur-Mer,  on  the  basis  of  present  possession  as  re- 
garded territory.    Marriage  of  Edward  I.  and  Margaret,  sister 
of  Philip  IV.  (see  below). 
1296-1304.    Quarrel  with  Pope  Boniface  VIII.     The  strife  originated 
in  the  Idng's  need  of  money,  owing  to  the  growmg  central- 
ization of  government,  which  led  Inm  to  tax  ecclesiastical  property. 
Bull,  "  Clericis  laicos,^'  forbidding  the  clergy  to  pay  taxes  to  the  secular 
government  without  consent  of  the  Pope  (1296).     Philip  replied  by 
an  ordinance  prohibiting  the  exportation  of  money  or  valuables  from 
the  kingdom  without  the  king's  permission.     From  these  extreme 
positions  the  princes  gradually  retreated  until  a  reconciliation  was 
patched  up.     As  a  private  man  the  Pope  became  arbitrator  between 
Philip  and  Edward,  and  secured  two  thirds  of  Aquitaine  to  France, 
which  was,  however,  again  transferred  to  England  by  a  marriage 
treaty,  wherein  Edward  was  betrothed  to  Philip's  sister  Margaret,  and 
his  son,  Edward  (IL)  to  Philip's  daughter  Isabelle.     Flanders  an- 
nexed to  France. 

The  quarrel  between  the  king  and  the  Pope  broke  out  afresh  in 

1301.  The  bull  "  Ausculta  jili^''  wherein  the  Pope  asserted  his  su- 
premacy over  all  kings,  was  burned  by  Philip's  order.  Remonstrance 
of  the  estates  of  France  with  the  Pope  (1302). 

Revolt  of  Flanders.     The  French  army  of  feudal  barons  was  totally 
defeated  by  Flemish  citizens  in  the 

1302.  July  1.  Battle  of  Courtrai  {Bay  of  the  Spurs). 

Four  thousand  gilt  spurs  were  captured  by  the  victors.  So 
many  fiefs  were  vacated  that  Philip  saw  the  royal  power  considera« 
bly  strengthened. 


I.,  D,  France.  255 

Publication  of  the  decretal  "  Unam  Sanctam"  Q^cx.  18,  1302) 
claiming  the  supremacy  of  the  spiritual  power  over  the  temporal  ; 
this  was  followed  by  a  threat  of  excommunication.  In  France  the 
last  bull  was  seized,  and  violent  measures  taken  against  the  Pope.  On 
Sept.  7,  1303,  Boniface  VIII.  was  seized  at  Anagni  by  the  king's 
adviser,  Nogeret^  and  Sciarra  Colonna,  and  treated  with  indignity. 
He  was  shortly  released  by  a  popular  uprising,  but  finding  Rome  on 
his  return  in  French  hands,  fell  ill  and  died. 

Philip  recognized  the  independence  of  Flanders  (1305,  June  5). 

Benedict  XI.  dying,  after  nine  months  Philip  secured  the  election  of 
a  Frenchman  as  Clement  V.  Reconciliation  of  the  church  with  the 
king. 

1309.  Removal  of  the  papal  residence  to  Avignon  (1309-1376). 
1307.  Arrest  of  all  Knights  Templars  in  France.  Trial  of  the  knights 
on  various  charges  of  immorality  and  heretical  doctrines  and 
practices.  By  the  free  use  of  hearsay  evidence  and  of  torture,  their 
condemnation  was  secured,  and  fif t^'-f  our  were  burned.  Abolition  of 
the  order  (1312)  by  the  Pope.  Execution  of  the  grand  master, 
Jacques  de  Molai,  confiscation  of  the  lands  of  the  templars.  Annexa- 
tion of  Lyons,  hitherto  independent  through  the  very  number  of  her 
claimants,  to  France  (1312).  Death  of  Philip,  Nov.  29,  1314. 
1314-1316.  Louis  X.  le  Hutin,  the  Quarrelsome,  through  his 
mother  heir  of  Navarre.  His  uncle,  Charles  of  Valois,  was  the 
true  ruler.  Execution  of  Philip's  minister,  De  Marigni.  Serfs  per- 
mitted to  purchase  their  freedom.  {Comme  selon  le  droit  de  nature 
chacun  doit  naistre  franc).     Louis  died  June  6, 1316.     His  brother 

1316-1322.     Philip  V.  le  Long,  the  Tall, 

was  appointed  regent  for  the  queen,  who  was  with  child.  On 
the  death  of  the  queen's  son,  soon  after  birth,  Philip  proclaimed  him- 
self king,  and  to  put  aside  the  claims  of  Jeanne,  daughter  of  Louis  X.y 
he  decreed  that  on  the  basis  of  ancient  Prankish  law,^  no  female  could 
succeed  to  the  throne  of  France  (the  Salic  la"w). 

Excesses  of  the  Pastoureaux  suppressed  by  force.  Attacks  upon 
the  lepers  and  the  Jeios. 

Acquisition  of  Douay,  Orchies,  Ryssel  from  Flanders.  Philip  died 
Jan.  3,  1322,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 

1322-1328.     Charles  IV.,  the  Fair, 

Died  January  31,  1328,  without  male  issue.  Jeanne,  daughter 
of  Louis  X.,  received  Navarre.  In  France,  according  to  the  Salic  law, 
the 


1  LecG  Salica,  tit.  42,  6.  De  terra  rero  salica  in  mulierem  nulla  portio  transit, 
$ed  hoc  virilis  sexus  acquirit.  This  pplies  strictly  to  allodial  possessions,  and 
not  to  fiefs  or  to  the  crown. 


256 


Mediceval  History. 


A.  Di 


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A.  D.  France,  257 

1328-1498  (1589).     House  of  Valois,  a  younger  line  of 
the  Capets,  succeeded. 

Iiouis  VIII.,  1223-1226. 

\ 


IiOuis  IX.,  St.  Louis,  Charles,  count  of  Anjou  and  Provence, 

1226-1270.  ancestor  of  the  kings  of  Naples. 


Philip  III.,  le  Hardi,  Robert  (6th  son),  count  of  Clermont, 

1270-1285.  ancestor  of  the  Bourbons. 

I 

Philip  rV.,  le  Bel,        Charles,  count  of  Valois,     Louis,  count  of  Ev- 
1285-1314.               ancestor  of  the  house  of  reux. 
! Valois.  I 

i  I  \  ^1  I 

Louis  X.,    Philip  v.,    Charles  IV.,    Isabelle      | 
le  Hutin.     le  Long.         le  Bel.  m.  Ed-    Philip  VI., 

1314-1316.  1316-1322.    1322-1328.         ward  II.  1328-1350. 
I  I  of  England.  I 

daughters.      daughter.  ]  | 

Edward  IH.,    John  H., 

I  j  of  England.         le  Bon, 

Jeanne,  John,  1350-1364. 

queen  of  1316. 

Navarre.  lived  seven  days. 

1328-1350.     Philip  VI..  nephew  of  Philip  IV. 

Philip  was  the  choice  of  the  feudal  barons,  who  had  regained 
somewhat  of  their  old  power  since  the  death  of  Philip  the  Fair,  but 
his  tyranny  alienated  his  vassals,  while  his  oppressive  exactions  ham- 
pered trade  and  deprived  him  of  the  hearty  support  of  the  cities. 
Quarrel  with  Ed-ward  IH.  of  England,  springing  out  of  the  claim  of 
the  EngUsh  sovereign  to  the  French  crown  through  his  mother,  Isa- 
belle,  daughter  of  Philip  IV.  (see  the  genealogy).  Alliance  with 
Scotland.     Outbreak  of  the 

1339-1453.  Hundred  years  War  between  France  and 
England.  (Froissart  1337-1410  (?),  chronicler  of  the  war.) 

Naval  victory  of  the  English  and  their  allies,  the  Flemish  (Jacob 
van  Artevelde),  at  Sluys  (1340). 

Contested  succession  in  Brittany  ;  John  de  Montfort,  one  claimant, 
obtained  the  aid  of  Edward,  and  recognized  him  as  king  of  France. 
(Heroism  of  Marguerite,  countess  of  Montfort.)  Landing  of  Edward 
in  Normandy  (1346). 

1346.  Battle  of  Crecy,  in  Picardy. 

August  26,  Victory  of  the  English.  Use  of  cannon  (?).  Death  of 
the  blind  king,  John  of  Bohemia,  the  father  of  Charles  IV.i 

1347.  Capture  of  Calais  (story  of  the  intercession  of  Queen  Philippa). 

1  Recent  investigators  reject  the  story  that  the  fifteen-year-old  Prince  of  Wales 
(the  Black  Prince),  took  from  the  helmet  of  the  fallen  king  John,  the  devise 
"Ichdien." 

17 


258  Mediaeval  Historif,  A.  n. 

1347-1349.    Black  Death  in  France. 

Acquisition  of  Montpellier  from  James  of  Arragon,  and  of  the 
Dauphine  of  Vienne  from  the  last  Dauphin^  Humbert  II.  (who  went 
into  a  monastery)  by  purchase.  Vienne  was  given  to  Charles^  son  of 
John  of  Normandy,  grandson  of  Philip.  He  took  the  title  of  Dauphin^ 
and  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  decreed  that  the  Dauphine  should 
never  be  united  with  the  crown.  Hence  DawjoAm  became  the  title 
of  the  heir  of  the  French  crown. 

Origin  of  the  practice  of  selling  offices  and  titles.  First  imposition 
of  the  gabeUey  a  tax  in  the  form  of  control  of  all  salt  works  by  the  gov- 
ernment.    Death  of  Philip,  Aug.  22, 1350  ;  he  was  followed  by  his  son, 

1350-1364.     John  II.,  le  Bon. 

Feud  with  Charles  the  Bad,  king  of  Navarre  ;  arrest  and  im- 
prisonment of  Charles  (1356). 

1356.     Battle  of  Poitiers  (properly  Maupertuis). 

Sept.  19.  Victory  of  the  Black  Prince  with  10,000  men,  over  John 
with  60,000.  Capture  of  John  (a  prisoner  for  four  years). 
Meanwhile  confusion  reigned  in  France  where  the  young  Dau- 
phin, as  regent,  was  unable  to  suppress  the  terrible  civil  con- 
flicts. 

1357-1358.  Insurrection  of  the  bourgeoisie  of  Paris,  led  by  Btienne 
Marcel,  the  provost  of  the  traders  {premt  des  marchands), 
who  entered  into  treasonable  comiection  with  Charles  the  Bad, 
king  of  Navarre.  Meeting  of  the  estates ;  abolition  of  abuses. 
Truce  with  England  for  two  years.  Murder  of  the  marshaUs 
of  Champagne  and  Normandy  in  the  regent's  presence,  by  order 
of  Marcel.  The  government  in  the  hands  of  Marcel  and  a  com- 
mittee of  thirty-six. 

1358.  Peasant  war,  accompanied  by  horrible  cruelties,  known  as  the 
Jacquerie^  under  the  lead  of  Guillaume  Caillet,  called  Jacques 
Bonhomme,  which  afterwards  became  the  nickname  for  the 
lower  class  in  general,  in  France.     Murder  of  Marcel  in  Paris. 

1360.    Peace  of  Bretigny  (near  Chartres). 

Edward  received  PoitoUy  Guienne,  and  Gascony,  in  full  sover- 
eignty, but  renounced  his  claim  to  the  French  crown,  and  re- 
nounced also  all  other  fiefs  in  France.  Release  of  John,  for  a 
ransom. 

1363.  Burgundy  occupied  by  John  on  the  death  of  the  queen  and  her 
son  by  her  former  marriage,  Philip,  duke  of  Burgundy,  pass- 
ing over  the  claim  of  Charles  of  Navarre.  The  duchy  was 
given  to  the  king^s  son,  Philip  the  Bold,  founder  of  the  Burgun- 
dian  branch  line  of  Valois.  By  his  marriage  with  the  heiress 
of  Flanders,  the  new  duke  laid  the  foundation  of  the  power  of 
the  house  of  Burgundy  in  the  Netherlands.  Return  of  Jolm 
to  captivity.  He  died  April  8,  1364,  and  was  followed  by  his 
son, 

1364-1380.     Charles  V.,  le  Sage,  the  Wise. 

In  the  war  between  Peter  the  Cruel,  of  Castile,  and  his  brother, 
Henry  of  Trastamara,  Charles  favored  the  latter,  while  the  for- 


I 


A.  D.  France.  259 

mer  was  allied  with  the  Black  Prince.  Expelled  by  Bertrand 
du  Guesclin,  Pedro  was  restored  by  the  Black  Prince  (Battle 
of  Naj'ara,  1367).  In  1369  Pedro  was  killed  in  personal  com- 
bat with  his  brother.  Reform  of  the  coinage  in  France. 
1369.  Charles  declared  war  on  Edward.  Du  Guesclin  (1313-1380), 
constable  of  France  (1370).  Most  of  the  English  possessions 
in  France  were  again  united  with  the  crown  of  France.  Death 
of  the  Black  Prince  (1376).  Death  of  Charles,  Sept.  16,  1380. 
He  was  followed  by  his  son, 

1380-1422.     Charles  VI.,  then  eleven  years  old. 

Quarrels  of  his  uncles,  the  dukes  of  Anjou,  of  Burgundy,  of 
Bourbon,  and  of  Berry. 
1386.   Threatened  invasion  of  England  comes  to  naught.     Revolt  in 
Ghent  under  Philip  van  Artevelde.     Crushed  by  Charles  (De 
Clisson,  constable)  at  the  battle  of  Roosebec  (1382) ;  slaughter 
of  the  Flemings.     Death  of  Van  Artevelde. 
1392.  Charles  being  seized  with  madness,  the  regency  was  assumed  by 
the  dukes  of  Burgundy  and  Berry,  setting  aside  the  duke  of 
Orleans,  the  brother  of  the  king.      Civil  strife  between  the 
parties  of  Burgundy  and  Orleans  (Armagnacs  ^). 
1407.    The  duke  of  Orleans  murdered  by  order  of  John,  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy.    Cabochians  (from  one   Caboche,  a  butcher)  in  Paris, 
overthrown  by  the  Orleanists  under  the  Dauphin. 
1415.    Henry  V.  of  England,  landing  at  Harfleur,  captured  that  city 
Oct.  15.    (Sept.  22),  and  in  the  Battle  of  Azincourt  (Agincourt),  hs 
totally  defeated  a  vastly  superior  French  army.     Capture 
of  the  dukes  of  Orleans  and  Bourbon.     Death  of  the  Dauphin,  of  the 
king's  second  son,  John,  and  of  the  duke  of  Berry.     The  queen,  Isa- 
heau,  of  Bavaria,  took  refuge  with  the  duke  of  Burgundy.     Massacre 
of  the  Armagnacs  at  Paris,  1418.     Rouen  captured  by  the  English. 

John  the  Fearless,  duke  of  Burgundy,  murdered  at  the  bridge  of 
Montereau  by  the  followers  of  the  Dauphin  (Tanneguy  Duchdtel). 
John's  son,  Philip,  hereupon  concluded,  with  the  consent  of  the  queen, 
the  Treaty  of  Troyes  with  the  English  (1420).  Henry  V.  married 
Catharine,  daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  and  became  regent  and  heir  of 
France. 

Under  John  the  Fearless  (1371-1419)  and  his  son,  Philip  the  Good 
(1396-1467),  the  house  of  Burgundy  reached  the  summit  of  its  power. 
Philip  made  himself  master  of  the  inheritance  of  Jacqueline,  daughter 
of  William,  count  of  Holland,  although  the  emperor,  Sigismmid,  had 
declared  her  lands  to  be  vacant  fiefs  of  the  empire.  Death  of 
Henry  V.  of  England  (at  Vincennes,  Aug.  31,  1422),  and  of  Charles 
VI.  of  France  (Oct.  21,  1422).  The  latter  was  succeeded  by  his 
son, 

1422-1461.     Charles  VII., 

who,  for  the  present,  was  recognized  south  of  the  Loire  only  ; 
in  the  north  Henry  VI.,  infant  king  of  England,  was  acknowledged 

1  From  Bernard,  count  of  Armagnac,  father-in-law  of  the  duke  of  Orleans, 
who  became  head  of  the  Orleanists  about  1410. 


260  Mediceval  History.  a.  d. 

lord.      Duke  of  Bedford,  regent  in  France,  allied  with  the  duke  of 
Burgundy.     Siege  of  Orleans  (1428). 

1429.  Jeanne  d'Arc  (more  properly,  Dare),  bom  in  Domremy,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Meuse,  convinced  that  she  was  chosen  by 
Heaven  to  be  the  deliverer  of  France,  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  the 
king  permission  to  relieve  Orleans,  the  accomplishment  of  which  feat 
(AprU  29-May  8)  earned  for  her  the  name  Maid  of  Orleans  (La 
Pttcelle).  The  English  driven  back.  Charles  VII.  crowned  at  Rheims. 
Intrigues  against  Jeanne  at  the  French  court.  Captured  by  the  Bur- 
gundians  at  Compiegne  (1430),  she  was  delivered  to  the  English, 
and,  after  a  mock  trial,  condemned  for  sorcery,  and  burnt  in  Rouen 
(1431). 

1435.    The  duke  of  Burgundy  recognized  Charles  VII.,  on  condition 
of   receiving  Auxerre,  Macon,  Peronne,  Montdidier,  and  the 
towns  on  the  Somme,  and  being  released  from  feudal  homage.    Death 
of  the  duke  of  Bedford. 

1436-1449.     Period  of  inaction,  utilized  by  Charles  VII.,  for  the  in- 
troduction of  reforms :  establisliment  of  a  permanent  tax  to 
be  levied  by  the  king  without  the  cooperation  of  the  estates ;  aboli- 
tion of  the  "free  companies,"  and  mstitution  of  regular  companies, 
the  beginning  of  standing  armies  (ordinance  of  Orleans,  1439). 
1449-1461.   Renewal  of  the  war.     After  some  fluctuations  of  fortune 
(Talbot  in  Guyenne  ;  his  death,  1453)  the  English  lost  all 
their  possessions*  in  France  except  Calais. 

1453.  Fall  of  Constantinople.  End  of  the  Eastern  Empire. 
Introduction  of  Grecian  scholars  and  Grecian  ^vriters  into  Eu- 
rope (p.  278).  Death  of  Charles  VII.,  July  22, 1461.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son, 

1461-1483.   Louis  XI., 

who  by  his  shrewdness  and  perfidy  annihilated  the  power  of 
the  great  barons  and  laid  the  foundation  of  absolute  monarchy. 

Revocation  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Charles  VII.  (issued 
in  1438  by  the  council  of  Bourges  :  declaration  of  the  rights  of  the 
Gallican  church  ;  limitation  of  the  power  of  the  papacy  in  France  ; 
appeals  to  Rome  forbidden). 

1462.   Acquisition  of   Roussillon  and   Cerdagne   by  mortgage.     Re- 
demption of  Amiens y  Abbeville    and   St.   Quentin  from  Bur- 
gundy. 

1464.  League  of  the  Public  Weal  (Ligue  du  Men  publique),  a  conspiracy 
of  the  dukes  of  Brittany,  Bourbon,  Lorraine,  Alencon,  Berry, 
and  the  count  of  Charolois.  Battle  of  MontVhery.  Louis  broke  up 
the  league  by  the  concessions  of  the  treaty  of  Confians  (restoration 
of  the  towns  on  the  Somme,  Normandy  granted  to  the  duke  of 
Berry),  the  execution  of  which  he  evaded.  Death  of  Philip  of  Bur- 
gundy ;  accession  of  his  son  Charles  the  Bold  (le  Temeraire).  Con- 
flict between  the  duke  and  the  king.  Meeting  at  Peronne  (Oct.  1468). 
Storm  of  Liege. 

1475.  Invasion  of  France  by  Edward  IV.  of  England  in  alliance 
with  Burgundy.     Meeting  at  Pequigny  (near  Amiens)  between 


A.  D. 


France. 


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262  Mediaeval  History.  A.  D. 

Louis  and  Edward.     Betrothal  of  the  Dauphin  Charles  to  Edward's 
eldest  daughter.     Peace  between  France  and  Burgundy. 

War  of  Charles  the  Bold  with  the  Swiss  cantons.     Defeat  of  the 
duke  in  the 

1476.  Battle  of  Granson,  in  the 
March.  1. 

June  22.   Battle  of  Murten,  (Morat)  and  in  the 

1477.  Battle  of  Nancy,  where  Charles  was  slain, 

Jan.  5.  The  duchy  of  Burgundy  united  with  the  crown  of  France,  as 
was  likewise  Anjouy  Provence ,  and  Maine  through  the  extinction 
of  the  house  of  Anjou  (1480).  Annexation  of  Alen(^on,  Perches  Guyenne, 
during  this  reign.  The  king's  servants  :  Olivier  le  Dain,  Tristan 
VHermite.  Death  of  Louis  XI.,  Aug.  30,  1483.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son, 
1483-1498.   Charles  Vm. 

Death  of  the  duke  of  Brittany  (1488).  The  coalition  of  the 
emperor,  Spain,  and  England  to  preserve  the  independence  of  the 
duchy  bore  no  fruit.  In  1491  Charles  married  Anne^  daughter  of 
the  duke  of  Brittany.  Peace  of  Senlis  with  the  emperor  (1493)  ; 
peace  of  Etaples  with  England.  Cession  of  RoussiLUm  and  Cerdagne 
to  Spain. 

1495.  Rapid  conquest  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples  which  Charles 
claimed  by  inheritance  through  his  father  from  Charles,  count 
of  Maine  and  Provence  (see  the  genealogy),  which,  however,  he  was 
soon  forced  to  abandon  in  consequence  of  a  league  between  the  Pope, 
the  emperor  J  the  duke  of  Milany  Venice,  and  Spain.  (5ce  p.  318.} 

§  3.    ITALY.  {Seep.  226.) 

IMKlan :  since  the  time  of  the  emperor  Henry  VII.  (1308-1313) 
under  the  Visconti  as  imperial  viceroys;  since  1395  as  dukes. 
After  the  extinction  of  the  line  of  the  Visconti  (1447)  Milan  became 
for  a  short  time  a  republic.  The  condottieri  Francesco  S/orza,  hus- 
band of  a  daughter  of  the  last  Visconti,  who  served  in  the  pay  of 
Milan,  soon  seized  the  power  and  became  duke  of  Milan  (1450). 
Venice  :  since  697  one  state  under  a  doge  (dux)  ;  from  about  1000 
A.  D.,  ruler  of  the  Adriatic,  increased  in  power  and  influence 
throughout  the  period  of  the  crusades.  Participation  in  the  so-called 
fourth  crusade  (p.  216),  under  the  doge  Henry  Danddo,  then  ninety- 
four  years  of  age.  After  the  crusades  and  the  war  with  Genoa,  which 
lasted  125  years,  Venice  was  mistress  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
trade  with  the  East,  during  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 
Acquisition  of  Corfu  1387,  of  Cyprus  by  gift  of  Catharine  Comaro, 
1489.  The  republic  at  the  height  of  its  power  in  the  first  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  Constitution  strictly  oligarchicaL  1172.  Establish- 
ment of  the  Great  Council,  with  450-^500  members,  followed  by  that 
of  the  Small  Council  (Signoria),  which  limited  the  power  of  the  doges 
still  more.  1298.  Closing  of  the  Great  Council.  G-olden  book  of  the 
nobility  (1315).  Conspiracies  —  among  others  that  of  the  doge 
Marino  Faliero  (executed  in  1355)  —  led  to  the  creation  of  the  power- 
ful Council  of  Ten.     Since  1439  the  three  terrible  state  inquisitors. 


A..  D.  England.  263 

Genoa,  since  the  reestablishment  of  the  Greek  empire  in  the  East 
a  powerful  state,  especially  since  the  final  victory  over  Pisa  in  Italy 
(Sardinia  and  Corsica)  ;  weakened  by  the  war  with  Venice  and  by 
civil  disturbances  in  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  ;  sub- 
jected now  to  Milan,  now  to  France. 

In  Florence,  after  long  civil  contests,  democracy  and  tyranny 
having  ruled  the  city  in  turn  since  1282,  the  family  of  Medici  ac- 
quired princely  rank,  about  1400,  and  brought  the  city  to  its  highest 
point  of  power.  Giovanni  d^  Medici,  a  rich  banker,  founder  of  the 
power  of  his  family.  His  son,  Cosimo  (Cosmus),  the  father  of  his 
country  (died  14G4).  Under  his  grandson,  Lorenzo  (died  1492),  de- 
velopment of  the  arts  in  Florence.  Renovation  of  the  sciences, 
advanced  by  Grecian  scholars,  who  had  fled  from  the  Eastern  Empire 
before  the  Turks.  Dante  Alighieri,  author  of  the  "  Divine  Comedy," 
born  1265,  at  Florence,  where  he  played  an  important  part  in  the 
political  complications,  banished  1302,  died  at  Ravenna,  September  14, 
1321.  Francesco  Petrarca,  the  "  father  of  the  revival  of  learning  " 
(1304-1374).  Giovanni  Boccaccio  (1313-1375),  author  of  the  "  De- 
camerone." 

The  Papal  States,  founded  by  the  presents  of  Pipin  and  Charles 
the  Great  (p.  184)  ;  in  the  twelfth  century  increased  by  the  bequest 
of  the  countess  Matilda  of  Tuscany  (p.  200)  and  other  acquisitions  ; 
since  Innocent  III.  completely  independent  of  the  empii-e.  Pope 
Boniface  VIII.  (1294-1303)  at  variance  with  Philip  IV.  of  France 
(p.  254).  His  successor,  Clement  V.  (a  Frenchman),  transferred 
the  papal  residence  to  Avignon.     Residence  of  the  Popes  at 

1309-1376.     Avignon.     ("  Babylonish  captivity.") 

At  Rome  the  visionary  tribune  Cola  di  Rienzi  (1347,  papal 
senator  1354).  Comtat  Venaissin  in  the  thirteenth  century,  Avignon 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  became  the  property  of  the  papacy. 

From  1378  on  there  was  one  Pope  at  Rome,  elected  by  the  Italian 
cardinals,  and  one  at  Avignon,  elected  by  the  French  cardinals,  to 
which  number  the  Council  of  Pisa  (1409)  added  a  third,  until  the 
Council  of  Constance  restored  the  imity  of  the  church  (p.  251). 
(Great  Schism,  1378-1417). 

At  Naples,  the  house  of  Anjou  :  the  elder  line  until  1382  (death  of 
Queen  Joan  I.) ;  the  younger  (Durazzo)  until  1435  (death  of  Joan  II.). 
(See  the  genealogy,  p.  261.) 

Sicily,  1282-1295  united  with  Aragon ;  1295-1409  under  a  branch 
of  the  house  of  Aragon  ;  after  1409  again  united  with  Aragon, 
whose  king,  Alphonso  V.  (1416-1458),  conquered  Naples  in  1435. 
After  his  death  (1458),  Naples,  hut  not  Sicily,  descended  to  his  natural 
son  (Ferdinand  I.)  and  his  successors  ( — 1501).  {Seep.  326.) 

§  4.    ENGLAND.  {Seep.  235.) 

1272-1307.     Edward  I.,  Longshanhs. 

The  great  events  of  this  reign  were  the  annexation  of  "Wales 
to  England  and  the  introduction  of  financial,  legal,  and  legislative 
reforms. 


264  3£ediceval  History.  a.  d. 

Edward  was  returning  from  the  (seventh)  Crusade,  when  he  heard 
of  his  accession  at  Capua.  Devotmg  a  year  to  Gascony,  he  reached 
England  and  was  crowned  in  1274. 

During  the  barons'  wars  "Wales  had  become  practically  independ- 
ent, and  Iile-welyn,  prince  of  North  Wales,  refused  even  nominal 
submission  to  Edward  until 

1276-1284.     Conquest  of  "Wales. 

1277.  Edward  led  an  army  into  Wales,  and  forced  the  prince  to 
cede  the  coast  district  as  far  as  Conway,  and  do  homage  for 
the  rest. 

1282.  Insurrection  of  Llewelyn  and  his  brother  David.  After 
hard  fighting,  the  death  of  Llewelyn  (Dec,  1282)  and  the  cap- 
ture of  David  (hanged,  drawn,  and  quartered,  Sept.  1283)  led 
to  the  complete  submission  of  the  country.  (No  "  Massacre 
of  the  Bards.") 

1284.  Annexation  of  "Wales  to  England.  After  this  the  title 
"  Prince  of  Wales  "  was  generally  given  to  the  heir  of  the 
crown. 

1289.  Return  of  the  king  from  a  three  years'  absence  in  Gascony  ; 
punishment  of  the  oppressive  judges. 

1290.  Expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  England  (over  16,000). 

1291.  Death  of  the  queen,  Eleanor  (daughter  of  Ferdinand  III.  of 
Castile).  Erection  of  crosses  along  the  route  by  which  the  body 
was  carried  from  Lincolnshire  to  London  ;  those  at  Northamp- 
ton and  Waltham  still  exist. 

1292.  Baliol,  whom  Edward  had  decided  to  be  the  rightful  heir  to 
the  Scottish  throne,  did  homage  for  the  fief  and  became  king 
of  Scotland. 

After  the  death  of  Alexander  III.  of  Scotland  the  crown  passed  to 
his  granddaughter  Margaret,  the  Maid  of  Norway,  to  whom  Edward 
had  betrothed  his  son  ;  but  she  died  on  the  voyage  from  Norway 
(1290),  and  thirteen  claimants  for  the  crown  appeared.  The  Scottish 
estates  being  unable  to  decide  between  the  two  strongest  claimants, 
Baliol  and  Bruce,  referred  the  case  to  Edward.  (See  the  gene- 
alogy.) 

1293.  Hostilities  between  English  sailors  from  the  Cinque  Ports 
{Dover,   Sandwich,   Hastings,    Hythe,   Romney)  ^  and   French 

mariners  resulted  in  a  naval  battle.  Philip  IV.  of  France  summoned 
Edward  to  Paris  to  answer  for  the  occurrence.  As  a  step  in  the 
negotiations  the  fortresses  of  Guyenne  were  temporarily  placed  in 
Philip's  hands,  whereupon  he  declared  Edward  contumacious  and  his 
fiefs  forfeited. 

1294.  Rebellion  of  Madoc  in  Wales  suppressed. 

1294.     War  with  France  followed  by  war  with  Scotland,  which 

joined  France. 
1296.     Capture  of  Berwick  ;  massacre  of  the  inhabitants.     Defeat 

1  These  towns,  to  which  PTmc/if^sea,  Rye,  and  Senford  were  afterwards  added, 
possessed  peculiar  privileges.  They  were  under  the  care  of  the  Warden  of  the 
Cinque  Ports  ;  their  representatives  in  Parliament  were  known  as  barons.  The 
towns  were  fortified  under  William  I. 


A.  D. 


England, 


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266  Mediceval  History.  a.  d. 

of  the  Scots  at  Dunbar.  Baliol  resigned  the  crown  and  was 
imprisoned.  Scotch  coronation  stone  carried  to  London.  Scot- 
land under  an  English  regent. 

1297.     Revolt  of  the  Scots  under  Sir  William  Wallace.     Defeat 
of  the  regent. 
Edward's  demands  for  money  from  the  clergy  being  refused  (bull 

Clericis  laicos,  1296),  the  recalcitrant  clergy  were  placed  under  the 

ban. 

In  1297  the  king  summoned  the  barons  to  follow  him  to  FlanderSc 

The  resistance  of  the  lords  ended  with  the  acquiescence  of  the  king 

in  the 

1297.  Re-issue  of  the  Great  Charter  and  the  forest  charter  {Cmijir- 
matio  chartarwni)  with  additional  articles,  by  wliich  the  right 
of  taxation  without  the  consent  of  Parliament  was  renoimced 
(1301). 

1298.  Truce  with  France  enabled  Edward  to  invade  Scotland.  At 
the 

July  22.     Battle  of  Falkirk, 

the  Scots  under  Wallace  were  completely  defeated.  Appeal 
to  the  Pope,  who  laid  claim  to  the  suzerainty  over  Scotland,  — 
a  claim  which  was  rejected  by  the  English  lords  in  1301. 

1303.  Peace  of  Amiens  with  France.  Edward  had  previously  mar- 
ried Margaret,  sister  of  Philip  IV.,  and  betrothed  his  son  Ed- 
ward to  Philip's  daughter  Isabella.  Invasion  of  Scotland. 
Submission  of  Bruce  and  Comyn. 

1305.  Execution  of  Wallace,  who  had  been  betrayed  to  the  English. 

1306.  Opposing  claims  of  Bruce  and  Comyn ;  murder  of  Comyn, 
coronation  of  Robert  Bruce  (March  27). 

1307.  July  7.     Death  of  Edward  I.,  on  his  way  to  Scotland. 

Legal  and  Legislative  reforms  under  Edward. 

1275.  First  statute  of  Westminster  :  a  codification  of  previous  stat- 
utes. Grant  of  a  regular  tax  on  exported  wool,  and  of  a  fif- 
teenth of  movable  property.  These  forms  of  taxation,  the  in- 
direct customs  duties,  and  the  taxation  of  personal  estate  were 
intended  to  supplement  the  older  land  tax,  which  they  grad- 
ually surpassed  in  importance. 
Separation  of  the  old  king's  court  into  three  tribunals  :  Court 
of  Exchequer,  for  cases  where  the  royal  revenue  was  in- 
volved ;  Court  of  King's  Bench,  with  jurisdiction  in  all 
matters  concerning  the  sovereign,  and  in  criminal  cases  espe- 
cially reserved  for  his  decision  ("pleas  of  the  crown  ");  Court 
of  Common  Pleas,  for  cases  between  private  individuals. 
Development  of  the  jurisdiction  of :  1.  the  royal  council  (later  the 
"  Star  Chamber  ") ;  2.  of  the  Chancellor,  in  cases  where  relief 
could  not  be  obtained  by  the  ordinary  or  "  common  "  law. 
This  higher  jurisdiction  emanating  directly  from  the  sovereign 
was  known  as  equity. 

1279.  Statute  of  Mortmain  (de  religiosis),  forbidding  the  aliena- 
tion of  land  to  religious  bodies  (whereby  it  became  free  from 
feudal  dues)  without  the  permission  of  the  king. 


A.  D.  England.  267 

1285.  Statute  of  Winchester,  re^ilating  the  militia  and  the  pre- 
servation of  public  order.  Conservators  of  the  Peace  (later 
called  Justices  of  the  Peace)  appointed  in  every  shire  to  execute 
the  provisions  of  the  statute.  Second  Statute  of  Westminster, 
amending  the  Statute  of  Mortmain. 

1290.  Third  Statute  of  Westminster  (Quia  emptores},  providing  that 
when  land  was  alienated  the  sub-tenant  should  hold  directly  of 
the  overlord,  and  not  of  the  tenant. 

1295.  Summons  of  the  first  perfect  Parliament ;  clergy, 
barons  summoned  severally  by  special  writ ;  commons  sum- 
moned by  writ  to  the  sheriffs  directing  the  election  of  two 
knights  from  each  shire,  two  citizens  from  each  city,  two 
burghers  from  each  borough. 

1297."  De  Tallagio  non  Concedendo,  prohibiting  the  imposition  of 
taxation  without  the  consent  of  Parliament. 

1307-1327.     Edward  II., 

fourth  son  of  Edward  I.  Peace  with  Scotland  ;  Aymer  de 
Valence,  governor.  Recall  of  the  king's  favorite,  Piers  Gaveston,  a 
Gascon,  who  had  been  banished  by  Edward  I.  Marriage  of  Ed- 
ward II.  with  Isabella  of  France.  Gaveston  soon  incurred  the  hatred 
of  the  barons,  and  he  was  banished  (1308),  soon,  however,  to  be  re- 
called. 

1310.  Government  entrusted  to  twenty-one  ordainers. 

1311.  Ordinances  of  the  Parliament  of  1311  presented  by  the 
ordainers.  Reform  of  abuses  ;  punishment  of  favorites  ;  ap- 
pointment of  great  officers  by  and  with  the  consent  and  approval 
of  the  barons  ;  consent  of  the  barons  necessary  for  declaration 
of  war  ;  parliaments  to  be  called  every  year.  Execution  of 
Gaveston  (1312). 

The  successes  of  Bruce  in  Scotland  (capture  of  Linlithgow,  1311; 
Perth,  1312  ;  Edinburgh,  1313  ;  siege  of  Stirling,  1314)  produced  a 
temporary  reconciliation  between  the  king  and  the  barons.  Edward 
marched  to  Scotland  with»100,000  men,  and  in  the 

1314.     Battle  of  Bannockburn, 

June  24.  was  totally  defeated  by  30,000  foot-soldiers  under  Robert 
Bruce. 

The  king's  new  favorites,  the  two  Despensers,  father  and  son,  were 
as  displeasing  to  the  nobility  as  Gaveston  had  been  ;  in  1321  Parlia- 
ment decreed  the  exile  of  the  favorites.  Edward  showed  unexpected 
energy  ;  at  the  battle  of  Boroughhridge,  the  earl  of  Lancaster,  the 
leader  of  the  barons,  was  defeated  and  captured  (executed  March, 
1322).  Repeal  of  the  ordinances  of  1311.  After  an  unsuccessful 
invasion  of  Scotland, 

1323.  Edward  concluded  peace  for  thirteen  years  with  Bruce,  whosQ 
assumption  of  the  royal  title  was  passed  over  in  silence. 

Isabella,  sent  to  France  in  1325  to  treat  with  Charles  IV.,  concern- 
ing the  English  fiefs  in  France,  intrigued  with  Roger  Mortimer  and 
other  hostile  barons,  and  in  1326  landed  in  England.  Capture  of 
Bristol  •  execution  of  the  Despensers  ;  imprisonment  of  the  king. 


268  Mediceval  History.  A.  D. 

1327.  Deposition  of  Edward  II.,  in  parliament;  accession  of  his  son, 
Edward.  Edward,  imprisoned  in  Berkeley  Castle,  was  there 
murdered,  Sept.  21,  1327. 

1327-1377.     Edward  III. 

Council  of  regency  (earl  of  Lancaster),  Edward  being  but 
fifteen  years  of  age.     The  queen  and  Mortimer  the  true  rulers. 

1328.  Unsuccessful  war  with  Scotland.  James,  earl  of  Douglas. 
Treaty  of  Northampton.  Bruce  recognized  as  king,  and  feu- 
dal superiority  of  the  English  crown  renounced. 

1330.    Edward  took  the  government  into  his  own  hands.     Execution 
of  Mortimer.     Imprisonment  of  the  queen-mother. 
The  death  of  Robert  Bruce  (1329)  was  followed  by  civil  war  in 
Scotland,  during  which  Edward  Baliol  seized  the  crown  ;   Bruce 's 
infant  son,  David,  fled  to  France.     Baliol  did  homage  to  Edward, 
which  induced  a  revolt  of  the  Scottish  nobles:  Baliol  driven  over  the 
border.     Edward  hastened  north;  defeat  of  the  Scots  in  the 
1333.    Battle  of  Halidon  Hill,  near  Berwick  (henceforward  this  town 
belonged  to  England).     Baliol  restored  to  the  Scottish  throne. 
Scotland  south  of  the  Forth  ceded  to  England,  and  homage 
rendered  for  the  remainder.     Alliance  between  the  patriotic 
party  in  Scotland  and  France. 
1337.    War   with    France    (the    Hundred   Years'   War).      Edward 
claimed  the  French  crown  in  right  of  his  mother  (see  p.  257). 

1341.  Completion  of  the  separation  of  parliament  into  an  Upper 
House  (Lords),  composed  of  the  nobility,  and  a  Lower  House 
(Commons),  composed  of  the  representatives  of  boroughs  and 
the  knights  of  shires.  The  process  of  separation  had  begun 
as  far  back  as  the  reign  of  Edward  I. 

The  responsibility  of  ministers  established  by  act  of  parliament 
(revoked  by  the  king  in  the  same  year). 

1342.  David  Bruce  returned  to  Scotland  and  recovered  the  throne. 
Scotland  henceforward  independent. 

1346.  Battle  of  Neville's  Cross,  near  Durham  ;  defeat  of  the 
Scots  ;  capture  of  David  II.,  who  was  retained  in  captivity 
until  1357.    Battle  of  Crecy,  p.  257. 

1348-49.  Black  Death  in  England;  more  than  a  half  of  the  popula- 
tion perished.  As  the  visita,tions  of  the  plague  were  especially 
heavy  among  the  lower  classes,  a  scarcity  of  labor  and  rise  of 
wages  followed,  which  led  to  the  passing  of  the  Statute  of 
Laborers,  regulating  wages.  In  the  next  year  (1350)  laborers 
were  forbidden  to  leave  their  own  parish. 

1356.  Edward  invaded  and  ravaged  Scotland,  but  won  no  lasting  suc- 
cess. Battle  of  Poitiers,  p.  258.  In  1357  David  II.  was  ransomed. 

1360.  Peace  of  Bretigny  (p.  258).  Renunciation  of  the  French 
crown  and  of  Normandy,  Anjou,  Maine,  Touraine.  Cession 
in  full  sovereignty  to  England  of  Aquitaine  (Gascony,  Guyenne 
Poitou,  Saintonge,  the  Limousin,  the  Angoumois,  Perigord,  Bi- 
gorre,  Rouergue),  Ponthieu,  Guisnes,  Calais. 

1361.  Return  of  the  Black  Death.  Popular  discontent.  Preaching 
of  John  Ball.  William  Longland,  author  of  Piers  Plow- 
man. 


A.  D.  England.  269 

1369.  Final  visitation  of  the  Black  Death. 

1370.  Capture  of  Limoges  by  the  Black  Prince  ;  massacre  of  the  in- 
habitants (death  of  the  Black  Prince,  June  8,  1376). 

1371.  John  of  Gaunt,  fourth  son  of  Edward  III.,  married  the 
daughter  of  Pedro  the  Cruel  of  Castile,  and  assumed  the  title 
of  king  of  Castile. 

Loss  of  all  the  English  possessions  in  France,  except  Bordeaux, 
Calais,  and  Bayonne.     Peace  for  three  years  (1374). 

1376.  The  Good  Parliament.  Opposition  of  William  of  Wykeham 
and  Peter  de  la  Mare  (Speaker  of  the  Commons)  to  John  of 
Gaunt.  Punishment  of  favorites,  reformation  of  the  arbitrary 
royal  council  (Concilium  Ordinarium).  After  the  dissolution  of 
the  parliament  John  of  Gaunt  disregarded  its  enactments  ;  to 
William  of  Wykeham  he  opposed  John  "WicUf  (1327-1384), 
who  taught  that  the  property  of  the  clergy  was  at  the  disposal 
of  the  crown. 

1377,  June  20.     Death  of  Edward  III. 

During  this  reign  the  crime  of  treason  was  defined  by  the 
Statute  of  Treason  (1351) ;  transfer  of  a  suit  to  foreign  courts  was  pro- 
hibited (1353,  future  Statute  of  Prcemunire) ;  Parliament  acquired  the 
power  of  impeachment;  trial  by  jury  assumed  a  more  modem  form 
(^separation  of  the  old  jury  into  a  jury  proper,  and  witnesses) ;  a  poll- 
tax  was  introduced  (1377) ;  English  was  directed  to  be  used  in  courts 
of  law  (1361).  In  Ireland,  the  Statute  of  Kilkenny  (1367)  prohibited 
intermarriage  of  the  English  and  Irish,  and  supplanted  the  native  lan- 
guage and  customs  by  English. 

1377-1399.   Richard  II., 

son  of  the  Black  Prince,  twelve  years  old.  The  king  was  in 
the  hands  of  Parliament,  and  his  uncles,  the  dukes  of  Lancaster 
(John  of  Gaunt),  York,  and  Gloucester,  were  excluded  from  the  re- 
gency. The  war  with  France  and  Scotland  requiring  money,  a  poll- 
tax  was  assessed  in  1379,  and  again  in  1380. 
1381.   Revolt  of  the  peasants  under  John  Ball  and  "Wat  Tyler; 

capture  of  London  ;  burning  of  the  duke  of  Lancaster's  palace, 

the  Savoy.     Wat  Tyler  killed  by  Wahvorth,  mayor  of  London. 

Suppression  of  the  revolt.     Disregard  of  the  charter  abolishing 

serfdom,  which  Richard  had  at  first  granted.     Villanage  was, 

however,  doomed. 
Wyclif 's  doctrines  spread  by  his  "  poor  preachers."     Denial  of 

Transubstantiation  (1381).      Wiclif's  adherents  nicknamed 

Lollards  by  their  opponents.       Wiclif's   translation   of   the 

Bible. 
1388.    Battle  of  Chevy  Chase  (Otterburne),  between  Lord  Henry  Percy 

and  the  earl  of  Douglas  ;  defeat  of  the  English.     {Ballad  of 

Chevy  Chase). 
Quarrel  between  Richard  and  his  favorites,  (Robert  de  Vere,  Michael 
de  la  Pole),  and  the  parliament.  In  1386,  Continual  Coimcil  under 
the  duke  of  Glojicester,  for  one  year.  Defeat  of  the  king  ;  impeach- 
ment of  Vere  and  others,  before  the  "  Wonderful "  Parliament  (1388). 
In  1389  Richard  took  the  government  into  his  own  hands. 


270  Mediceval  History.  A.  d. 

1393.  Statute  of  Praemunire,  prohibiting  the  introduction  of  papal 
bulls. 

1396.  Richard  married  Isabella,  daughter  of  Charles  VI.  of  France, 
and  concluded  peace  for  26  years. 

1397.  Imprisonment  (and  death)  of  the  duke  of  Gloucester.  Im- 
peachment of  the  earls  of  Arundel,  Warwick,  Nottingham, 
Derby.  Arundel  was  executed  ;  Warwick  imprisoned  for  life  ; 
Nottingham  was  made  duke  of  Norfolk  ;  Derby  (Henry  Bo- 
lingbroke,  son  of  John  of  Gaunt),  duke  of  Hereford. 

1398.  Quarrel  between  Hereford  and  Norfolk.  The  king  forbade 
their  combat,  and  banished  Norfolk  for  life,  Hereford  for  six 
years. 

Richard  made  an  expedition  to  Ireland,  wh6re  the  isolation 
of  the  English  who  were  settled  within  the  conquered  district, 
the  so-called  English  Pale  (Drogheda,  Dublin,  Wexford,  Water- 
ford,  Cork)  had  rendered  them  almost  independent  of  England. 
During  his  absence 

1399.  Henry  Bolingbroke,  since  the  death  of  his  father,  duke  of 
Lancaster,  landed  in  England.  Richard  returned  from  Ire- 
land, only  to  be  captured,  deposed,  and  imprisoned  in  the 
castle  of  Pontefract  (murdered  ?). 

Geoffrey  Chaucer  (died  1400),  Canterbury  Tales. 

1399-1461.     House  of  Lancaster,  a  branch  of  the  house 

of  Plantagenet. 
1399-1413.     Henry  IV., 

under  which  name  the  duke  of  Lancaster  ascended  the  throne, 
the  claims  of  Edmund  Mortimer,  earl  of  March,  the  true  heir,  being 
passed  over. 

1400.  Conspiracy  of  the  earls  of  Rutland,  Huntingdon,  Salisbury, 
Kent,  and  Spencer  suppressed.  Revolt  of  Wales  under  OTven 
Glendo-wer  ;  defeat  of  Sir  Edmund  Mortimer  (1402). 

1402.  A  Scottish  inroad  under  the  earl  of  Douglas  defeated  at  Hom- 
ildon  Hill.     Capture  of  Douglas. 

As  Henry  refused  to  allow  the  ransom  of  Edmund  Mortimer  (he 
being  the  uncle  of  the  young  earl  of  March,  the  true  heir  to  the 
crown),  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against  him  by  Harry  Percy  {Hot- 
spur), brother-in-law  of  Mortimer,  to  whose  family  the  king  was  largely 
indebted  for  his  throne,  who  induced  his  father,  the  earl  of  Northum- 
berland, and  his  uncle,  the  earl  of  Worcester,  to  joui  with  himself.  Glen- 
dower,  and  Douglas,  and  take  up  arms.     In  the 

1403.  Battle  of  Shrewsbury, 

July  21.     the  conspirators  were  defeated.    Harry  Percy  was  killed  and 
Douglas  taken.     Conspiracy  of  Mowbray  and  Scroop,  archbishop 
of  York  ;  execution  of  the  conspirators. 
1405.     Capture  of  James,  heir  of  the  Scottish  throne,  while  on  his  way 
to  the  court  of  France  (James  was  the  second  son  of  Robert 
III.  of  Scotland  ;  the  eldest,  duke  of  Rothsay,  had  been  starved  to 
death  by  the  king's  brother,  duke  of  Albany)^  and  detained  in  Eng- 
land imtil  1423. 


A.  D.  England.  271 

1408.     Defeat  of  the  earl  of  Northumberland  and  Lord  Bardolph  at 

Bramham  Moor;  death  of  the  former. 
1413.   March  20.     Death  of  Henry  IV. 

1413-1422.   Henry  V.,  Monmouth. 

While  prince,  companion  of  wild  rakes  ;  as  king,  energetic  and 
brave. 

Trial  and  condemnation  for  heresy  of  Sir  John   Oldcastle  (Lord 
Cobham),  a  friend  of  the  king.     Oldcastle  escaped  from  prison,  and 
a  rising  of  the  Lollards  assumed  formidable  proportions  ;  it  was,  how- 
ever, easily  suppressed.     (Oldcastle  captured  and  burned,  1417). 
1415.     Conspiracy  of  the  earl  of  Cambridge,  Lord  Scrope  and  Sir 

Thomas  Grey  detected.     Execution  of  the  conspirators. 
1415-1420.     "War  with  France  (p.  259). 
1415.   Oct.  25.    Battle  of  Agincourt. 
1417.     Second  invasion  of  France.     In  England,  unsuccessful  Scottish 

inroad  ("  The  Foul  Raid  "). 

1420.  May  21.     Peace  of  Troyes. 

Henry  married  Catharine,  daughter  of  Charles  YII.  of  France, 
and  was  accepted  as  regent  and  heir  of  the  crown. 

1421.  Third  invasion  of  France. 

Death  of  Henry  at  Vincennes,  August  31,  1422. 
Use  of  English  in  the  House  of  Commons.     Sir  Richard  Whit'.ing- 
ton,  thrice  lord  mayor  of  London. 

1422-1461.     Henry  VI.,    Windsor. 

Not  quite  nine  months  old  at  his  father's  death.     Parliament 
refused  to  appoint  a  regency,  and  named  the  king's  uncle,  duke  of 
Gloucester,  protector,  in  the  absence  of  his  brother,  the  duke  of  Bed- 
ford, who  was  regent  in  France. 
1423.     Liberation  of  James  I.  of  Scotland,  after  the  conclusion  of  an 

agreement  with  the  English  not  to  assist  one  another's  enemies. 
1422-1453.   War  in  France.     Expulsion  of  the  English.      {Joan 

of  Arc.)     Seep.  260. 
1437.     James  I.  of  Scotland  murdered  by  the  earl  of  Athol  and 

Robert  Grahame. 
1445.     Marriage  of  Henry  VI.  with  Margaret,  daughter  of  Rene, 

titular  king  of  Naples  and  Jerusalem.  Henry  promised  to  re- 
store to  Rene  his  hereditary  lands  of  Anjou  and  Maine.  This  mar- 
riage was  the  work  of  William  de  la  Pole,  earl  of  Suffolk  (soon  made 
a  duke),  whose  influence  at  court  surpassed  that  of  the  earlier  adviser. 
Cardinal  Beaufort  (died  1447).  Arrest  and  suspicious  death  of  the 
duke  of  Gloucester.  The  loss  of  Normandy  was  followed  by  the  im- 
peachment of  Suffolk,  who  was  banished  by  Henry,  but  seized  at  sea 
and  put  to  death  (1450). 
1450.     Rebellion  of  Jack  Cade  ("  Mortimer  "). 

The  insurgents  occupied  London  and  murdered  Lord  Say,  one 
of  the  ministers.  The  rebellion  was  soon  suppressed,  and  Cade,  while 
in  hiding,  was  killed  by  Alexander  Iden. 

The  government  now  passed   into  the  hands  of  Richard,  duke  of 
York,  grandson  of  the  fffi  son  of  Edward  III.,  son  of  Anna  Morti- 


272  Mediceval  History.  A.  D. 

mer,  heiress  of  the  claims  of  the  third  linef  who  retnrned  to  England 
from  Ireland  ;  his  power,  however,  was  not  enough  to  oust  his  rival, 
the  duke  of  Somerset,  grandson  of  John  of  Gaunt,  and  in  1452  he 
was  induced  to  dismiss  his  army,  and  then  forced  to  swear  allegiance. 

1452.  James  II.  of  Scotland  murdered  William,  earl  of  Douglas  ; 
defection  of  the  Douglases  to  England. 

1453.  Battle  of  Castillon  in  France.  Death  of  Talbot,  earl  of 
Shrewsbury.  Surrender  of  Bordeaux.  Of  all  the  English 
possessions  in  France  Calais  alone  -was  left  in  their 
hands. 

1453.  Birth  of  Prince  Edward,  son  of  Henry  VI.  Insanity  of 
Henry.  The  duke  of  York  protector.  Imprisonment  of 
Somerset.  The  recovery  of  the  king  in  1454  was  followed  by 
the  restoration  of  Somerset  to  power. 

The  duke  of  York,  the  earls  of  Salisbury  and  Warwick, 
now  took  up  arms  against  Henry  and  liis  advisers. 

1455-1485.  Wars  of  the  Red  Rose  of  Lancaster  and 
the  White  Rose  of  York  (see  the  genealogical  table). 

1455.  Battle  of  St.  Albans.     York  victorious.     Death  of  Somer- 

May  22.  set ;  capture  of  Henry.  A  hollow  reconciliation  (1458) 
was  followed   by  a  new  resort  to  arms.     At  the   battle   of 

Bloreheath  (Sept.  23,  1459),  the  Lancastrians  were  defeated.     The 

victory  was  a  barren  one  for  York  ;  defection  in  his  army  caused  him 

to   abandon  the  contest  and  retire  to  Ireland.      Flight  of  Yorkist 

leaders.     York  and  his  party  attainted  of  treason  by  the  ParUament 

of  Coventry. 

1460.  Landing  of  the  earls  of  Salisbury,  March  (afterwards  Ed- 
ward IV.),  and  Warwick,  in  England.     In  the 

1460.  Battle  of  Northampton, 

July  10.  the  Lancastrians  were  defeated  ;  capture  of  Henry  ;  flight 
of  Margaret  and  her  son  to  Scotland.     The  duke  of  York 

entered  London  and  preferred  his  claim  to  the  crown.     Parliament 

decided  that  he  should  succeed  Henry. 

1460.  Battle  of  Wakefield. 

Dec.  30.  Defeat  of  York  by  the  queen  and  Prince  Edward.  York 
fell  on  the  field,  the  earl  of  SaUsbury  and  the  earl  of 
Rutland,  son  of  York,  were  killed. 

1461.  Battle  of  Mortimer's  Cross,  near  Hereford.  Defeat  of  the 
Feb.  2.  Lancastrians  by  the  son  of  the  duke  of  York,  Edward,  earl 

of  March  (now  duke  of  York). 
Feb.  17.  Second  Battle  of  St.  Albans. 

Defeat  of  the  Yorkists  under  Warwick.  Release  of  Henry. 
The  earl  of  March,  however,  came  to  the  rescue,  joined  the  remnants 
of  Warwick's  army  with  his  own,  and  entered  London,  where  he  was 
proclaimed  king  by  acclamation,  March  3,  1461. 

1461-1485.    House   of    York   (branch  line  of  the   house 

of  Plantagenet). 
1461-1483.   Edward  IV. 

The  early  part  of  his  reign  was  disturbed  by  constant  attempts 
of  the  Lancastrians  to  overthrow  the  new  dynasty. 


A.  D. 


England, 


273 


274  Mediceval  History.  A.  d. 

1461,  March  27.  Battle  of  Ferry  Bridge.  Defeat  of  the  Lancas- 
trians. 
March  29.  Battle  of  ToTvton.  After  a  most  obstinate  fight  Ed- 
ward and  Warwick  prevailed,  and  the  Lancastrians  were  totally 
defeated  (said  to  have  lost  28,000  men). 
Edward  was  crowned  (June  28),  and  his  brothers,  George  and 
Richard,  were  created  dukes  (Clarence  and  Gloucester).  In  1462 
Margaret  obtained  assistance  from  France,  and  made  two'  attempts  to 
retrieve  the  Lancastrian  cause,  but  both  were  unsuccessful.  Henry 
retired  to  Wales  ;  Margaret  to  Lorraine.  A  final  uprising  of  the 
Lancastrians  was  crushed  at  Hedgeley  Moor  and  at  Hexham  (1464). 
1464.  Secret  marriage  of  Ed-ward  with  Elizabeth  Grey,  daughter  of 
Richard  Woodville,  baron  Rivers,  and  widow  of  Sir  John 
Grey,  a  Lancastrian.  This  marriage  and  the  advancement  conferred 
on  the  family  of  the  new  queen  much  exasperated  the  earl  of  War- 
wick and  the  other  Yorkists.  The  dissatisfaction  of  Warwick  was 
increased  by  the  marriage  of  Edward's  sister  Margaret  with  the 
duke  of  Burgundy,  and  he  intrigued  with  the  duke  of  Clarence, 
giving  him  his  daughter  in  marriage  and  promising  him  the  crown. 
Revolt  of  William  of  Rydesdale  in  1469.  Execution  of  the 
queen's  father.  Earl  Rivers.  Edward  became  reconciled  with  War- 
wick, but  a  victory  over  the  insurgents  at  Stamford  ("  Loose-coat 
Field  ")  (1470)  so  strengthened  the  king  that  he  proclaimed  War- 
wick and  Clarence  traitors,  and  they  fled  to  France.  Reconciliation 
of  Warwick  and  Margaret. 

1470.  Warwick  landed  in  England,  occupied  London,  and  pro- 
claimed Henry  (who  had  been  imprisoned  since  1465)  king. 
Edward  fled  to  Burgundy,  but  returning  with  assistance  was 
well  received,  and  joined  by  Clarence.  Re-imprisonment  of 
Henry. 

1471,  April  4.  Battle  of  Barnet. 

The  Lancastrians  under  Warwick  (the  king-maker)  totally 
defeated. 
May  4.  Battle  of  Tewksbury. 

Defeat  of  Margaret,  who  was  captiired  ;  murder  of  her  son 
Edward.     Henry  VI.  died  in  the  Tower  May  22,  the  day 
when  Edward  IV.  reentered  London. 
1475.  Invasion  of  France  by  Edward,  who,  in  connivance  with  the  duke 
of  Burgundy,  claimed  the  French  crown.     Subscriptions  sup- 
posed to  be  voluntary  (benevolences),  without  consent  of  Parlia- 
m.ent,  now  first  introduced  to  raise  money  for  tliis  invasion.     The  war 
was   ended  without   a  battle  by  the  Peace   of  Pequigny   (1475). 
Truce  for  seven  years  ;  payment  of  a  large  annual  sum  to  England  ; 
ransom  of  Margaret ;  betrothal  of  the  dauphin  to  Edward's  eldest 
daughter,  Elizabeth. 

1478.  Trial  and  condemnation  of  Clarence  for  treason.     He  was  exe- 
cuted in  the  Tower.      (Popular  report  that  he  was  drowned 
in  a  butt  of  malmsey.) 
1480.  War  with  Scotland,  which  was  ended  by  the   Treaty  of  Fother- 
ingay,  wherein  Berwick  was  surrendered  to  the  English. 
As  Louis  XL  now  refused  to  consent  to  the  marriage  of  the  dauphin 


A.  D.  Spanish  Peninsula.  275 

with   Edward's  daughter,  as  arranged  at  the  treaty  of  Pequigny, 
Edward  resolved  on  war,  but  died  suddenly,  April  9,  1483. 

1483.  April-June.    Edward  V. 

Richard,  duke  of  Gloucester,  regent  for  the  thirteen-year-old 
king.  The  king  and  his  brother,  duke  of  York,  confined  in  the 
Tower.  Richard  created  protector.  Execution  of  Lord  Hastings. 
Gloucester  advanced  a  claim  to  the  crown,  based  on  the  asserted  in- 
validity of  Edward  III.'s  marriage  with  Elizabeth  Woodville.  The 
claim  being  admitted  by  Parliament,  Richard  accepted  the  crown 
(June  26). 

1483-1485.   Richard  III. 

The  new  king  began  his  reign  by  a  progress  in  the  north. 
Murder  of  the  two  princes  in  the  Tower  (Tyrell  and  Dighton). 
The  Duke  of  Buckingham  (to  whose  services  Richard  largely  owed 
the  crown),  headed  an  insurrection  m  favor  of  Henry,  earl  of 
Richmond  (great-great-grandson  of  John  of  Gaunt).  Execution  of 
Buckingham.     Return  of  Richmond  to  France  without  landing. 

1484.  Confirmation  of  Richard's  title  by  Parliament. 

The  following  table  shows  the  derivation  of  Buckingham  from  Ed- 
ward III.  :  — 

Edward  HI. 

I 

|4  16 

John  of  Gaunt,  Thomas,  Duke  of  Gloucester, 

by  his  3d  wife.  | 

I  Anne  =  Edmund,  Earl  of  Stafford. 

John,  Earl  of  Somerset.  I 

Edmund, 
Duke  of  Somerset.  Humphrey,  Duke  of  Buckingham. 

r 1  I 

John  Margaret  ===i  Humphrey,  Lord  Stafford. 

Margaret  | 

I  Henry,  Duke  of 

I  Buckingham. 

Henry  VII. 

In  1485  Richmond  made  another  attempt,  landed  at  Milford  Haven, 
and  completely  defeated  Richard  in  the 

1485.  Battle  of  Bosworth  Field, 
Aug.  22.     where  Richard  was  slain. 

In  1471  William  Caxton,  printer,  established  a  press  at  West- 
minster ;  in  1474,  he  published  "  The  Game  and  Playe  of  Chesse," 
the  first  book  printed  in  England.  (^See  p.  S3S.) 

§5.    SPANISH  PENINSULA.  {See  p.  240.) 

Spain. 

The  Moors  in  Spain  were,  since  1238,  confined  to  the  kingdom  of 
Granada,   where   agriculture,   commerce,  and   industry   flourished. 


276  Mediceval  History.  A.  d. 

Wars   with   the   Christian  kingdoms,  occasionally  in  alliance  with 
Morocco. 

1492.  Conquest  of  Granada  and  union  of  the  kingdom  with 
Castile. 

The  kingdoms  of  CaBtile  and  Aragon  during  this  period  were  in- 
volved in  constant  wars,  ever  renewed  and  of  varying  fortune,  with 
the  Moors  and  with  one  another.  In  both  kingdoms  bloody  wars  of 
succession  and  civil  wars. 

Of  the  kings  of  Castile  may  be  mentioned,  in  the  thirteenth  century 
Sancho  IV.,  in  the  fourteenth  Peter  the  Cruel  and  Henri/  the  Bastard f 
the  first  of  whom  was  aided,  in  his  war  with  Henry  for  the  throne,  by 
England  (victory  of  the  Black  Prince  at  Najara,  1367),  the  latter 
by  France.  Mercenary  bands  or  free  companies,  under  Bertrand  du 
Guesclin.      Peter  defeated  and  killed  at  Montiel  in  1369. 

Peter  III.  (1276-1285)  of  Aragon  acquired  the  crown  of  Sicily, 
which  he  bequeathed  to  his  second  son,  James,  while  his  eldest  son, 
Alphonso  III.,  succeeded  him  in  Aragon.  His  successor,  Peter  IV., 
curbed  the  excessive  power  of  the  nobility  of  Aragon.  In  1410,  after 
the  extinction  of  the  royal  family  of  Catalonia,  a  Castilian  prince,  Fer- 
dinand, ascended  the  throne  of  Aragon.  His  grandson,  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic  (1479-1516),  by  the  marriage  which  he  had  made  be- 
fore his  elevation  to  the  throne  with  Isabella,  heiress  of  Castile,  laid 
the  foundation  for  the  final  union  of  the  two  kingdoms. 

Portugal. 
The  legitimate  line  of  Burgundy  became  extinct  (1383),  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  illegitimate  Burgundian  line.  Heroic  age  of  Portu- 
gal, which  now  reached  its  greatest  power.  Conquests,  Ceuta,  Tan- 
giers  ;  formation  of  a  Christian  kingdom  of  Algarbe  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa.  Voyages  and  discoveries  (p.  279),  under  the  patron- 
age of  the  Infant,  Henry  the  Navigator  (1394-1460  ;  discovery  of 
Porto  Santo  and  Madeira,  1418-19  ;  Cape  Verde,  1445  ;  Azores,  1447; 
Cape  Verde  Islands,  1455).  (See  p.  S28.) 

§  6.    THE  NORTH  AND  EAST. 

Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden.  {See  p.  2It.O.) 

Each  a  united  kingdom  from  about  850  on,  converted  to  Christian- 
ity about  10J3,  these  three  kingdoms  were  united  by  the  Union  of 
Calmar  (1397).  Margaret,  queen  of  Denmark,  daughter  of  Walde- 
mar  IV.,  married  Hakon  VI.  of  Norway,  and  after  the  death  of  Hakon 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  at  first  for  her  minor  son  (f  1387).  The 
crown  of  Sweden  was  transferred  to  her  by  the  estates  of  that  king- 
dom.    The  union  lasted  (interrupted  by  Sweden)  to  1524. 

{See  p.  351.) 
Russia. 

From  862  to  1598,  under  the  house  of  Rurik,  converted  by  Vladimir 
the  Great  988,  soon  divided  into  many  principalities,  which  were  ir 
theory  subordinate  to  the  Grand  Prince  of  Kiev,  but  practically  were 


1 


A.  D.  The  North  and  East,  111 

tolerably  independent.  During  the  supremacy  of  the  Mongols  in  Rus- 
sia, which  endured  250  years,  there  grew  up  a  new  grand  principal- 
ity, that  of  Mosco"w,  which  after  the  devastation  of  Kiev  by  the 
Mongols  (1239),  and  its  conquest  by  the  Lithuanians  (1320,  p.  169), 
became  the  national  centre  of  Russia.  After  a  long  contest  the 
Mongol  supremacy  in  Russia  was  overthrown  (1480)  by  Ivan  IH., 
the  Great,  the  founder  of  the  united  monarchy.  Republic  of  Nov- 
gm-od  subjugated  (1478).  {Seep.  852.) 

Poland. 

Under  the  Piasts  (840-1370,  Christian  about  1000)  involved  in 
war  with  Germany,  with  the  heathen  Prussians  (later  with  the  Teu- 
tonic knights),  and  with  Russia.  The  last  king  of  this  house  was 
Casimir  the  Great.  Short  union  with  Hungary  imder  Louis  the  Great 
(1370-1382).  Louis'  younger  daughter,  Hedwig,  married  the  grand 
duke  of  Lithuania,  Vladislav  II.  Jagello,  whereby  Poland  and  Lithu- 
ania -were  united  under  the  house  of  JageUo  from  1386  to  1572. 
Conversion  of  Lithuania.  (JSee  p.  352.) 

Prussia. 

Conquered  in  the  thirteenth  century  by  the  Teutonic  order  (p. 
218),  since  1309  residence  of  the  grand  master  at  Marienburg.  The 
order  attained  its  greatest  power  under  Winrich  oon  Kniprode  (1351- 
1382) ;  beginning  of  a  gradual  decline.  Defeat  of  the  order  by  the 
Poles  at  Tannenberg  (1410). 

The  energy  and  daring  of  Henry  of  Plauen  brought  about  the  ad- 
Tantageous  frst  peace  of  Thorn  (1411).  The  revolt  of  the  Prussian 
nobles  in  the  country  and  the  cities  and  their  alliance  with  Poland  led 
to  the  second  peace  of  Thorn  (1466)  :  West  Prussia  and  Ermeland 
ceded  to  Poland  ;  the  order  retained  East  Prussia  as  a  Polish  fief. 

Hungary. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  ninth  century  Hungary  was  occupied  by 
the  Finnish  i  tribe  of  Magyars  (p.  193)  ;  until  1301  under  the  reign- 
ing house  of  the  Arpads.  Introduction  of  Christianity  by  the  duke 
Geisa  and  his  son  St.  Stephan,  the  first  king  of  Hungary  (crowned 
1000).  Extensive  immigration  of  Germans.  Ecclesiastical  division 
of  the  country  into  ten  bishoprics  ;  political  di\asion  into  seventy-two 
counties  (Gespanschaften) .  Formation  of  a  powerful  aristocracy 
(Magnats).  The  Golden  Bull  extorted  from  King  Andrew  II.  (con- 
temporary of  the  emperor  Frederic  11. ),  after  his  return  from  a  cru- 
sade (p.  216),  is  the  foundation  of  the  privileges  of  tlie  Hungarian 
nobility. 

After  the  extinction  of  the  Arpads,  Hungary  came  under  the  house 
of  Anjou  (1308-1382).  Period  of  greatest  power  under  Louis  the 
Great  (1342-1382),  who  in  1370,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Poland 
also. 

Under  Sigismund  of  the  house  of  Luxemburg  (1387-1437),  be- 

1  Vambery,  Ur sprung  d.  Magyaren,  endeavors  to  prove  the  Turkish  origiil 
of  this  people ;  they  were,  at  all  events,  Turanian.  —  Trans. 


278  Mediaeval  History,  A.  d. 

ginning  of  the  decline  of  the  kingdom.  Albert  of  Austria  (1438- 
1439),  and  afterwards,  Vladislav  HI.  of  Poland,  elected  king  ;  the 
latter  fell  at  Varna  (1444)  in  battle  against  the  Turks,  whereupon 
Albert's  minor  son,  Ladislaus  Postumus,  succeeded.  The  chancellor 
of  the  kingdom,  John  Hunyadi,  defeated  the  Turks  at  Belgrade  (1456). 
After  his  death  and  that  of  Ladislaus,  Hunyadi's  son,  Matthias  Cw- 
vinus,  became  king  (1458-1490).  After  his  brilliant  reign  Hungary- 
was  united  with  Bohemia  under  Ladislaus  II.,  of  the  house  of  Jagello, 
and  the  succession  was  secured  to  the  archduke  Maximilian  of  Aus- 
tria. \Seep.  SOU.) 

Turks,  Mongols,  and  the  Eastern  Empire.  {Seep.  2^0.) 

Supremacy  of  the  Osman  {Ottoman')  Turks,  Turcoman  nomads, 
founded  in  Asia  Minor  by  Osman  I.,  about  1300.  His  successors, 
Urchan,  Murad  I.,  and  Bajazet  I.,  extended  Turkish  power  during  the 
fourteenth  century  to  the  confines  of  Europe  (Adrianople,  residence 
of  the  sovereigns  in  1365). 

The  development  of  the  Osmanic  power  was  temporarily  checked 
by  the  Mongols  under  Timur  Lenk  (i.  e.  the  Lame),  commoidy  called 
Tamerlane  or  Timur  the  Tatar,  Bajazet  being  defeated  and  cap- 
tured in  1402  at  Angora.  One  of  Bajazet's  successors,  Muhammed  II., 
destroyed  the  Eastern  Empire,  which  had  been  under  the  rule  of  the 
Palceologi  since  1261,  by  the 

1453.     Conquest  of  Constantinople. 

Flight  of  Grecian  scholars  to  Italy,  where  they  taught  in 
the  universities,  and  gave  the  impulse  to  a  new  study  of  Grecian 
literature.  {See  p.  353.) 

China.  {See  p.  2^2.)  ' 

In  1403  the  rebellious  prince.  Yen,  succeeded  to  the  throne  under 
the  name  Yung-lo  (1403-1425),  and  proved  an  efficient  ruler,  carry- 
ing his  arms  into  Tatary,  and  annexing  Cochin-China  and  Tonquin 
to  China.  Under  Seuen-tih  (1426-1436)  Cochin-China  revolted. 
Chingtung  (1436-1465)  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Tatars  m  1450, 
and  remained  a  prisoner  until  released  bv  a  Chinese  victory  in  1457. 
Tlie  quiet  reigns  of  Ching-hwa  (1465-1488)  and  Hung-che  (1488- 
1506)  were  unmarked  by  important  events.  {See  p.  35^.) 

Japan.  {See  p.  2^3.) 

Under  the  domination  of  the  Ashikaga  Shoguns  (1336-1573), 
whose  founder,  Ashikaga-Taka-Uji,  set  up  a  rival  emperor,  Japan 
was  under  two  dynasties,  —  the  southern  (legitimate)  at  Yoshino,  the 
northern  (usurpers)  at  Kioto;  the  true  sovereigns,  meantime,  were  the 
Shoguns  at  Kioto.  The  period  is  a  dark  one,  filled  with  constant  wars 
between  the  dynasties,  and  civil  wars  in  Kioto. 

It  is  curious  to  reflect  that  in  the  midst  of  these  wretched  wars 
Columbus  was  sending  messengers  into  the  interior  of  Cuba  charged 
with  letters  to  the  sovereign  of  Japan,  whereby  he  hoped  to  open 
communication  for  Spain  with  a  monarch  whose  power  was  as  limit- 
less as  his  wealth.  {See  p.  355.) 


riL    MODERN  HISTORY. 


FIRST  PERIOD. 

FROM  THE  DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  WEST 
PHALIA  (1492-1648). 

§1.    INVENTIONS,  DISCOVERIES,  AND  COLONIES. 

Three  inventions,  whose  discovery  belongs  to  the  Middle  Age,  but 
which  came  into  more  common  use  at  the  beginning  of  the  modern 
period,  have  played  a  very  important  part  in  the  total  change  in 
society  which  followed.  1.  The  magnetic  needle,  probably  early 
discovered  by  the  Chinese,  applied  in  navigation  (compass)  in  the 
east  in  the  thirteenth  century;  in  the  west  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  (by  Flavio  Gioja  ?).  This  invention  materially  advanced 
the  discoveries  of  the  new  era.  2.  Gunpowder,  probably  introduced 
into  Europe  from  Asia  (Cliina,  India,  Arabia).  According  to  a  tradi- 
tion whose  truth  can  no  longer  be  maintained,  invented  by  the  monk, 
Berthold  Schivarz,  at  Freiburg  in  the  Breisgau,  1354  (?).  It  was  first 
used  in  Europe  about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  new 
class  of  weapons  thus  introduced  were  at  first  in  the  highest  degree 
imperfect,  and  of  but  little  value  ;  but  their  improvement  gradually 
brought  about  a  complete  revolution  in  military  science  and  art,  and 
thereby  led  to  the  destruction  of  chivalry.  Standing  armies  took  the 
place  of  the  feudal  levies,  and  aided  the  princes  to  triumph  over  the 
lower  order  of  feudal  nobility.  3.  Printing  (p.  253),  which  was  more 
widely  spread  after  the  conquest  of  Mainz  (1462),  had  scattered  the 
assistants  of  Fust  to  various  lands.  This  invention  would,  however, 
have  very  largely  failed  of  its  effect,  but  for  the  improvement  made 
at  about  the  same  time  in  the  manufacture  of  Paper. 

1492.     Discovery  of  America  by  Columbus   (Colon). 

For  details  and  the  further  course  of  discovery  see  page 

282,  etc. 
1498.     Ocean  route  to  the  East  Indies  discovered  by 

Vasco  da  Gama. 
After  the  Canary  Islands,  Madeira,  and  the  Azores  ha,d  been  discov- 
ered by  daring  sailors  (especially  Italians)  in  the  first  half  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  but  had  since  been  partially  forgotten,  the  Portu- 
guese at  the  instance  of  the  Infant,  Henry  the  Navigator  (p.  276),  be- 


280  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

gan  in  1415  to  push  southward  along  the  coast  of  Africa  in  order  to 
j&nd  the  way  to  India.  The  death  of  Henry  (1460)  interrupted  the  prog- 
ress of  discovery  for  a  considerable  time,  but  in  1486  Bartholomdeus 
Diaz  reached  Caho  tormentoso,  called  by  John  II.,  Cabo  da  buena 
esperanza  (Cape  of  Good  Hope),  and  in  1498  Vasco  da  Gaum  landed 
on  the  coast  of  Malabar  (Calicut,  p.  353).  (Martin  Behaim  of  Nu^ 
remberffy  author  of  the  celebrated  globe  still  preserved  in  that  city, 
which  shows  the  state  of  geographical  knowledge  just  before  the  dis- 
covery of  America  (1492),  was  in  the  service  of  the  king  of  Portu- 
gal.) 

The  Eastern  trade  (in  silk,  cotton,  pearls,  spices  and  other  luxuries), 
had  been  carried  on  partly  by  land  through  central  Asia,  and  partly 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  and  the  Red  Sea,  and  across  Arabia  and 
through  the  Persian  Gulf.  Tlie  conquests  of  Islam,  and  especially  the 
capture  of  Constantinople,  had  greatly  diminished  the  number  of  prof- 
itable routes,  so  that  the  discovery  of  a  new  route  became  of  great 
importance,  especially  to  the  maritime  nations  of  western  Europe  who 
had  been  excluded  from  trade  with  the  East,  wherein  the  merchant 
republics  of  Italy,  Pisa,  GenoGy  VenicCy  had  grown  rich  and  powerful. 
The  Portuguese  attempted  the  eastern  route  around  Africa.  Colimibus 
found  at  the  court  of  Spain  patrons  willing  to  try  the  experiment  of 
a  western  route,  at  once  (according  to  the  data  with  which  he  reck- 
oned) shorter  and  simpler. 

The  success  of  the  Portuguese  struck  a  mortal  blow  at  the  pros- 
perity of  Alexandria  and  the  great  cities  of  Italy,  and  secured  a 
monopoly  of  the  Eastern  trade  to  Portugal  for  one  hundred  years, 
after  which  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  and  English. 

The  failure  of  Columbus  had  a  still  greater  importance  in  history, 
disclosing  a  new  world,  where  immigrants  from  the  old  should  develop 
new  political  constitutions  and  new  social  conditions. 

The  Portuguese  power  in  the  East  Indies  was  founded  by  the  vice- 
roy Almeida  (1504-1509),  and  especially  by  Albuquerque  (1509-1515  ; 
see  p.  353). 

1519-1522.     First  voyage  around  the  world  under  Fer- 
dinand Magalhaes  (Magellan), 
a  Portuguese  who  had  entered  the  Spanish  service.     Passage  to  the 
Pacific  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan.   Magalhaes  was  killed  in  1521 
on  one  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 

§2.    AMERICA. 

It  is  probable  that  as  early  as  1000  the  Northmen,  who  had  occu- 
pied Iceland  since  874  and  had  thence  made  settlements  in  Greenland 
(985),  had  not  only  discovered  but  had  tried  to  colonize  the  conti- 
nent of  America  (Vinland).^ 

1  More  than  a  dozen  claims  to  the  discovery  or  attempts  at  the  discovery  of 
America  before  Columbus  have  been  preferred  by  various  nationalities,  a  brief 
list  of  which  is  here  appended:  1.  St  Brandan  (565)  and  St.  Maclovius 
^Malo)  in  the  sixth  century.  2.  Seven  Spanish  bishops  (714  or  734) ;  Isl- 
and of  Seven  Cities,  also  called  AntilUn,  a  name  afterwards  transferred  to  the 
Antilles.    3.  Buddhist  priests  from  China  (458),  followed  by  Hoei-Shin  (499^ 


A.  D.  America.  281 

986.  Bjami  Herjulfson  saw  the  coast  of  Vinland,  but  did  not  land. 

1001.  Leif  Erikson  discovered  Helluland,  Marklandj  Vinland^  where 
he  built  some  booths. 

1002.  Thorwald  Erikson  coasted  along  Kjalames  and  died  at  Kros* 
sanness. 

1007-1009.    Thorfinn  Karlsefne,  under  whom  a  colony  was  established 
which  remained  several  years  in  Vinland.     Birth  of  the  child 
Snorri. 
1011.   Helge  and  Finriborge  with  Freydis,  wife  of  Thorwald.      The 
tragical  ending  of  this  settlement  seems  to  have  discouraged 
colonization  ;  yet  traces  of  intercourse  are  observable  for  a 
long  time,  (1121,  Bishop  Erik  of  Greenland  ;  1266,  voyage  of 
clergymen  of  Greenland  to  the  Arctic  regions  ;  1255,  Adelhard 
and  Thorwald  Helgason  ;  1347,  voyage  of  seventeen  men  from 
Greenland). 
The  identification  of  the  places  visited  and  named  by  the  Northmen 
is  attended  with  great,   perhaps   insurmountable   difficulties.     The 
detailed  exposition  of  Rqfn  (Helluland  =  Newfoundland  or  Labra- 
dor ;  Markiand  =  Nova  Scotia  ;  Vinland  =  Mt.  Hope  Bay  ;  Kjal- 
amess  =  Cape  Cod  ;  Krossanness  =  Boston  Harbor)  is  hardly  to  be 
accepted  ;  some  writers  place  the  southern  limit  of  discovery  at  the 
southern  point  of  Newfoundland.^ 

Wherever  they  were  made,  the  settlements  of  the  Northmen  in 
America  were  not  lasting,  and  the  remembrance  of  them  had  almost 
passed  away  by  the  fourteenth  century.     Although  Columbus  had 

discovered  Fou-sang.  (See  Iieland,  Fou-sang,  for  arguments  in  favor  of  this 
discovery.)  4.  Basques;  Juan  de  fEstraide  (about  1000).  5.  Northmen 
(986).  6.  Ari  Marson,  from  Limerick  in  Ireland  (982)  discovered  Huitramann 
land  (White  Man's  Land)  of  Irland  it  Mikla  (Great  Ireland).  South  Carolina  ? 
Florida?  He  was  succeeded  by  Bjami  Asbrandson  (999),  and  Gudltif  Gvd- 
lanfjson  (1029).  7.  Arabians;  Almaghruins  (in  the  eleventh  century).  8. 
Madoc  ap  Qwynedd,  a  Welsh  prince  (1170).  9.  Vadino  and  Guido  Vi- 
valda  (1281),  Theodoro  Doria  and  Ugolino  Vivalda  (1292),  Venetians.  10. 
Wicolo  and  Antonio  Zeno  (1380-90).  This  "discovery  "  involves  an  older 
one  made  bv  a  fisherman  of  "  Frislanda ''  about  1360.  11.  Oortereal,  1403. 
12.  Szkolny,  a  Polish  pilot  (1476).  13.  Alonzo  Sanchez  de  Helva  (1484), 
the  pilot  who  as  some  claim  died  in  the  house  of  Columbus,  leaving  his  journal 
in  the  latter's  hands.  14.  Martin  Behaim  (1484).  15.  Cousin  and  Pinzon 
from  Dieppe  (1487). 

This  discovery  of  America  has  been  assigned  to  still  other  races  by  disputants 
over  the  origin  of  the  American  Indians,  among  which  may  be  mentioned : 
Egyptians,  Tynans,  Phoenicians,  Canaanites,  Norwegians,  Cfiinese,  Iberians, 
Scythians,  Tatars,  Jews  (the  Lost  Trih^i),  Romans,  Malays ;  there  is  also  the 
theory  of  settlement  by  the  inhabitants  of  Atlantis,  and  of  a  new  creation.  It 
is  pleasant,  from  a  patriotic  standpoint,  to  state  that  it  has  been  recently  asserted 
that  Europe  was  originally  populated  from  America. 

1  Three  "relics"  of  the  Northmen  have  been  famous  in  their  time.  1.  The 
Writing  Rock  on  the  Taunton  River  near  Dighton,  Mass.  It  was  claimed  that 
the  inscription  was  in  runes,  and  it  has  been  interpreted  by  northern  scholars  to 
£ontain  an  account  of  the  voyage  of  Thorfinn,  but  it  seems  at  present  that 
Washington's  opinion  of  the  Indian  origin  of  the  picture  writing  is  to  be  ac- 
cepted as  correct.  2.  The  Old  Stone  Mill  at  Newport,  R.  I.  The  northern 
origin  of  this  structure  can  hardly  be  maintained  against  the  more  probable 
theory  of  its  construction  by  Gov.  Benedict  Arnold  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century.  3.  The  "Skeleton  in  Armor,"  discovered  in  the  early  part 
of  the  present  century  at  Fall  River,  Mass.,  is  now  admitted  to  have  been  that  of 
an  Indian. 


282  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

visited  Iceland  in  1477,  it  is  not  probable  that  he  had  heard  of  them  ; 
it  is  evident,  from  his  own  writings,  that  he  had  no  suspicions  of  the 
existence  of  a  continent  southwest  of  Iceland.^ 

Christoforo  Colombo  (he  called  himself  and  signed  himself, 
after  he  became  a  Spaniard,  regularly  Cristobal  Colon),  born 
(1435  ?,  1446  ?)  at  Genoa,  of  plebeian  origin,  a  sailor  from  his  earli- 
est youth,  wished  to  try  a  western  route  by  sea  to  India  (by  which 
name  in  his  day,  the  whole  East  was  meant),  and  especially  to  Zipangu, 
(Japan)  the  magic  island,  which  the  Venetian  Marco  Polo  (travels 
1271-1295)  had  described  in  the  book  Mirabilia  Mundi.  Starting 
from  the  erroneous  calculations  of  Ptolemy  and  Marinus  concerning 
the  size  of  the  earth  and  the  length  of  the  habitable  region  (the  Eas- 
tern Continent),  Columbus  made  the  circumference  of  the  earth  too 
short  by  a  sixth,  thus  locating  Zipangu  in  about  the  position  of  the 
Sandwich  Islands.  His  plans  having  been  rejected  by  Portugal 
(after  the  failure  of  an  expedition  secretly  despatched  westward  to 
discover  land),  Columbus  in  1486  accepted  the  service  of  the  crown 
of  Castile  (Isabella).  Delayed  in  the  execution  of  .his  project  by  the 
Arabian  war  and  the  lack  of  money  at  the  court,  he  was  about  to 
offer  his  services  at  the  court  of  France  or  England,  when  the  cap- 
ture of  Grenada  promised  the  necessary  means  for  the  expedition.^ 
Contract  with  Columbus,  who  received  nobility,  the  hereditary  dignity 
of  admiral  and  viceroy,  and  one  tenth  of  the  income  from  the  newly 
discovered  lands. 

1492,  Aug.  3-1493,  March  15.  First  Voyage.  Departure  from 
Pcdos  with  three  small  vessels  on  the  3d  of  August,  from  the 
Canaries  on  Sept.  6.  On  Oct.  12,  landing  on  Guanahani,^ 
one  of  the  Bahama  islands.  Discovery  of  Cuba  (called  by 
Columbus  Juanna)  and  Hayti  (Espanola,  St.  Domingo).  Ship- 
wreck off  Hayti,  foundation  of  the  first  colony  (Navidad)  on 
that  island. 

1493,  May  3.  Bull  of  Alexander  VI.  establishing  the  line  of  parti- 

tion, which  divided  that  part  of  the  world  not  possessed  by  any 
Christian  prince  between  Spain  and  Portugal  by  a  meridian 
line  one  hundred  leagues  west  of  the  Azores.  All  W.  of  that 
line  to  fall  to  Spain,  all  E.  of  it,  to  Portugal.  This  compromise 
between  the  claims  of  the  Spaniards  based  on  the  discoveries 
of  Columbus,  and  those  of  the  Portuguese  based  on  their  dis- 
coveries in  the  Atlantic,  was  afterwards  revised  so  that  the  line 
was  extended  270  leagues  further  west  (1494). 
1493,  Sept  25-1496,  June  11.  Second  voyage  of  Columbus  from 
Cadiz,  with  seventeen  vessels  and  1500  persons. 
Discovery  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  (inhabited  by  Caribs,  which  Colum- 

1  See  Peschel :  Gesch.  d.  Zeitalters  d.  Entdechungen,  2d  ed.,  p.  84 

2  That  Columbus  laid  his  plans  before  Genoa  is  unhistorical  (Peschel,  2d 
ed.  p.  120). 

8  The  chief  claimants  for  the  honor  of  having  been  the  first  landing  place  of 
Columbus  are  Cat  Island,  Turk^s  Island,  Watling's  Island,  Samana.  The  latter 
claim  was  first  advanced,  and  ably  advocated  by  Capt.  G.  V.  Fox  in  his 
"  Attempt  to  solve  the  Problem  of  the  First  Landing  Place  of  Columbus  in  the 
New  World."    Wash- 1882.    (U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey.) 


A.  D. 


America.  283 


bus  misunderstood,  Canibs,  whence  Cannibals)  and  the  island  of  Jam- 
aica. Voyage  along  the  southern  coast  of  Cuba  to  within  a  short  dis- 
tance of  the  western  end.  Foundation  of  Isabella  in  Hayti  (Dec. 
1493),  of  San  Domingo  on  the  same  island  by  Bartholomew  Columbus. 
1497,  May-Aug.  Voyage  of  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot  from 
Bristol  with  two  vessels.  Discovery  of  land  (Prima  Vista, 
Cape  Breton  Island  (?),  Newfoundland  (?)  June  24,  1497  (not 
1494).  They  explored  the  coast  N.  to  67^°  N.  and  S.  for  an  uncer- 
tain distance,  probably  not  so  far  as  Florida,  as  has  been  claimed. 

1497.  First  (alleged)  voyage  of  Amerigo  Vespucci.  Discovery 
of  the  continent  of  South  America.  This  voyage  is  doubtful, 
though  many  give  it  credence. 

1498,  May-July  (?).     Voyage  of  Sebastian  Cabot ;  doubtful  re- 

sults (68°  N.  to  35°  N.  ?). 

1498,  May  30-1500,  Nov.  25.     Third  voyage  of  Columbus.     Dis- 

covery of  Trinidad  (July  31),  the  continent  of  South  America 
(Aug.  1)  ;  discovery  of  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco.  Exploration  of  the 
(pearl)  coast  as  far  as  Margarita  Island.  Return  of  Columbus  to  His- 
paniola.  Dangerous  revolt  of  Roldan,  with  whom  the  admiral  was 
obliged  to  conclude  a  treaty.  Columbus,  who  was  disliked  by  the  set- 
tlers on  account  of  !is  foreign  birth,  and  his  avarice,  —  a  vice  from 
which  he  cannot  be  absolved,^  —  was  accused  at  court.  Bobadilla,  sent 
out  as  judge  with  especial  powers,  sent  Columbus  and  his  brother  in 
chains  to  Spain  (1500).  Columbus  was  at  once  released  upon  his  arri- 
val and  treated  with  distinction  ;  he  retained  the  dignity  of  admiral, 
but  as  viceroy  was  superseded  hj  Ovando. 

1499,  May-1500,  June.    Voyage  of  Alonzo  de  Hojeda  and  Ame- 

rigo Vespucci. 

Discovery  of  Surinam,  Paria,  Venezuela,  and  the  coast  of  South 
America  from  3°  N.  (Brazil?)  to  Cape  Vela.     This  is  often 
called  the  second  voyage  of  Vespucci,  but  the  first  voyage, 
which  he  is  said  to  have  made  in  1497,  when  he  reached  the 
continent  of  South  America,  is  doubtful. 
Vespucci  was  a  learned  Florentine  (1451-1512)  who  participated 
in  two  Portuguese  voyages  to  South  America,  entered  the  service  of 
Castile  in  1505,  and  filled  the  position  of  Royal  Pilot  from  1508  until 
his  death,  a  post  in  which  he  rendered  important  services  to  science, 
particularly  in  the  construction  of  maps.     The  new  world  was  called 
after  him,  not  by  him,  America.     The  originator  of  this  name  was 
Martin  Waltzemiiller  (Hylacomylus)  from  Freiburg  in  the  Breisgau, 
professor  at  St.  Die  in  Lorraine (1507).    The  name  of  America  spread 
at  first  only  in  Germany  and  Switzerland,  and  did  not  come  into  gen- 
eral use  until  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.^ 

1  Peschel,  2d  ed.,  p.  272. 

2  Hum.boldt,  Examen  critique  de  Vhisfoire  et  de  la  geographie  du  nnuveau 
continent ;  Peschel,  Gesch.  d.  Zeitalter  d.  Entdeckungen,  cap.  XIII.,  Abhand- 
lungen  zur  Erd-und  Volkerhunde,  1877.  Two  attempts  have  been  recently 
made  to  derive  America  from  a  native  word  :  Jules  Marcou,  in  the  Atlantic 
Monthly  (1875,  March),  and  T.  H.  Iiambert,  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  American 
Geographical  Soc.  for  1883,  p.  45.  According  to  the  former,  America  is  a  cor- 
ruption of  the  Indian  name  of  a  range  of  mountains  in  Nicaragua;  the  latter 
derives  it  from  a  native  name  of  the  empire  of  the  Incas  in  Peru.  The  first 
dated  map  to  bear  the  name  "  America  "  was  that  in  the  edition  of  Solinus  of 
1520  by  Aoianus. 


284  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

1499,  Dec.-15(X),  Sept.     Voyage  of  Vincent  Tanez  Pinzon  from 

Palos. 

Discovery  of  CapeS.  Augustin  (Feb.  28),  of  the  Amazon.  Pas- 
sage of  the  equator.  This  Yoyage  traced  the  South  American 
coast  to  8°  20'  S. 

1500,  April.    Pedro  Alvarez  Cabral,  bound  for  the  East  Indies,  was 

accidentally  (?)  carried  westward  until  he  reached  the  coast  of 
Brazil,  in  about  10°  S.  He  called  the  country  Terra  Sanctce 
Crucis,  and  took  possession  of  it  for  Portugal. 

1500.  Gaspar  de  Cortereal,  a  Portuguese,  discovered  Newfoundland 

(Conception  Bay),  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence^  and  the 
coast  of  Labrador. 

1501.  Cortereal  sailed  again  in  the  hope  of  finding  the  passage  to 
the  East  Indies,  a  hope  which  inspired  the  continuous  efforts  of 
nearly  all  the  early  explorers.    He  was  lost  upon  the  voyage. 

1501.  Second  voyage  of  Vespucci  under  a  Portuguese  commander. 

1502,  May  11-1504,  Nov.  7.     Fourth  (and  last)  voyage  of  Co- 

lumbus. Discovery  of  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  Veragua,  Porto 
Bello.  Shipwreck  at  Jamaica. 
Columbus  died  in  Valladolid  (1506)  without  a  suspicion  that  he  had 
discovered  a  new  continent,  and  in  the  firm  belief  that  his  discoveries 
were  parts  of  Asia.  His  son,  Don  Diego  Columbm,  viceroy  and  admi- 
ral. A  grandson  and  great  grandson  of  the  discoverer  retained  the 
hereditary  title  of  admiral. 

De  Bastidas  traced  in  1500-1502  the  coast  of  Panama  to  Pt. 
Manzanilla.  Hojeda  (1502),  Vespucci  (3d  voyage,  1503),  Juan  de  la 
Cosa  (1505),  etc.,  examined  more  minutely  the  coasts  already  dis- 
covered, while  in  the  Spanish  possessions  the  work  of  settlement  and 
conquest  was  being  pushed  forward.  Cruelties  inflicted  on  the  Indi- 
ans of  the  West  Indies,  whose  race  disappeared  with  frightful  rapid- 
ity. It  is  probable  that  more  was  learned  of  the  coasts  of  both  Amer- 
icas in  this  period  than  has  been  divulged  ;  the  rivalry  of  Spain  and 
Portugal  leading  to  a  careful  secrecy  regarding  all  discoveries.  The 
exact  historical  value  of  the  D^Este  map,  just  made  public  by  M.  Har- 
risse,  cannot  be  known  as  yet,  but  seems  to  have  clearly  established 
the  fact  that  the  coast  of  North  America  from  Florida  to  beyond  Cape 
Cod  was  well  known  to  the  Portuguese  in  1502. 
1504.  French  fishermen  at  the  banks  of  Newfoundland. 
1506.   Jean  Denys  of  Honfleur,  and  Camart  of  Rouen,  examined  (and 

sketched)  the  Gulf  of  St.  Laivrence. 
1506.   Juan  Diaz  de  Solis  and  Vincent  Yahez  Pinzon  discovered  Yuca- 
tan.    In  1508  they  coasted  South  America  to  40°  S. 
1508.   Circumnavigation  of  Cuba,  by  Ocampo.    Aubert  in  the  St.  Law- 
rence. 

Importation  of  negroes  from  Africa  to  the  Spanish  possessions 
in  the  West  Indies,  where  they  were  employed  in  the  mines. 

1511.  Conquest  of  Cuba  by  Diego  Velasquez. 

1512.  Discovery  of  Florida  by  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon,  governor 
(since  1510)  of  Porto  Rico. 

1513.  Discovery  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  by  Vasco  Nunez  de  Bal- 
boa, who  crossed  the  isthmus  from  ^n%Ma  on  the  Gulf  of  Ura- 


A.  D.  America,  285 

ba    (Keats'  sonnet).      Balboa  was  put  to  death  in  1514  by 

Davila,  governor  of  Darien,  Cartliagena,  and  Uraba  (Castila 

del  Oro). 
1515.  Voyage  of  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis  in  search  of  a  passage  to 

the  East  Indies.     Discovery  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  on  the 

banks  of  which  river  Solis  was  killed  by  the  natives. 
1517.  Alleged  voyage  of  Sebastian  Cabot  and  Sir  Thomas  Pert. 

It   is  very  doubtful  if  this  voyage  was   made,  or  if   made, 

what  part  of  America  was  reached. 
Bartholome  de  Las  Casas  (1474-1566)  went  to  the  Indies  in  1502 
with  Columbus,  bishop  of    Chiapa    (in  Mexico),  advocate  and  pro- 
tector of  the  Indians. 

1517.  Francis  Hernandez  Cordova  rediscovered  Yucatan  (Cape  Ca- 
toche)  ;  advanced  civilization  of  the  inhabitants  (Mayas), 
who  were  under  the  supremacy  of  the  Aztec  empire  in 
Mexico. 

1518.  Juan  de  Grijalva  coasted  from  Yucatan  to  Panuco,  and  brought 

back  tidings  of  the  Mexican  empire  of  Montezuma. 
Name  of  "  New  Spain  "  given  to  the  region  which  he  ex- 
plored. 

1519.  Alvarez  Pineda,  by  order  of  the  governor  of  Jamaica,  Garay, 

coasted  from  Cape  Florida  to  the  river  of  Panuco. 

1519-1521.   Conquest   of    Mexico   by  Hernando   Cortez 

(1485-1547), 

whom  Velasquez,  the  governor  of  Cuba,  had  appointed  to  the 
command  of  a  small  force  of  600  foot,  sixteen  cavalry,  thirteen 
cross-bowmen,  fourteen  cannon,  but  immediately  removed.  Cortez 
sailed  against  the  will  of  the  governor.  Capture  of  Tabasco  (March). 
Landing  at  St.  Juan  de  Uloa  (April  21).  Negotiations  with  Monte- 
zuma, who  ordered  the  invaders  to  leave  the  kingdom.  Cortez, 
elected  general  by  the  troops,  dispatched  one  ship  to  carry  a  report 
to  king  Charles  of  Spain,  and  beached  (not  burned)  the  rest.  Foun- 
dation of  Villa  Rica  de  la  Vera  Cruz.  In  alliance  with  the  Tlascalang 
Cortez  marched  upon  Mexico,  the  capital  of  Montezuma  (Montecuh- 
cuma),  who  admitted  him  to  the  city  (Nov.  8).  Daring  seizure  of  the 
king  in  his  own  house.  Cortez  was  obliged  to  march  against  Narvaez 
whom  Velasquez  had  sent  to  chastise  him.  He  defeated  Narvaez,  and 
strengthening  his  army  with  the  soldiers  of  his  opponent,  returned 
to  Mexico  (1520,  June).  Revolt  of  the  Mexicans,  storm  of  the 
temple,  death  of  Montezuma  of  wounds  inflicted  by  his  subjects,  who 
were  indignant  at  his  submission  to  the  Spaniards.  The  Spaniards, 
leaving  the  city  (July  1),  were  furiously  attacked  on  one  of  the 
causeways  through  the  lake  and  suffered  terrible  loss  (Noche  triste). 
Reinforced,  Cortez  defeated  the  Mexicans  in  a  pitched  battle  near 
Otompan  (July  8).  Occupation  of  Tescuco  (Dec.  31).  Conquest 
of  Iztapalapan  (1521).  After  having  built  a  fleet  of  thirteen  vessels 
which  were  transported  by  land  and  launched  in  the  lake  of  Mexico, 
Cortez  laid  siege  to  the  capital.  After  a  long  investment,  accom- 
panied with  an  almost  daily  storm  (May-Aug.  13,  1521)  the  city 
was  taken.     Capture  of  the  king  Guatemozin,  who  was  tortured  and 


286  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

finally  executed.  Submission  of  the  country.  Cortez,  at  first  gov- 
ernor of  New  Spain  with  unlimited  power,  was  afterwards  restricted 
to  the  chief  command  of  the  military'  forces.  Prosecuting  the  search 
for  a  western  passage  he  discovered  California  (1526).  Cortez  re- 
turned to  Spain  in  1540,  and  died  at  Seville  in  1547. 
1520.  Nov.  7-Nov.  28.    Passage   of  the  Straits   of    Magellan  by 

Magalh^es,  see  p.  280. 
1520.  Voyage   undertaken  for   slaves   at   the   suggestion   of  Lucas 
Vasquez    (VAyllon,   exploration  of    the  east   coast  of    North 
America  to  32°  or  34°  N.     Cabo  de  Sta  Helena,  ''Chicora." 
1522.  Discovery  of  the  Bermudas. 

1524.  Alleged  voyage  of  Giovanni  de  Verrazzano  in  the  service 
of  the  king  of  France.  The  letter  of  Verrazzano  which  gives 
the  only  existing  account  of  the  voyage  ascribes  to  the  writer 
the  discovery  of  the  east  coast  of  North  America  from  34° 
(39°)  N.  to  50°  N.  It  has  been  thought  that  many  places 
mentioned  can  be  identified.  The  truth  of  the  whole  story  has 
been  disputed,  but  present  opinion  seems  to  be  in  favor  of  its 
acceptance  (?). 

1524.  Geographical  congress  of  Badajos,  to  settle  the  boundary  be- 
tween Spain  and  Portugal  in  the  eastern  hemisphere,  which 
should  correspond  to  the  line  of  Alexander  VI.  in  the  western  ; 
after  a  stormy  session  the  council  separated  without  reaching 
an  agreement. 

1525-1527.  Exploration  of  the  coast  of  Peru  by  Francisco  Pizarro 
(1478  (?)-1541),  as  a  preliminary  to  the  conquest  of  that  king- 
dom, of  which  he  had  heard  on  Balboa's  expedition  (p.  284), 
in  accordance  with  an  agreement  made  by  Pizarro,  Diego  de 
Almagro,  and  Hernando  de  Luque.  Repulse  of  Pizarro  and 
Almagro. 

1525.  Voyage  of  Estevan  Gomez,  a  Spaniard,  along  the  east  coast  of 

North  America,  34°  N.  to  44°  N. 

1526.  Voyage  of  Sebastian  Cabot  in  the  service  of  Spain.      Ex- 

ploration of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  Parana,  Paraguay,  Uruguay. 
The  English  had  taken  but  little  part  in  the  discoveries  since 
the  time  of  Cabot,  although  traces  enough  of  intercourse  re- 
main to  show  that  the  New  World  was  not  entirely  neglected. 

1527.  Voyage  of  John  Rut,  who  coasted  north  to  53°  N.  and  returned 

by  way  of  Newfoundland,  Cape  Breton,  and  the  coast  of  Maine 
(Norumbega). 

1528.  Unsuccessful  expedition  of  Pamphilo  de  Narvaez  to  Florida, 

under  a  grant  of  all  the  country  between  Cape  Florida  and 
the  River  of  Palms.  After  visiting  Apalache  (June  5)  Nar- 
vaez sailed  westward  and  was  lost  in  a  storm  (Nov.).  Of  the 
survivors,  four,  one  of  whom  was  Caheca  de  Vaca,  made  their 
way  by  land  to  the  Spanish  possessions  in  Mexico  (1536). 
1528.  Settlement  of  Germans  at  Caro,  between  St.  Martha  and 
Maracapana  ;  presented  to  the  family  of  Welser  by  Charles  V. 

1531-1532.    Conquest  of  Peru  by  Pizarro. 

The  undertaking  was  favored  by  a  civil  war  which  was  raging 


A.  D.  America,  287 

at  the  time  in  the  empire  of  the  Incas.  Foundation  of  St.  Michael 
on  the  Piuro  in  Peru.  Capture  of  the  Inca,  Atahuallpa,  before  his 
army  (Nov.  16),  who,  after  the  extortion  of  an  immense  ransom,  was 
put  to  death  (1533).  March  of  Alvarado  from  Puerto  Viego  to  Quito. 
Occupation  of  Lima,  the  capital  of  the  Incas  (1534).  Feuds  between 
the  Spanish  leaders.  Almagro  defeated  (1538)  and  executed  by 
Pizzaro.  The  latter  was  afterwards  killed,  with  his  brother.  The 
Spanish  crown  assumed  the  administration  of  the  country  (1548). 

1534.  First  voyage  of  Jacques  Cartier,  a  French  sailor,  from  St. 
Malo.  Discovery  of  the  west  coast  of  Newfoundland  (May 
10),  Prince  Edward's  Island,  Miramicki  Bay,  Anticosti,  coast 
to  50°  N. 

1535.  May-1536.  July.     Second  voyage  of   Cartier;    discovery   of 

the  Bay  of  St.  Lawrence,  River  of  St.  Lawrence  (Hochelaga),  ' 
as  far  as  the  site  of  Montreal.     Information  received  about 
the  great  lakes. 

Foundation  of  the  modem  city  of  Lima.     Unsuccessful  invasion 
of  Chili  by  Almagro. 

1537.  Discovery  of  Lower  California  by  Cortez. 

1538.  The   west   coast   of    South    America  explored   to  40°  S.   by 

Valdivia. 

1539.  May-1543,  Sept.     Expedition  of  Ferdinand©  de  Soto,  gover- 

nor of  Cuba,  for  the  conquest  of  Florida,  with  nine  vessels  and 
over  900  men.  After  toilsome  marches  in  Florida,  with  no  result  but 
disappointment,  De  Soto  led  his  men  westward  to  the  Mississippi, 
where  he  died  (at  the  juncture  of  this  stream  and  the  Guacoya)  and 
was  buried  in  the  stream.  The  remains  of  the  expedition  (311  men) 
reached  Panuco  Sept.  10,  1543.  According  to  Dr.  Kohl,  De  Soto 
reached  30"^  40'  N.  in  Georgia,  and  explored  the  Mississippi  to  the 
Ohio  (38°  N.) 
1539-1540.    Alonzo  de  Camargo  coasted  from  the  Straits  of  Magellan 

to  Peru,  completing  the  exploration  of  the   coast  of  South 

America. 

1540.  Expedition  of  Alarcon  in  search  of  the  passage  to  the  Indies 
(Straits  of  Anian).  Exploration  of  the  coast  of  California  to 
36°  N.  Voyage  up  the  Rio  Colorado.  Lower  California^,  pre- 
viously held  to  be  an  island,  was  thus  shown  to  be  a  peninsula. 
Early  maps  so  represent  it  ;  afterwards  the  conviction  that  it 
was  an  island  spread  anew  and  late  into  the  next  century  the 
best  maps  of  America  contained  this  error. 

1540-1542.  Expedition  of  Francisco  Vasquez  Coronado,  sent  out  by 
the  Spanish  viceroy,  Mendoza,  in  search  of  the  seven  cities  of 
Cibola,  concerning  whose  wealth  the  Spaniards  had  derived 
extravagant  ideas  from  the  reports  of  the  Indians.  Coronado 
reached  Zuni  May  11.  Discovery  of  the  Moqui  canon  of  the 
Colorado.  Reports  of  a  city,  Quivira.  Coronado  wintered  at 
Zuni  among  the  Pueblo  Indians.  In  1541  he  marched  north- 
east to  40°  N.  and  returned  to  Mexico  (bisons). 

1540.  Expedition  of  Cartier  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  with  five  ships. 
Roherval  (Jean  Fram-ois  de  la  Roche,  lord  of  Roberval),  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Canada  and  Hochelaga  and  all  countrie: 


288  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

north  of  40°  N.  (New  France),  failed  to  take  partin  tliis  voyage. 
Cartier  founded  the  fortress  of  Charlesburg  and  explored  the 
St.  Lawrence. 

1541.  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  governor  of  Quito,  crossed  the  Andes  and  ex- 
plored the  river  Napo  for  200  leagues  :  his  subordinate,  Fran- 
cisco Orellana  sailed  down  the  Napo  to  the  Amazon,  and 
down  that  river  to  the  sea  (Aug.  6).  Orellana  returned  in 
1543  to  conquer  the  country,  but  died  in  the  search  for  the 
Napo. 

1542.  Roberval  reached  Newfoundland,  where  he  met  Cartier,  who, 

against  the  will  of  the  governor,  returned  to  France.  Rober- 
val built  a  fort  not  far  above  the  island  of  Orleans,  but  the  en- 
terprise was  soon  abandoned. 
Rodriguez  de  Cabrillo,  sent  in  search  of  the  passage  to  the  In- 
dies, discovered  Cape  Mendocino  in  42°  N.  on  the  west  of 
North  America,  and  explored  as  far  as  44°  N. 

1545.  Mines  of  Potosi  claimed  for  Spain. 

1547.  Pedro  de  Gasca,  president  of  Peru.  Organization  and  pacifica^ 
tion  of  the  country. 

1547.  Bishopric  of  Paraguay  established. 

1548.  First  act  of  the  English  Parliament  relating  to  America  (2 
Edw.  VI.  :  regulation  of  the  fisheries  at  Newfoundland). 

1555-1560.  First  attempt  of  the  admiral  de  Coligny  to  found  a 
Protestant  settlement  in  America.  The  chevalier  Nicolaus 
Durand  de  Villegagnon  led  two  ships  to  Brazil,  and  founded  a 
colony  at  the  Bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Geneva  sent  fourteen 
missionaries  to  the  colony.  Villegagnon  now  joined  the  Cath- 
olic church,  and  his  defection  ruined  the  colony  ;  many  set- 
tlers returned  to  France  (1557),  some  of  the  rest  were  mur- 
dered by  the  Portuguese  (1558),  and  in  1560  the  colony  was 
entirely  broken  up  by  the  Portuguese  government.  Andre 
Thevet,  who  accompanied  Villegagnon,  on  his  return  to  France 
coasted  along  the  east  coast  of  North  America  to  the  Bacallaos 
(Newfoundland),  and  on  his  return  described  his  voyage  in  a 
gossipy,  untrustworthy  book. 

1558.     Last  Spanish  expedition  to  Carolana  ;  no  settlement  made. 

1560-1561.  Expedition  of  Pedro  de  Urana  in  search  of  the  empire  of 
the  Ormaguas,  and  of  the  scoundrel  Lope  de  Aguirre  in  search 
of  El  Dorado  in  South  America. 

1562.  Second  attempt  of  admiral  de  Coligny  to  establish  a 
Huguenot  colony  in  America.  Expedition  of  Jean  Ribault. 
Erection  of  Charles  Fort  near  Port  Royal  in  South  Carolina. 
The  settlement  was  soon  abandoned. 

1563.  First  slave  voyage  made  by  the  English  to  America.     John 

Hawkins  with  three  ships  brought  300  negroes  to  the  West 
Indies. 

1564.  Third  attempt  of  Coligny  to  establish  a  Huguenot  Colony 

in  America.  Rene  Laudonniere,  sent  to  carry  aid  to  Ribault's 
colony,  finding  the  settlers  gone  built  Fort  Carolina  on  the  St. 
John's  river  in  Florida  (June).  Arrival  of  Ribault  (1565,  Aug. 
28). 


A.  Dk  America.  289 

1565,  Sept.  20.     Storm  of  Fort  Carolina  by  the  Spaniards  under 
Menendez  de  Aviles  ;  massacre  of  the  garrison  ("I  do  this 
not  as  to  Frenclimen,  but  as  to  Lutherans  ").    Ribault,  having 
put  to  sea,  was  wrecked,  captured,  and  slain  with  many  of  his 
company.     Construction  of  three  Spanish  forts  (Castle  of  St. 
Augustine). 
1568.  Expedition  of  Dominique  de  Go  urges  to  avenge  the  mas- 
April,     sacre  of  the  French  at  Fort  Carolina.     Capture  and  destruc- 
tion of  the  Spanish  forts,  massacre  of  the  garrison  ("I  do  this 
not  as  to  Spaniards,  nor  as  to  maruiers,  but  as  to  traitors,  rob- 
bers and  murderers"). 
1572.  First  voyage  of  Francis  Drake  to  South  America.     Attack 
upon  Nombre  de  Dios,  Carthagena,  etc. 

1576,  First  voyage  of  Martin  Frobisher  in  search  of  a  northwest 
June-Aug.     passage.     Discovery  of  Frobisher's  Strait  and  Meta  In- 
cognita on  the  north  coast  of  North  America  (60°).     Supposed 
discovery  of  gold. 

1577,  May-Sept.     Second  voyage  of  Frobisher. 

1578,  May-Sept.     Third  voyage  of  Frobisher. 

1577,  Dec.  13-1580,  Nov.  3.     Voyage  of  Francis  Drake  around  the 

world.  Touching  the  west  coast  of  North  America  he  dis- 
covered "  Drake's  Port,"  and  claimed  the  country  between  38°  N.  and 
42°  N.  for  England  under  the  name  of  New  Albion. 

1578.  Unsuccessful  voyage  of  discovery  of  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  un- 
der a  patent  from  queen  Elizabeth. 

1583.  Second  voyage  of  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert.  Landing  at  New- 
foundland he  took  formal  possession  of  the  island  for  England 
in  right  of  the  discovery  of  the  Cabots.  On  the  return  voyage 
Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  was  lost  in  a  storm. 

1584.  Sir  "Walter  Raleigh  having  secured  a  transfer  to  himself  of  the 

patent  granted  to  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  his  half-brother,  dis- 
patched Mmidas  and  Barlow  to  explore  the  coast  of  North 
America  north  of  the  Spanish  settlements.  They  landed  on 
July  13.  the  island  of  Wocokon  and  took  possession  of  the  country 
for  the  queen.  Exploration  of  Roanoke.  On  their  return  the 
explorers  gave  glowing  accounts  of  the  country,  which  received 
the  name  of  Virginia. 

1585.  Colony  of  180  persons  under  Sir  Richard  Grenville 
sent  to  Roanoke  Island  ;  suffering  from  destitution  they  were  re- 
moved in  1586  by  Drake.  Grenville  arriving  with  supplies  immedi- 
ately after  their  departure  left  fifteen  sailors  to  hold  possession  ;  they 
had,  however,  all  disappeared  before  the  arrival  (1587)  of  117  new 
colonists.  "  Borough  of  Raleigh  in  Virginia,"  governor,  John  White. 
Virginia  Dare,  first  English  child  born  in  America.  This  colony 
met  an  unknown  fate.  White  returned  to  Virginia  in  1590,  but  could 
not  find  the  colony.     In  1589  Raleigh  sold  his  patent. 

1585.  First   voyage   of  John   Davis   to   the   north.     Exploration   of 
Davis   Straits  to  66"  40'.     Discovery  of    Gilbert   Sound  and 
Cumberland  Straits. 
19 


290  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

1586.  Naval  expedition  of  Sir  Francis  Drake  to  the  Spanish  West 

Indies.  Sack  of  St.  Domingo  and  Carthagena.  Rescue  of  tlie 
colony  of  Virginia. 

1587.  Third  voyage  of  John  Davis  (the  second  was  to  Labrador  in 

1586).  He  reached  72°  12'  N.  and  discovered  the  Cumber- 
land Islands,  London  Coast,  Lumley's  Inlet  (Frobisher's  Strait  ^). 

1592.  Alleged  discovery  of  the  strait  of  Juan  de  la  Fuca  on  the  west 
coast  of  North  America  in  48°  N.  by  Apostolos  Valerianos,  a 
Greek,  who  had  been  in  the  service  of  Spain  under  the  name 
of  Juan  de  la  Fuca.  Peschel  (Gesch.  d.  Erdkunde,  I.  273) 
regards  the  story  as  apocryphal. 

1595.  Expedition  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  to  Guiana.  Capture  of 
the  city  of  St.  James.  Search  for  El  Dorado.  Voyage  up 
the  Orinoco  for  400  miles. 

1595.  Expedition  of  Drake  and  Hawkins  to  the  West  Indies.  Death 
of  Hawkins.     Drake  died  1596. 

1598.  The  Marquis  de  la  Roche  obtained  from  Henry  IV.  of  France 
a  commission  to  conquer  Canada.  He  left  forty  convicts  on 
the  Isle  of  Sable,  made  some  explorations  in  Acadia,  and  re- 
turned to  France.  After  his  death  his  patent  was  granted  to 
Chauvin,  who  made  two  successful  voyages  to  Tadoussac,  and 
left  some  people  there  (1600). 

1602.  Voyage  of  Bartholemew  Gosnold  from  Falmouth.     Taking  due 

westerly  course  he  first  saw  land  in  42°  N.  Discovery  of  a 
cape  which  Gosnold  named  Cape  Cod  (May  15).  Discovery 
of  Buzzard's  Bay  (called  Gosnold^ s  Hope).  Erection  of  a  fort 
and  storehouse  on  Cuttyhunk  (called  by  Gosnold  Elizabeth 
Island,  a  name  now  applied  to  the  whole  chain  of  islands  of 
which  this  is  the  most  westerly).  Return  of  the  whole  party 
to  England. 

1603.  Voyage  of  Martin  Pring  from  Bristol  along  the  coast  of  Maine 
from  the  Penobscot  River  to  the  Bay  of  Ma^achusetts. 

1603.  Voyage  of  Samuel  Champlain,  a  Frenchman,  from  Brouage,  up 

the  St.  Lawrence. 

1604.  Foundation  of  Port  Royal  (the  present  Annapolis) 
in  Nova  Scotia  by  the  French. 

In  1603  Pierre  du  Gast,  Sieur  de  Monts,  obtained  from  Henry 
IV.  of  France  a  grant  of  all  lands  in  North  America  from  40°  N.  to 
46°  N.  (from  Pennsylvania  to  New  Brunswick),  under  the  name  of 
Acadia.  (This  name  was  afterwards  restricted  to  the  present  New 
Brunswick,  and  the  French  possessions  in  N.  America  were  designated 
generally  as  New  France.)  In  1604  De  Monts  associated  himself 
with  M.  Poutrincourt  and  sailed  for  America  with  two  vessels. 
Foundation  of  Port  Royal  by  Poutrincoui-t.  Discovery  of  the 
St.  John  River  by  Champlain,  De  Monts'  pilot.  De  Monts  built  a  fort 
at  St.  Croix,  but  in  the  following  year  joined  Poutrincourt  at  Port 
Royal. 

1  See  Peschel,  Gesch.  d.  Erdkunde,  I.  299,  for  a  discussion  of  the  errors  of 
the  early  Arctic  navigators. 


A.  D.  America.  291 

1605.  Voyage  of  George  Weymouth  (who  had  made  a  trip  to  Labrador  in 

1602)  to  the  coast  of  Maine.  Santa  Fd  in  New  Mexico  founded. 
Over  a  hundred  years  had  elapsed  since  the  discovery  of  America, 
and  thus  far  South  America  and  Central  America  had  alone  been  the 
scene  of  active  and  successful  colonization.  In  North  America,  a 
few  scattered  Spanish  settlements  in  the  south  and  one  French 
colony  in  the  north  were  the  only  representatives  of  European  civiliza- 
tion. The  next  few  years  witnessed  a  mighty  change.  England, 
which  for  all  her  voyages  had  not  a  foot  of  land  in  America,  entered  on 
a  course  of  settlement  and  conquest  which  ultimately  gave  her  the 
fairest  portion  of  the  New  World. 

English,    Dutch,    and    Swedish     Colonies    in    North 
America  (1606-1638). 

A.     English  Colonies. 

1606.  April  10.  The  patent  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  becoming  void  by 
his  attainder  for  treason,  James  I.  issued  a  patent  dividing 

Virginia  into  t"wo  parts  :  1.  The  First  Colony,  embracing  the 
comitry  from  34°  N.  to  38°  N.  with  the  right  to  settle  as  far  as  41°  N. 
if  they  were  the  first  to  found  their  colony  :  this  southern  colony  was 
granted  to  a  number  of  gentlemen,  residing  principally  in  London 
{Richard  Hakluyt),  and  known  as  the  London  Company.  2.  The 
Second  Colony,  embracing  the  country  between  41°  N.  and  45°  N. 
with  the  right  of  settling  as  far  as  38°  N.  if  they  were  the  first  to 
establish  their  colony  ;  this  northern  colony  was  granted  to  gentle- 
men residing  chiefly  in  Bristol,  Plymouth^  etc.,  and  hence  known  as  the 
Plymouth  Company.  Each  company  was  to  become  owner  of  the 
land  for  fifty  miles  on  each  side  of  the  first  settlement,  and  one  hun- 
dred miles  inland.  The  nearest  settlements  of  the  tw^o  colonies 
should  be  one  hundred  miles  apart.  The  government  of  each  colony 
was  vested  in  a  council  resident  in  England  and  nominated  by  the 
king  ;  the  local  government  was  intrusted  to  a  council  resident 
in  America  also  nominated  by  the  king,  and  to  conform  to  his 
regulations.  Imports  from  England  free  of  duty  for  seven  years  ; 
freedom  of  trade  with  other  nations,  the  duties  for  twenty-seven 
years  to  go  to  the  colonies.  Right  of  coinage  and  of  self-defense. 
Establishment  of  a  Council  of  Virginia  in  England  for  the  superin- 
tendence of  both  colonies. 

Colony  of  South  Virginia. 

1607.  May  13.  Foundation  of  Jamestown  in  the  southern 
colony  by  a  band  of  one  hundred  colonists  sent  out  under 
Christopher  Newport.  It  included  Bartholomeic  Gosnold  and 
John  Smith.  Dissension  in  the  council.  Explorations  by  John 
Smith  who  was  captured  by  the  Indians,  and  presented  to  the 
chief,  Powhatan,  but  in  the  end  released  (story  of  the  rescue 
of   Smith  by  Pocahontas,  daughter  of  Powhatan^).     In  1607 

1  This  story  has  been  releijated  to  the   reahn   of  fable,  on  the  insufficient 
ground  that  no  mention  of  it  appears  in  Smith's  first  account  of  his  captivity. 


292  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

Smith  explored  the  Chesapeake.  During  the  first  years  the 
colony  suffered  severely  from  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  as 
well  as  from  dissensions  and  bad  provision  by  the  company. 
Laborers  were  scarce,  the  colonists  being  either  gentlemen  or 
criminals. 

1609.  Second  charter  of  the  company  of  South  Virginia,  increase  of 
privileges  and  of  members.  Lord  Delaware  {Thomas  West) 
appointed  governor  for  life.     Smith  returned    to   England. 

1610.  The  distress  in  the  colony  was  so  great  {The  Starving  Time) 
that  it  was  on  the  point  of  abandonment  when  Lord  Dela- 
ware arrived  with  supplies. 

1611.  Delaware  returning  to  England,  Sir  Thomas  Gates  was  sent  out 
as  deputy  governor. 

1612.  Third  charter  of  the  company  of  South  Virginia.     Inclusion 

of  the  Bermudas  within  their  possessions. 

1613.  The  French  having  established  the  colony  of  St.  Saviour  at 
Mount  Desert  on  the  coast  of  Maine,  the  governor  of  South 
Virginia  sent  Samuel  Argal  to  dispossess  them.  Argal  de- 
stroyed St.  Saviour  and  razed  Port  Royal.  On  his  return  he 
received  the  submission  of  the  Dutch  settlement  at  Hudson's 
River  (?). 

1614.  Sir  Thomas  Dale  deputy  governor  of  South  Virginia. 

1615.  Land,  which  had  hitherto  been  held  of  the  company  by  farmers 

as  tenants-at-will,  was  now  made  private  property  ;  fifty  acres 
being  now  granted  to  every  colonist  and  his  heirs. 

1617.  Samuel  Argal  succeeded  Sir  George  Yeardley  as  deputy  gover- 

nor of  South  Virginia  ;  reduced  state  of  the  colony.     In  the 

1618.  following  year  Lord  Delaware  sailed  with  supplies  and  colonists 

for  Virginia,  but  died  on  the  voyage.  Rigorous  government 
of  Argal.  At  this  time  there  were  600  persons  and  300 
cattle  in  the  colony  ;  the  only  exports  were  tobacco  and  sassa- 
fras, and  the  London  company  was  indebted  £5,000. 

1619.  First  General  Assembly  in  South  Virginia  convoked 
(June  19)  by  Sir  George  Yeardley,  governor  general,  con- 
sisting of  the  burgesses  of  the  colony,  representing  eleven  "  bo- 
roughs "  or  plantations.  The  burgesses  sat  with  the  council 
and  governor. 

Introduction  of  negro  slaves  (20)  into  Virginia  by  a  Dutch 
vessel. 

1620.  Tlie  colony,  numbering  1000  persons,  received  an  accession 
of  1200  new  settlers.  Introduction  of  women  who  were  sold 
as  wives  to  the  colonists  for  from  100  to  150  pounds  of  tobacco. 
Free  trade  with  the  colony  established. 

1621.  Sir  Francis  Wyatt,  governor,  brought  over  a  new  constitution  for 
the  colony,  whereby  its  government  was  vested  in  a  governor^ 
a  council  of  state,  and  a  general  assembly,  to  which  two  bur- 
gesses were  to  be  chosen  by  every  town,  hundred,  and  planta- 
tion. The  governor  had  the  veto  power,  and  every  enact- 
ment of  the  colonial  legislature  required  the  ratification  of 
the  company  in  England  to  become  binding.  All  ordinances 
of  the  company  were  without  effect  unless  accepted  by  the 
assembly. 


A..  D.  America.  293 

1622.  March  22.  Massacre  of  347  colonists  by  the  Indians. 

1624.  Commission  of  inquiry  into  the  affairs  of  Virginia  appointed 
by  the  crown.  In  spite  of  the  answer  of  the  general  assembly 
wherein  the  rights  of  the  people  were  defined,  the  court  of 
king's  bench  in  England,  before  which  the  cause  was  tried,  de- 
cided against  the  company.  The  charter  was  annulled.  The 
company  had  sent  out  more  than  9000  persons  to  the  colony, 
of  whom  not  more  than  2000  now  remained.  Sir  Francis 
Wyatt  was  appointed  governor,  with  a  council  of  eleven  mem- 
bers appointed  by  the  king.  This  plan  of  government  was 
continued  by  Charles  /.,  who  announced  that  the  colony  should 
immediately  depend  upon  the  crown,  which  should  appoint  the 
governor  and  council  and  issue  patents  and  legal  processes. 
Commercial  restrictions. 

1630.  Grant  of  Carolana  (the  region  south  of  the  Virginia  colony  be- 
tween 31*^  N.  and  36°  N.)  to  Sir  Robert  Heath,  being  the  first 
instance  of  a  proprietary  grant  by  the  crown.  No  settlement 
seems  to  have  been  made,  on  which  account  the  grant  was 
subsequently  declared  void,  and  a  part  of  the  territory  granted 
out  under  the  name  of  Carolina,  a  proceeding  which  resulted 
in  much  ill-feeling. 

1632.  Grant  of  Maryland  (the  region  between  the  Potomac 
and  41°  N.)  to  Cecd  Calvert,  the  second  lord  Baltimore,  sou 
of  Sir  George  Calvert,  to  whom  the  grant  was  originally 
made,  but  who  died  before  putting  it  to  use.  The  grant  was 
met  by  a  protest  from  Vii-ginia  which  was  of  no  avail.     In 

1634,  the  first  colony  reached  Maryland  ;  being  about  two  hundred 
persons.  Gift  of  fifty  acres  of  land  to  each  emigrant  as  pri- 
vate property.  The  Calverts  being  Roman  Catholics,  no  men- 
tion of  religious  establishment  appeared  in  the  charter  beyond 
the  recognition  of  Christianity  as  established  by  English  com- 
mon law. 
The  proprietary,  or  grantee  holding  directly  of  the  crown, 
was  subject  to  no  corporation  or  company,  appointed  the  dep- 
uty governor  and  the  executive  officers,  regulated  the  legisla- 
tion, and  received  the  taxes.  The  general  assembly  of  the 
colonists  possessed  an  advisory  power,  and  the  right  of  express- 
ing non-approval. 

1636.  Grant  of  New  Albion  (including  New  Jersey)  from  the  vice- 
roy of  Ireland  to  Sir  Edward  Plowden.  This  New  Albion, 
which  was  not  settled,  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  tract 
of  like  name  discovered  by  Drake  on  the  western  coast  of 
America  (p.  289). 

The  Plymouth  Company. 

Immediately  upon  the  receipt  of  the  charter  the  company  had  dis- 
patched two  explorers  to  the  region  of  their  grant  (Challons,  Hanam), 
and  in 

1607,  George  Popham  and  Raleigh  Gilbert  led  120  colonists  to  the 


294  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

northern  colony.     They  built  Fort  St.  George  on  Parker's  "  IsU 
and''  (peninsula),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec  River  Id 
Maine  (Aug.  11).     The  death  of  George  Popham  and  of  Sir 
John  Popham  in  England  (1608)  so  disheartened  the  colonists 
that  they  returned  to  England.    No  further  attempts  at  settle- 
ment being  made  for  some  time,  the  French  (who  had  also  a 
claim  to  these  regions  (see  1604)  planted  several  colonies  within 
the  territory  of  the  Plymouth  Company. 
1614.  Exploration  of  the  coast  of  the  northern  colony  by  John  Smith 
from  Penobscot  to  Cape  Cod.     On  his  return  he  wrote  an  ac- 
count of  his  voyage  and  published  a  map  of  the  district  explored, 
to  which  the  name  of  New   England  was  given.     Trouble 
with  the  Indians,  springing  from  the  action  of  Thomas  Hunt, 
who  carried  off  twenty-seven  natives  to  the  West  Indies  for 
slaves,  discouraged  settlement. 
After  the  frustration  of  an  attempt  at  colonization  by  Smith  in 
1615  through  adverse  circumstances,  the  company  itself  made  no  more 
attempts  at  settlements,  and  the  colonies  that  grew  up  in  its  territories 
were  founded  by  companies  or  individuals  under  its  charter  but  in- 
dependent of  its  action.     One  of  the  most  important  settlements,  in- 
deed, was  made  without  any  authority  from  the  company.     In  1620 
the  company  was  reorganized  as  the  Council  at  Plymouth  for  New 
England  with  territory  from  Philadelphia  to  Chaleur  Bay  (40°  N.  to 
48°  N.  across  ttie  continent). 

1620.  Settlement  of  Plymouth  in  New  England  by 
English  separatists  from  Holland. 
This  religious  sect,  a  sort  of  left  wing  of  the  larger  body  of 
Puritans,  had  left  England  in  1607-8  on  account  of  the  intolerance 
with  which  they  were  treated,  and  settled  at  Leyden  in  Holland 
(1609)  to  the  number  of  1000  or  more,  under  their  minister,  John  Rob- 
inson. After  several  attempts  to  secure  a  patent  from  the  London 
company  (South  Virginia),  and  a  promise  of  toleration  from  the 
king,  they  succeeded  in  the  former  endeavor  in  1619,  but  not  in  the 
latter.  Procuring  two  ships  (Speedtoell,  Mayfioioer),  a  part  of  the  con- 
gregation, and  some  others,  set  sail  Aug.  5,  from  Southampton  (hav- 
ing left  Leyden  in  July)  for  the  vicinity  of  Hudson's  River.  TAvice 
driven  back  by  stress  of  weather  the  Pilgrims  (a  name  applied  much 
earlier  to  the  whole  body  in  Holland)  finally  left  Plymouth  in  the 
Mayflower,  Sept.  6.  On  Nov.  9  they  sighted  Cape  Cod,  but  instead 
of  running  southward  they  were  induced  by  fear  of  shoal  water,  by  the 
late  season,  and  perhaps  by  the  cunning  of  the  shipmaster,  to  anchor 
at  the  Cape.  On  Nov.  11,  the  company  signed  a  compact  of  govern- 
ment (they  being  beyond  the  limits  of  the  London  Company),  and 
elected  John  Carver  governor.  For  some  weeks  they  explored  the 
coast,  landing  at  various  places.  (Birth  of  Peregrine  White,  the  first 
European  child  born  in  New  England).  Toward  the  close  of  De- 
cember they  fixed  on  the  site  of  Plymouth,  and  landing,  began  the 
erection  of  a  house  and  portioned  out  land  among  the  settlers  (nine- 
teen families,  102  individuals).* 

^  The  date  is  disputed  ;  that  of  the  landing  of  the  whole  body  can  hardly  be 


A.  D.  America.  295 

1621.  Intercourse  of  the  colonists  (Capt.  Miles  Standish)  with  the  Ii>- 
dians  (Samoset,  Massasoit,  chief  of  the  Indians  in  that  vicin- 
ity).     Upon  the  death  of  Carver,  William  Bradford  was 
elected  governor.    Arrival  of  a  new  patent  from  the  Plymouth 
Company,  also  made  out  in  the  name  of  the  London  merchants, 
with  whom  the  Pilgrims  had  formed  a  partnership  before  sail- 
ing.     Over   fifty   of    the   original   settlers   died   this    year. 
Trouble  with  the  Indians  1621-23. 
Meantime  the  territory  of  the  Plymouth  Company  was  being  par- 
celed out  among  various  adventurers  by  often  conflicting  grants.    In 
1621  Sir  William  Alexander  obtained  a  patent  for  the  whole  of  Aca- 
dia, under  the  name  of  Nova  Scotia,  from  the  crown  of  Scotland 
(confirmed,  1625).    The  region  from  Salem  River  to  the  Merrimac  was 
granted  to  John  Mason  and  called  Mariana.     In  1622  Sir  Fernando 
Gorges  and  John  Mason  obtained  a  grant  of  all  lands  between  the 
Merrimac  and  the  Kennebec,  which  region  was  called  at  first  Laconia, 
afterwards,  Maine.     In  1622  settlements  were  made  on  the  site  of 
the  present  Dover  (Cochecho)  and  Portsmouth.     In  1624  a  few  Puri- 
tans from  England  settled  at  Cape  Ann  ;  the  colony  afterwards  re- 
moved to  Naumkeag  {Roger  Conant,  1626).    In  1625  Captain  Wollas- 
ton  settled  at  Mount  Wollaston,  near  Boston. 

1623.  The  Plymouth  Company  sent  out  Francis  West  as  "  Admiral  of 
New  England,"  Robert  Gorges  as  "  Governor-General,"  and 
William  Morrell  as  "  Superintendent  of  Churches  "  but  nothing 
came  of  this  assertion  of  authority. 

1627.  The  colony  at  Plymouth  succeeded  in  buying  off  the  London 

merchants  in  whose  name  their  charter  had  been  issued. 
Growth  of  the  colony  ;  friendly  intercourse  with  the  Dutch. 

1628.  The  Plymouth  Company  issued  a  grant  of  the  land  between 

three  miles  south  of  the  Charles  River,  and  three  miles  north 
of  the  Merrimac,  reaching  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  to 
a  company  which  sent  John  Endicott  as  governor  and  colonists 
who  joined  the  others  at  Naumkeag.  In  1629  the  name  of  the 
colony  was  changed  to  Salem. 

The  colony  at  Plymouth  obtained  a  grant  on  the  Kennebec. 

Suppression  of  the  settlement  at  Wollaston  ("  Merry  Mount  ") 
by  Endicott.  Morton,  who  after  WoUaston's  departure  had 
ruled  the  colony  and  sold  firearms  (?)  to  the  Indians,  was 
seized  by  Standish  from  Plymouth  and  sent  to  England. 

1629.  Establishment  of  the  company  of  Massachu- 
setts Bay  ("  The  Governor. and  Company  of  Massachusetts  Ba?/ 

in  New  England  ")  by  a  charter  issued  directly  by  the  crown  to  the 
company,  enlarged  by  new  associates,  which  had  settled  Salem.  The 
company  was  permitted  to  elect  a  governor,  deputy  governor,  and 
eighteen  assistants  yearly,  and  to  make  laws  not  repugnant  to  those  of 
England.     The  first  governor  of  the  company  was  Matthew  Cradock. 

ascertained ;  the  landing  of  the  first  exploring  party  seems  to  have  taken  place 
on  Dec.  11,  O.S.,  or  Dec.  21  (22),  N  S.  (confusion  here  also)  See  Gay,  "  When 
jid  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  land  at  Plymouth?"  —  Atlantic  Monthly,  November^ 
1881,  p.  612. 


296  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

A  number  of  influential  men  soon  becominf^  interested  in  the  enter- 
prise, the  governing  council  or  court  of  the  company  in  England 
(that  is  to  say,  "  The  Governor  and  Company  of  Massachusetts  Bay 
in  New  England")  consented  that  the  charter  and  government 
should  be  transferred  to  the  colony  (Aug.  29),  under  which  agree- 
ment John  Winthrop  was  chosen  governor,  and  in  1630  sailed 
for  New  England  with  a  large  number  of  settlers,  who  landed  at 
Charlestown,  where  an  offshoot  from  the  Salem  colony  was  already 
established.  Here  a  church  was  founded  and  two  courts  of  assistants 
held. 

1629.  Mason  and  Gorges  dissolving  their  connection,  a  new  grant  was 
made  to  each,  Mason  receiving  the  territory  between  the 
Merrimac  and  the  Piscataqua,  a  region  afterwards  called  New 
Hampshire.  1  Gorges  received  the  region  between  the  Pis- 
cataqua and  the  Kennebec,  under  the  name  of  New  Somerset- 
shire. 

1630.  Third  and  last  patent  of  the  Plymouth  colony,  whereby  it  was 
assigned  the  district  between  the  Cohasset  River  and  the  Nar- 
raganset,  extending  westward  to  the  limits  of  Pokenakut  or 
Sowamset.  "  The  colonists  were  allowed  to  make  orders,  or- 
dinances, and  constitutions,  for  the  ordering,  disposing,  and 
governing  their  persons,  and  distributing  the  lands  within  the 
limits  of  the  patent." 

1630.  Settlement  of  Boston,  on  the  peninsula  called  Shawmut  by 
the  Indians,  but  Trimountain  by  the  English,  and  then  inhab- 
ited by  an  episcopal  minister,  William  Blackstone.  On  Sept. 
7,  the  court  at  Charlestown  changed  the  name  of  Trimountain 
to  Boston.  First  general  court  of  Massachusetts  held  at 
Boston,  Oct.  19.  It  was  enacted  that  the  freemen  should 
elect  the  assistants,  who  were  to  choose  out  of  their  own  num- 
ber the  governor,  but  the  next  court  decreed  that  the  governor, 
deputy  governor,  and  assistants  should  be  elected  directly  by 
the  freemen.  Only  church-members  were  freemen,  so  that  the 
freemen  formed  a  minority  of  the  population.  In  1631  a 
fortified  town  was  begun  on  the  Charles  and  called  Newtoum 
(afterwards  Cambridge). 

Colony  of  Connecticut. 

The  Dutch  (Adrian  Block,  1614)  were  the  first  to  explore  the 
coast  of  Connecticut  and  the  river  of  that  name,  when  they  built  a 
fort  near  Hartford.  In  1630  the  council  of  Plymouth  granted  to  the 
earl  of  Warwick  the  land  120  miles  S.  E.  from  the  Narraganset  River, 
and  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  In  1631  Warwick 
transferred  this  grant  to  the  viscount  Say  and  Seal,  lord  Brook,  and 
others.  In  1633  the  colonies  of  Plymouth  and  Boston  conferred  on 
the  question  of  settling  the  Connecticut  valley  ;  as  the  Massachu- 
setts colony  declined  the   enterprise  a  company  was  sent  out  from. 

1  The  "  Deed  from  four  Indian  sagamores  to  John  Wheelwright  and  others, 
1629,"  long  accepted  as  the  foundation  of  the  history  of  New  Hampshire,  is 
now  generally  accounted  a  forgery.  Holmes,  Annah,  I.  199,  note  2.  "Win- 
throp, Journal,  ed.  by  Savage.     Fogg,  Gazeteer  of  N.  H. 


A.  D.  America*  297 

Plymouth,  which  disregarded  the  prohibition  of  the  Dutch  and  set  up 
a  house  on  the  Connecticut.  The  rival  claims  of  the  Dutch  and 
English  were  discussed  without  effect  by  the  colonies. 

1634.  The  growth  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay  preventing 
the  attendance  of  all  freemen  at  the  general  court,  it  was  en- 
acted that  whereas  four  courts  should  be  held  in  a  year,  the 
whole  body  of  freemen  should  1i)e  present  at  that  court  only  in 
which  the  elections  were  held  ;  at  the  other  courts  the  freemen 
in  the  towns  should  send  deputies. 

1635.  Surrender  of  the  Charter  of  the  Council  of  Plymouth 
to  the  cro^^n  in  consequence  of  the  hostility  of  the  govern- 
ment and  chm-ch. 

1635.  Foundation  of  the  Connecticut  colony  by  emigrants  from  Mas- 

sachusetts (Windsor,  Wethersfield,  Hartford),  and  by  John 
Winthrop,  son  of  Governor  Winthrop  of  Massachusetts,  who 
built  a  fort  at  Saybrook,  under  commission  from  the  proprie- 
tors. In  1636  a  large  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  Newtown 
(Cambridge)  migrated  to  Connecticut  and  settled  at  Hart- 
ford. 

1636.  A   code   of  laws    (the    General  Fundamentals)    established   at 

Plymouth. 

1636.  Foundation  of  Providence  by  Roger  'Williams,  who  had 
been  expelled  from  Salem  in  1634  for  holding  heretical  doc- 
trines subversive  of  church  and  state. 

1637.  War  of  Connecticut  (first  general  court  at  Hartford)  and  Mas- 
sachusetts against  the  unruly  tribe  of  Pequots  in  Connecticut. 
Extermination  of  the  Indians  (Capt.  John  Mason). 

1638.  Foundation  of  the  colony  of  Rhode  Island  by  John  Clark 
and  others,  who  left  Massachusetts  on  account  of  religious 
differences.  Purchase  of  the  island  of  Aquedneck  (afterwards 
Isle  of  Rhodes)  from  the  Indians. 

Foundation  of  the  colony  of  New  Haven  in  Connecticut  under 
Davenport  and  Eaton. 

In  tliis  year  another  attempt  was  made  by  quo  warranto  pro- 
cess to  rescind  the  charter  of  Massachusetts,  but  it  failed  of 
success. 

In  consequence  of  a  bequest  of  £779  17s.  2d.  from  John  Har- 
vard, of  Charlestown,  the  public  school  which  the  colony  had 
enacted  in  the  previous  year  should  be  established  at  Newtown 
received  the  name  of  Harvard  College,  while  the  name  of 
the  town  was  changed  to  Cambridge. 

1639.  Windsor,  Hartford,  Wethersfield,  on  the  Connecticut,  united  to 
form  a  separate  government.  The  constitution  (Jan.  14) 
placed  the  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial  powers  in  the 
general  assembly,  composed  of  the  deputies  of  the  towns  in 
the  ratio  of  numbers  of  freemen,  meeting  twice  a  year.  All 
could  vote  who  had  taken  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  con- 
stitution. 

The  grant  of  Sir  Fernando  Gorges  was  confirmed  to  him  by 
the  crown  under  the  title  of  the  Province  of  Maine. 

A  general  assembly  of  the  deputies  of  the  towns  in  Plv 
mouth  colony  met  for  the  first  time  (June  4). 


298  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

1641.  The  Body  of  Liberties,  a  code  of  100  laws  established  by 
the  general  court  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay. 

1643.  Creation  of  the  United  Colonies  of  New  England  by  the 
alliance  of  Connecticut,  New  Haven,  Plymouth  and  Mas- 
sachusetts Bay  (May  19)  for  mutual  defense. 

B.   Dutch  Settlements. 

1609.  Henry  Hudson,  an  Englishman  in  Dutch  service,  coasted 
from  Newfoundland  to  the  Chesapeake,  and  entered  Hudson's 
River.     Trading  voyages  of  the  Dutch  (1610-1613). 

1613.  Establishment  of  a  Dutch  trading  post  on  the  island  of  Man- 

hattan at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson,  or  North  River  (so  called 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  South  River,  or  Delaware).  Alleged 
submission  of  the  Dutch  to  Argal  (p.  292). 

1614.  Establishment  of  the  United  New  Netherland  Company 
in  Holland  with  a  grant  in  America  of  territory  from  40°  N. 
to  45°  N.  Fort  built  at  Manhattan,  another.  Fort  Orange,  near 
the  present  Albany  (1615).  Voyage  of  Adrian  Block  through 
Long  Island  sound  (Block  Island). 

1621.  Creation  of  the  Dutch  West  India  Company  to  take  the  place 
of  the  New  Netherland  Company  whose  charter  had  expired. 

1626.  Peter  Minuit,  having  purchased  Manhattan  Island  for 
twenty-four  dollars,  founded  the  settlement  of  New 
Amsterdam. 

Settlements  were  made  under  the  charter  of  the  company  in  Con- 
necticut, New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Pennsylvania,  as  well  as  in  New 
York.  Many  of  these  were  founded  under  an  enactment  of  the  com- 
pany which  gave  the  title  of  patroon  to  any  person  who  should  bring 
over  a  certain  number  of  colonists  under  certain  conditions  ;  the  title 
represented  a  certam  relation  of  suzerainty  between  the  founder  and 
the  colonists. 

The  council  for  New  England  had  opposed  what  it  regarded  as  the 
Dutch  invasion  in  1620-21,  and  the  remonstrances  of  the  English 
grew  stronger  after  the  foundation  of  New  Amsterdam  (1627,1632). 
The  settlement  of  Connecticut  from  New  England  (1632-1638)  was 
opposed  by  the  Dutch  in  vain,  and  the  entire  region  was  wrested 
from  them.  (Protest  of  Kieft,  governor  of  New  Netherlands  against 
the  foundation  of  New  Haven.)  The  Dutch  drove  a  flourishing  trade 
with  the  Five  Nations  of  the  Iroquois  in  central  New  York,  whom  they 
supplied  with  firearms. 

C.   Swedish  Settlements. 

1638.  Foundation  of  Fort  Christina  on  the  Delaware  by  a  colony  of 
Swedes  and  Finns.  The  colony  was  called  New  Sweden, 
and  was  followed  by  other  settlements.  The  Dutch  considered 
this  an  invasion  of  their  rights,  but  the  disputes  that  followed 
led  to  no  result  until  1655,  when  New  Sweden  was  annexed  ta 
New  Netherlands. 


A..  D.  America.  299 


D.  New  Prance  and  the  Arctic  Region. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  France  claimed,  by  right  of  the  dis- 
coveries of  Verrazano,  the  whole  of  North  America  north  of  Spanish 
Florida  and  Mexico,  although  settlements  had  been  made  only  in 
Nova  Scotia  and  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  nothing  having  come  of  the 
projected  settlement  between  Spanish  Florida  and  English  Virginia. 
It  was  with  the  French  in  the  north  that  the  English  settlers  had  to 
deal ;  it  was  to  Canada  that  they  applied  the  name  of  New  France,  as 
that  of  Acadia  was  restricted  to  Nova  Scotia.  From  the  north 
the  French  afterwards  made  the  great  discoveries  in  the  west  which 
gave  them  new  claims  to  the  larger  part  of  America. 
1606.  An  attempted  settlement  on  Cape  Cod  repulsed  by  the  Indians. 

1608.  Foundation  of  Quebec  (July  3)  by  a  colony  sent  out 
by  De  Monts,  under  Champlain. 

1609.  Champlairiy  joining  a  war  party  of  the  Algonquins  against  the 
Iroquois,  discovered  Lake  Champlain. 

1610.  Discovery  of  Hudson's  Bay  by  Henry  HudsoUy  who  was 
searching  for  the  northwest  passage,  in  the  service  of  an 
English  company.  On  the  return  the  crew  mutinied  and 
Hudson  was  put  to  sea  in  a  small  boat,  and  not  heard  of 
again. 

1610.  EngHsh  colony  sent  to  Newfoundland  46°  N.  to  52°  N.  (Con- 
ception Bay). 

1612.  Voyage  of  Thomas  Button  in  search  of  the  Northwest  Passage. 

Discovery  of  New  South  Wales  and  New  North  WaleSj  Button's 
Bay. 

1613.  Madame  de  Guercheville,  having  secured  the  surrender  of  De 

Monts'  patent,  and  the  issue  of  a  new  patent  from  the  crown 
for  all  New  France  between  Florida  and  the  St.  Lawrence 
(except  Port  Royal),  sent  Saussage  with  two  Jesuits,  who  took 
possession  of  Nova  Scotia  and  founded  a  colony  (St.  Saviour) 
on  Mt.  Desert,  which  was  immediately  broken  up  by  ArgaVs 
expedition  from  Virginia.  All  the  French  settlements  in 
Acadia  were  also  destroyed. 

1615.  Expedition  of  Champlain  to  Lake  Huron. 

J  616.  Voyage  of  Bylot  and  Baffin  in  search  of  the  Northwest  Pas- 
sage. Discovery  of  WolstenhoVrne's  Sound,  Lancaster  Sounds 
Baffin's  Bay  (78°  N.). 

1621.  Grant  of  Acadia  under  the  name  of  Nova  Scotia,  to  Sir 
William  Alexander  by  the  crown  of  Scotland.  An  attempt  at 
settlement  was  unsuccessful  and  the  French  continued  in  pos- 
session. Grant  of  a  part  of  Newfoundland  to  Sir  George  Cal- 
vert (Lord  Baltimore)  who  resided  there  until  1631. 

1627.  Transfer  of  the  colony  of  Quebec  to  the  company  of  a  hun- 
dred associates  under  Cardinal  Richelieu. 

1629.  Conquest  of  Quebec  by  Louis  and  Thomas  Kertk,  under  a 
commission  from  Charles  I.  for  the  conquest  of  New  France. 
An  attack  of  David  Kertk  in  1628  had  been  repulsed  by 
Champlain. 


300  Modem  Histoi'y.  a.  d. 

1630.  St.  Estienne  of  La  Tour,  a  Huguenot,  bought  from  Sir  William 
Alexander  his  patent  for  Nova  Scotia,  on  condition  that  the 
colony  should  remain  subject  to  Scotland. 

1631.  Voyages  of  Fox  and  James  in  search  of  a  Northwest  Passage. 

Fox  explored  the  west  coast  of  Hudson  Bay  from  65°  30^  to 
65^10'  in  vain,  but  discovered  Fox^s  Channel  and  reached  Cape 
Peregrine.  James  discovered  James  Bay,  where  he  passed  a 
terrible  winter. 

1632.  Treaty  of  St.  Germain  between  France  and  England.  Ces- 
sion of  New  France,  Acadia,  and  Canada  to  France. 

1635.  Seizure  of  the  trading  post  established  at  Penobscot  by  the 
Plymouth  colonists  by  the  French.  Plymouth  sent  a  vessel 
against  the  French,  but  failed  to  recover  the  place.  Death 
of  Champlain. 

1641.  Maisonneuve  appointed  governor  of  Montreal  ;  in  1642  he 
brought  over  several  families  and  took  possession  of  the 
island.  {See  p.  357.) 

§  3.    GERMANY  TO  THE  THIRTY  YEARS'   WAR.     THE  REFORMA- 
TION. {See  p.  2SS.) 

1493^1519.   Maximilian  I., 

who  first  took  the  title  of  "  Roman  Emperor  elect." 
1495.  Diet  at  Worms.  Perpetual  public  peace.  Imperial  Cham- 
ber (Reichskammergericht),  first  at  Frankfort,  then  at  Speier, 
after  1689  at  Wetzlar.  At  the  diet  of  Cologne  (1512),  establishment 
of  ten  circles  for  the  better  maintenance  of  the  public  peace  (Land- 
friedenskreise):  Circle  of  :  1.  Austria  ;  2.  Bavaria  ;  3.  Swabia;  4.  Fran- 
conia ;  5.  tlie  Upper  Rhine  (Lorraine,  Hesse,  etc.)  ;  6.  the  Lower 
Rhine,  or  the  Electorates  (Mainz,  Trier,  Cologne)  ;  7.  Burgundy 
(1556,  ceded  to  the  Spanish  line  of  Hapsburg)  ;  8.  Westphalia ;  9. 
Lower  Saxony  (Brunswick,  Liineburg,  Lauenburg,  Holstein,  Meck- 
lenburg, etCi)  ;  10>  Upper  Saxony  (Saxony,  Brandenburg,  Pomer- 
ania,  etc.).  In  all  comprising  240  estates  of  the  empire,  exclusive 
of  the  imperial  knights.  Bohemia  and  the  neighboring  states,  Moravia, 
Silesia,  Lusatia,  with  Prussia  and  Switzerland,  which  was  already 
completely  independent,  in  fact,  were  not  included  in  the  circles. 

Establishment  of  the  Aulic  Council,  a  court  more  under  the  control 
of  the  emperor  than  the  Imperial  Chamber,  and  to  which  a  large  part 
of  the  work  belonging  to  the  latter  was  gradually  diverted. 

Maximilian  was  obliged  to  invest  Louis  XII.  of  France  with  Milan. 
1508.  League  of  Cambray  between  Maximilian,  Louis  XIL,  Pope 
Julius  II.,  and  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  against  Venice.  Maxi- 
milian took  possession  of  a  part  of  the  territory  of  the  republic,  but 
besieged  Padua  in  vain  (1509).  The  Pope  withdrew  from  the 
league,  and  concluded  with  Venice  and  Ferdinand  the  Holy  League 
(1511)  against  France,  in  which  they  were  finally  (1513)  joined  by 
Maximilian  (p.  319). 

The  following  genealogical  table  shows  the  claim  of  the  house  of 
Hapsburg  to  Spain,  and  its  division  into  a  Spanish  and  German  line 


A.  tJ.  Germany.  —  Reformation,  301 

Maximilian  /.,  =  Mary,  Ferdinand,  =  Isabella, 

emperor,  f  1519.  of  Burgundy,        king  of  Aragon,         queen  of  Castile, 

t  1482.  t  1516.  I         +  1504. 

d.  of  Charles 
the  Bold, 
duke  of  Burgundy. 
Philip  the  Fair,  -  Joanna  the  Insane 

queen  of  Aragon  and  Castile, 
t  1555. 

GERMAN. 


archduke  of  Austria, 
t  1506. 

SPANISH. 


Charles  I.  (V.),  t  1558.  Ferdinand  I.,  1 1564. 

m.  Isabella  of  Portugal.  m.  Anna  of  Hungar\'. 

I  I 

Philip  II.,  king  of  Spain,  Maximilian  II., 

t  1598.  emperor,  f  1576. 

Maximilian's  son  Philip  married  Joanna,  daughter  of  Ferdinand 
(king  of  Aragon  and  Naples)  and  Isabella  (queen  of  Castile),  hence 
heiress  of  the  three  kingdoms  and  the  American  Colonies.  Philip  him- 
self inherited  from  his  mother,  Mary,  the  heiress  of  Burgundy,  the  Bur- 
gundian  Lands  ;  from  his  father,  Maximilian,  all  the  possessions  of  the 
Hapsburgs  {Western  Austria  on  the  upper  Rhine,  Austria,  Carinthia, 
Carniola,  Tyrol,  etc.).  All  these  lands  descended  to  Charles,  the  eldest 
son  of  Philip  and  Joanna,  the  ancestor  of  the  elder,  Spanish,  line  of 
the  Hapsburg  house.  His  younger  brother,  Ferdinand,  ancestor  of 
the  younger,  German,  line  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  married  Amia, 
sister  of  Louis  II.,  last  king  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary  (whose  wife 
was  Mary,  Ferdinand's  sister). ^ 

1517.  Beginning  of  the  Reformation.     Luther. 

Martin  Luther  was  born  1483  at  Eisleben,  son  of  a  miner, 
became  master  of  arts  and  instructor  1505  ;  monk  in  the  Augustine 
monastery  at  Erfurt;  1507  priest;  1508  professor  at  Wittenberg;  1511 
sent  to  Rome  on  business  connected  with  his  order;  1512  doctor  of 
theology.  On  Oct.  31,  1517,  he  nailed  upon  the  door  of  the  court 
church  at  Wittenberg  his  ninety-five  theses  against  the  misuse  of 
absolution  or  indulgences  (especially  by  the  Dominican  monk  Tetzel). 

1518.  Beginning  of  the  reformation  in  Switzerland  by  Zwingli  at 
Ziirich.     Zwingli  fell  in  battle  at  Kappel  1531. 

Summoned  to  Augsburg  by  Cardinal  de  Vio  of  Gaeta  (Cajetanus), 
Luther  could  not  be  induced  to  abjure  (1518),  but  appealed  to  the 
Pope.  2 

Mediation  of  the  papal  chamberlain  v.  Miltitz.  After  the  discussion 
at  Leipzig  1519  (Bodenstein,  called  Carlstadt,  against  Eck),  the  latter 
secured  a  papal  bull  against  forty-one  articles  in  Luther's  writings. 

1  ITiese  fortunate  marriages  of  the  house  of  Austria  were  celebrated  in  the 
following  couplet  : 

Bella  gerant  alii,  t^ifelix  Avstria,  nuhe  ! 
Quce  dat  Mars  aiiis,  dat  tibi  regna  Venus. 
2  De  Pa2)a  male  informato  ad  Pajiam  melius  informandum. 


302  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

Luther  burnt  (1520)  the  papal  bull  and  the  canon  law  ;  whereupon 
he  was  excommunicated.  In  the  mean  time  the  German  electors,  in 
spite  of  the  claims  of  Francis  I.  of  France,  had  chosen  the  grandson 
of  Maximilian  I.  in  Spain,  Charles  I.,  as  emperor. 

1519-1556.     Charles  V. 

He  came  to  Germany  for  the  first  time  in  1520,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  holding  a  grand  diet  at  Worms  (1521).  There  Luther 
defended  his  doctrines  before  the  emperor,  under  a  safe-conduct.  The 
ban  of  the  empire  being  pronounced  against  him,  he  was  carried  to 
the  Wartburg  by  Frederic  the  Wise,  of  Saxony,  and  there  protected. 
The  edict  of  Worms  prohibited  all  new  doctrines.  Luther's  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible.  Hearing  of  Carlstadt's  misdoings  he  returned  to 
Wittenberg,  and  introduced  public  worship,  with  the  liturgy  in  Ger- 
man and  communion  in  both  kinds,  in  electoral  Saxony  and  in  Hesse 
(1522).  The  spread  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany  was  favored  by 
the  fact  that  the  emperor,  after  the  diet  of  Worms,  had  left  Germany 
and  was  occupied  with  the  war  with  Francis  I. 

Franz  von  Slckingen  and  Ulrich  von  Hutten  advocated  the  Reforma- 
tion. Sickingen  stood  at  the  head  of  an  association  of  nobles  directed 
against  the  spiritual  principalities.  He  laid  siege  to  Trier  (1522)  in 
vain,  was  besieged  in  Landstuhl,  and  fell  in  battle.  Hutten  fled  the 
country  and  died  on  the  island  of  Ufnau  in  the  Lake  of  Zurich  (1523). 

1524-1525.  The  Peasants'  War,  in  Swabia  and  Franconia,  ac- 
companied with  terrible  outrages.  The  Twelve  Articles,  The 
peasants  defeated  at  Konigshof en  on  the  Tauber  and  cruelly  punished. 
Anabaptists  in  Tliuringia.  Thomas  Miinzer  captured  at  Franken- 
hausen  and  executed. 

Reformation  in  Prussia.  Grandmaster  Albert  of  Brandenburg 
duke  of  Prussia  under  Polish  overlordship. 

Luther's  marriage  with  Catharine  of  Bora,  formerly  a  nun.  Cate- 
chism. Ferdinand  of  Austria,  the  emperor's  younger  brother,  edu- 
cated in  Spain,  to  whom  Charles  had  intrusted  since  1522  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Hapsburg  lands  in  Germany,  formed  an  alliance  in 
1524,  at  the  instigation  of  the  papal  legate  Campeggio,  with  the  two 
dukes  of  Bavaria  and  the  bishop  of  Southern  Germany,  in  order  to 
oppose  the  religious  changes.  To  counteract  this  move  the  league  of 
Torgau  was  formed  (1526)  among  the  Protestants  (John  of  Saxony, 
Philip  of  Hesse,  Liineburg,  Magdeburg,  Prussia,  etc.).  They  pro- 
cured an  enactment  at  the  diet  of  Speier,  favorable  to  the  new  doctrine 
(1526). 

1521-1526.     First  war  of  Charles  V.  with  Francis  I. 

Charles  advanced  claims  to  Milan  and  the  duchy  of  Burgundy. 
Francis  claimed  Spanish  Navarre  and  Naples.  The  French  (under 
Lautrec)  were  driven  from  Milan,  which  was  given  to  Francesco  Sforza 
(1522).  The  French  Conne'table,  Charles  of  Bourbon,  transferred  his 
allegiance  to  Charles  V.  Unfortunate  invasion  of  Italy  by  the  French 
1523-24,  under  Bonnivert.  The  chevalier  Bayard  ("  sans  peur  et  sans 
reproche  ")  fell  during  the  retreat.  Imperial  forces  invaded  southern 
France.     Francis  I.  crossed  Mt.  Cenis,  and  recaptured  Milan. 


A.  D.  Germany. —  Reformation.  303 

1525.  Battle  of  Pavia.     Francis  defeated  and  captured. 

1526.  Peace  of  Madrid.      Francis  renounced  all  claim  to  Milan, 
Genoa,  and  Naples,  as  well  as  the  overlordship  of  Flanders 

and  Artois,  assented  to  the  cession  of  the  duchy  of  Burgundy,  and 

gave  his  sons  as  hostages- 

1527-1529.     Second  -war  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.,  who 

had  declared  that  the  conditions  of  the  peace  of  Madrid  were 
extorted  by  force,  and  hence  void.  Alliance  at  Cognac  between  Fran- 
cis, the  Pope,  Venice  and  Francesco  Sforza  against  the  emperor.  The 
imperial  army,  unpaid  and  mutinous,  took  Rome  by  storm  under  the 
constable  of  Bourbon,  who  fell  in  the  assault  (by  the  hand  of  Ben- 
venuto  Cellini?);  the  Pope  besieged  in  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo  (1527). 
The  French  general,  Lautrec,  invaded  Naples,  but  the  revolt  of  Genoa 
(Doria),  whose  independence  Charles  V.  promised  to  recognize,  and 
the  plague,  of  which  Lautrec  himself  died,  compelled  the  French  to 
raise  the  siege  of  the  capital  and  to  retire  to  France. 
1529.     Peace  of  Cambray  (Paix  des  Dames).     So  called  from  the 

fact  that  it  was  negotiated  by  Margaret  of  Austria,  Charles's 
aunt,  and  Louise  of  Savoy,  duchess  of  Angonleme,  mother  of  Francis. 
Francis  paid  two  million  crowns  and  renounced  his  claims  upon  Italy ^ 
Flanders  and  Artois ;  Charles  promised  not  to  press  his  claims  upon 
Burgundy /or  the  present,  and  released  the  French  princes. 

1529.  Second  diet  at  Speier,  where,  in  consequence  of  the  victorious 
position  of  the  emperor,  Ferdinand  and  the  Catholic  party  took 

a  more  decided  position.  The  strict  execution  of  the  decree  of  Worms 
(p.  302)  was  resolved  upon.  The  evangelical  estates  protested  against 
this  resolution,  whence  they  were  called  Protestants. 
1526-1532.  War  with  the  Turks.  Louis  II.,  king  of  Hungary, 
having  fallen  in  the  battle  of  Mohacs  (1526),  one  party  chose 
Ferdinand,  Charles's  brother,  the  other  John  Zapolya.  The  latter 
was  assisted  by  the  Sultan  Soliman  (Suleiman),  who  besieged  Vienna 
in  vain  (1529). 

1530.  Charles  crowned  emperor  in  Bologna  by  the  Pope.     This  was 
the  last  coronation  of  a  German  emperor  by  the  Pope. 

1530.  Brilliant  Diet  at  Augsburg,  the  emperor  presiding  in  per- 
son.    Presentation  of  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  (Confes- 

sio  Augustana)  by  Melanchthon  (true  name  Schivarzerd,  1497-1560), 
the  learned  friend  of  Luther.  The  enactment  of  the  diet  commanded 
the  abolition  of  all  innovations. 

1531.  Schmalkaldic  league,  agreed  upon  in  1530,  between  the  ma- 
Feb.  6.     jority  of  Protestant  princes  and  imperial  cities. 

Charles  caused  his  brother,  Ferdinand,  to  be  elected  king  of  Rome, 
and  crowned  at  Aachen.  The  elector  of  Saxony  protested  against 
this  proceeding  in  the  name  of  the  Evangelicals.  In  consequence  of 
the  new  danger  which  threatened  from  the  Turks, 

1532.  Religious  Peace  of  Nuremberg.     The  Augsburg  edict  was 
revoked,  and,  free   exercise  of   their   religion   permitted  the 

Protestants  until  the  meeting  of  a  new  council  to  be  called  within  a 
year. 


304  Modern   History.  A.  D. 

Soliman  invaded  and  ravaged  Hungary.  Heroic  defence  of  Giinz. 
A  great  imperial  army  was  sent  to  the  aid  of  Hungary,  and  Soliman 
retired. 

1534-1535.  Aaabaptists  in  Miinster  (Joliann  Bockelsohn,  from  Ley- 
den). 

1534.  Philip,  landgrave  of  Hessen,  restored  the  Lutheran  duke, 
Ulrich  of  Wurtemberg,  who  had  been  driven  out  (1519)  by 
the  Swabian  league  of  cities.  The  emperor  had  invested  Fer- 
dinand with  the  duchy,  but  the  latter  was  obliged  to  agree  to 
a  compact,  whereby  he  was  to  renounce  Wurtemberg,  but 
should  be  recognized  as  king  of  Rome  by  the  evangelical 
party. 

1535.  Charles's  expedition  against  Tunis  (Chaireddin  Barbarossa,  the 
pirate).     Tunis  conquered  ;  liberation  of  all  Christian  slaves. 

1536-1538.  Third  war,  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.,  about 
Milan  ;  Francis  I.  having  renewed  his  claims  upon  that  duchy 
after  the  death  of  Francesco  Sforza  II.,  without  issue.  Charles  in- 
vaded Provence  anew,  but  fruitlessly.  Francis  made  an  inroad  into 
Savoy  and  Piedmont,  and  accepted  the  alliance  of  Soliman,  who 
pressed  Hungary  hard,  and  sent  his  fleet  to  ravage  the  coast  of  Italy. 
The  war  was  ended  by  the 

1538.  Truce  of  Nice,  which  was  concluded  on  the  basis  of  posses- 
June  18.     sion,  at  the  time  of  its  formation,  for  ten  years. 

July.     Meeting  between  Charles  and  Francis  at  Aigues  Mortes. 

1539-1540.  Charles  V.  crossed  France,  for  the  purpose  of  suppress- 
ing a  disturbance  in  Ghent,  and  was  received  by  Francis  with 
special  distinction.  Ghent  punished  by  deprivation  of  its  privi- 
leges. 

1540.  The  Order  of  Jesuits,  founded  by  Jgnatius  Loyola  (1534), 
approved  by  Pope  Paul  III.,  successfully  opposed  the  spread 
of  the  Reformation. 

1541.  Reformation  introduced  into  Geneva  by  Calvin  (Jean  Cau- 
vin,  from  Noyon  in  Picardy;  born  1509;  Catholic  pastor  in  his 

eighteenth  year,  resigned  his  office  ;  studied  law  at  Orleans  and 
Bourges  ;  came  forward  as  a  reformer  at  Paris  in  1532,  finding  pro- 
tection from  Margaret  of  Navarre,  sister  of  Francis  I.  Exiled  from 
France,  Calvin  went  to  Basel,  published  the  Institutio  Christianas,  relig- 
ionis  1535  ;  1536-1538  in  Geneva  ;  1538-1541  in  Strasburg,  after- 
warrds  head  of  the  state  in  Geneva,  f  1564).  From  Geneva  the 
Reformation  spread  to  France  and  Scotland  (John  Knox). 

1541.  Charles's  unsuccessful  expedition  against  Algiers. 

1542.  Henry,  duke  of  Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel,  driven  from  the 
country  by  the  Schmalkaldic  League. 

1542--1544.  Fourth  war  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.,  occa- 
sioned by  the  investiture  of  Charles's  son,  Philip,  with  Milan. 
The  fact  that  two  secret  agents,  whom  Francis  had  sent  to  Soliman, 
were  captured  in  Milan,  and  when  they  resisted,  put  to  death,  served 
as  a  pretext. 


A.  D.  Germany.  —  Reformation.  305 

Francis  in  alliance  with  Soliman  and  the  duke  of  Cleve.  The  allied 
Twr^M  and  FrencA  fleets  bombarded  and  plundered  Nice.  Charles, 
in  alliance  with  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  conquered  the  duke  of 
Cleve,  and  advanced  as  far  as  Soissons.  Soliman  invaded  Hungary 
and  Austria. 

1544.     Peace  of  Crespy  ;  Francis'  second  son,  the  duke  of  Orleans, 
Sept.  18.     was  to  marry  a  princess  of  the  imperial  family  and  receive 
Milan.     He  died  in  1545,  however  ;  Milan  continued  in  the 
possession  of  the  emperor,  who  gave  it,  nominally,  to  his  son  Philip, 
as  a  fief.     Francis  gave  up  his  claims  to  Naples^  and  the  overlordship 
of  Flanders  and  Artois;  Charles  renounced  his  claims  to  Burgundy. 
1545-1563.     Council  of  Trent,  not  attended  by  the  Protestants. 
Reforms  in  the  church.      Establishment  of  a  number  of  dog- 
mas of  the  Catholic  church. 

1546,  Feb.  18.     Death  of  Luther  at  Eisleben. 

Charles  V.,  who,  since  the  peace  of  Crespy,  was  unhindered 
by  foreign  complications,  sought  to  crush  the  independence  of 
the  estates  of  the  empire  in  Germany,  and  to  restore  the  unity  of  the 
church,  to  which  he  was  urged  by  the  Pope,  who  concluded  an  alli- 
ance with  him,  and  promised  money  and  troops. 

1546-1547.     Schmalkaldic  War. 

The  leaders  of  the  league  of  Schmalkalden,  John  Frederic, 
elector  of  Saxony,  and  Philip,  landgrave  of  Hesse,  placed  under  the 
ban.  Duke  Maurice  of  Saxony  concluded  a  secret  alliance  with  the 
emperor.  Irresolute  conduct  of  the  war  by  the  allies  in  upper  Ger- 
many. The  elector  and  the  landgrave  could  not  be  induced  by  gen- 
eral Schartlin  of  Augsburg  to  make  a  decisive  attack,  and  finally  re- 
tired, each  to  his  own  land.  John  Frederic  of  Saxony  reconquered 
his  electorate,  which  Maurice  had  occupied.  Charles  V.  first  reduced 
the  members  of  the  league  in  southern  Germany  (Augsburg,  Nurem- 
berg, Ulm,  duke  of  WUrtemberg,  etc.)  to  subjection,  then  went  to 
Saxony,  forced  the  passage  of  the  Elbe,  and  defeated  in  the 

1547,  Battle  of  Miihlberg,  on  the  Lochau  Heath,  near   Torgau  the 
24  April,     elector  of  Saxony,  captured  him,  and  besieged  his  capital, 

Wittenberg.     Treaty  mediated  by  Joachim  II.  of  Branden- 
burg.    The  electoral  dignity    and  lands   given  to  the    Albertine 
line  (duke  Maurice).      The  Ernestine  line  retained  Weimar,  Jena, 
Eisenach,  Gotha,  etc.     The  elector  was  kept  in  captivity.     Philip  of 
Hesse  surrendered,  and  was  detained  in  captivity,  although  Maurice 
and  Joachim  II.  of  Brandenburg  had  pledged  themselves  for  his 
liberation.     Interim  of  Augsburg  (1548),  not  generally  accepted  by 
the  Protestants.    The  city  of  Magdeburg,  the  centre  of  the  opposition, 
placed  under  the  ban.    Maurice  of  Saxony,  intrusted  with  the  exe- 
cution of  the  decree,  armed  himself  in  secret  against  Charles  V.,  and 
1552.  Surprised  the  emperor,  after  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  of 
Friedevmlde  (1551)  with  Henry  II.  of  France,  and  forced  him 
to  liberate  his  father-in-law,  Philip  of  Hesse,  and  to  conclude 
the 
1552.  Convention  of  Passau.     Free  exercise  of  religion  for  the 
20 


306  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

Aug.  2.    adherents  of  the  confession  of  Augsburg  until  the  next  diet 
Maurice  defeated  Albert^  margrave  of  Brandenburg-Culmbach 
at  Sievershausen  (1553),  but  was  mortally  wounded. 

1555.  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg. 
Sept.  25. 

The  territorial  princes  and  the  free  cities,  who,  at  this  date, 
acknowledged  the  confession  of  Augsburg,  received  freedom  of  wor- 
ship, the  right  to  introduce  the  reformation  within  their  territories 
(Jits  reformandi)f  and  equal  rights  with  the  Catholic  estates.  No 
agreement  reached  as  regarded  the  Ecclesiastical  Reservation  (Reser- 
vatum  ecdesiasticum)  that  the  spiritual  estates  (bishops  and  abbots) 
who  became  Protestant  should  lose  their  offices  and  incomes.  This 
peace  secured  no  privileges  for  the  reformed  religion  (Genevan). 
1552-1556.  War  between  Charles  V.  and  Henry  II.,  who,  as  the 
ally  of  Maurice,  had  seized  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun.  Charles 
besieged  Metz,  which  was  successfully  defended  by  Francis  of 
Guise. 

The  truce  of  Vaucelles  left  France,  provisionally,  in  possession  of 
the  cities  which  had  been  occupied. 

1556.  Abdication   of  Charles  V.  in   Brussels    (Oct.   25, 
1555,  and  Jan.  15, 1556). 

The  crown  of  Spain  with  the  colonies,  Naples,  MUan,  Franche- 
Comte,  and  the  Netherlands,  went  to  his  son  Philip;  the  imperial  office 
and  the  Hapsburg  lands  to  his  brother  Ferdinand  I.  (p.  302,  303). 
Charles  lived  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Just  as  a  private  individual, 
but  not  as  a  monk,  and  died  there  in  1558. 

1556-1564.  Ferdinand  I., 

husband  of  Anna,  sister  of  Louis  II.,  king  of  Bohemia  and 
Hungary,  after  whose  death  he  was  elected  king  of  these  countries 
by  their  estates.  Constant  warfare  over  the  latter  country,  which  he 
was  obliged  to  abandon,  in  great  part,  to  the  Turks.     His  son, 

1564-1576.   Maximilian  II., 

was  of  a  mild  disposition  and  favorably  inclined  to  the  Protes- 
tants, whom  he  left  undisturbed  in  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion. 
War  with  Zapdya,  prince  of  Transylvania,  and  the  Turks.  Sultan 
Soliman  II.  died  in  camp  before  Sigeth,  which  was  defended  by  the 
heroic  Zriny.  By  the  truce  with  Selim  II.  (1566)  each  party  retained 
its  possessions.  The  imperial  knight,  Grumbach,  who  had  broken  the 
public  peace  by  a  feud  with  the  bishop  of  Wiirzburg,  had  plundered 
the  city  of  Wiirzburg  (1563),  and  had  been  protected  by  John  Fred- 
eric, duke  of  Saxony,  was  placed  under  the  ban,  and  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Gotha,  cruelly  executed  (1567).  The  duke  was  kept  in  strict 
eonfinement  in  Austria  until  his  death. 

Reaction  against  Protestantism.     Anti-Reformation. 

1576-1612.    Rudolf  II.,  son  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian  II., 
a  learned  man,  an  astrologer  and  astronomer  {Kepler^  f  1630^ 


A.  D. 


Germany. 


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308  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

was  appointed  imperial  mathematician  by  him),  but  incapable  of  gov- 
erning. New  quarrels  over  the  ecclesiastical  reservation  (p.  306).  The 
imperial  city  of  Donauworlh,  placed  under  the  ban  by  the  emperor, 
because  a  mob  had  disturbed  a  Catholic  procession,  was,  in  spite  of 
the  prohibition  of  the  emperor,  retained  by  Maximilian  of  Bavaria^ 
who  had  executed  the  ban  (1607).  These  troubles  led  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a 

1608.  Protestant  Union  (leader,  Frederic  IV.,  elector  Palatine), 

which  was  opposed  by  the 

1609.  Catholic   League    (leader,   Maximilian,   duke   of    Bavaria). 
Both  princes  were  of  the  house  of  Wittelsbaeh. 

Rudolf,  from  whom  his  brother,  Matthias,  had  forced  the  cession 
of  Hungary,  Moravia,  and  Austria,  hoping  to  conciliate  the  Bohe- 
mians gave  them  the 

1609.  Royal  Charter  (Majestatsbrief),  which  permitted  a  free  exer- 
cise of    religion  to  the  three    estates  of   lords,  knights,  and 
royal  cities. 
1609.  Beginning  of  the  quarrel  about  the  succession  of  Jiilich-Cleve 
on  the  death  of  John  William,  duke  of  Cleve.      The  elector 
of  Brandenburg  and  the  prince  of  Neuburg  were  the  principal 
claimants. 
Rudolf,  toward  the  close  of  his  life,  was  forced  by  Matthias  to  ab- 
dicate the  government  of  Bohemia. 

1612-1619.   Matthias, 

being  childless,  and  having  obtained  the  renunciation  of  his 
brothers,  secured  for  his  cousin  Ferdinand,  duke  of  Styria,  Carin- 
thia,  and  Carniola,  who  had  been  educated  by  the  Jesuits  in  strict 
Catholicism,  the  succession  in  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  in  spite  of  the 
objections  of  the  Protestant  estates. 

§    4.    THE  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR. 

1618-1648. 

The  Thirty  Years'  War  is  generally  divided  into  four  periods, 
which  were  properly  as  many  different  wars.  The  first  two,  the  Bo- 
hemian and  the  Danish,  had  a  predominant  religious  character  ;  they 
developed  from  the  revolt  in  Bohemia  to  a  general  attack  by  Catholic 
Europe  upon  Protestant  Europe.  The  latter  two,  the  Swedish  and 
Sioedish-French,  were  political  wars  ;  wars  against  the  power  of  the 
house  of  Hapsburg,  and  wars  of  conquest  on  the  part  of  Sweden  and 
France  upon  Germaii  soil. 

1.  Period  of  war  in  Bohemia  and  the  County  Palatine. 
(1618-1623.) 

Occasion  :  Closing  of  a  Utraquist  ^  church  in  the  territory  of  the 
abbot  of  Braunaii,  and  destruction  of  another  in  a  city  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  Prague,  that  is,  in  the  territory  of  ecclesiastical  estates,  whiclj 

I  Utraqidst,  that  is,  favoring  communion  in  both  kinds. 


A..  D.  Germany.  —  Thirty  Years'  War.  309 

according  to  the  view  of  the  Protestants  ought  to  be  regarded  as 
royal  estates,  in  accordance  with  the  Bohemian  constitution.  ^  The  irri- 
tation of  the  Bohemian  Protestants  (Utraquists)  was  increased  by  the 
transference  of  the  administration  of  the  country  to  ten  governors, 
seven  of  whom  were  Catholics.  Meeting  of  the  defensors,  and  revolt 
in  Prague,  headed  by  count  Matthias  of  Thurn.  The  governors,  Mar- 
tinitz  and  Slawata,  and  the  secretary,  Fabricius,  thrown  from  a  win- 
dow in  the  palace  of  Prague,  seventy  feet  into  the  dit^h,  but  escaped 
with  their  lives  (May  23,  1618).  Thirty  directors  appointed  by  the 
rebels.  The  Protestant  Union  sent  count  Mansfeld  to  the  aid  of 
the  Bohemians.  From  Silesia  and  Lusatia  came  troops  under  mar- 
grave John  George  of  Jdgerndorf.  The  imperial  forces  were  defeated 
by  Mansfeld  and  count  Thurn.     The  emperor  Matthias  died  1619. 

Count  Thurn  marched  upon  Vienna.  The  Austrian  estates,  for  the 
most  part  Protestants,  threatened  to  join  the  Bohemians,  and  made 
rough  demands  upon  Ferdinand,  who,  by  his  courage  and  the  arrival 
of  a  few  troops,  was  rescued  from  a  dangerous  situation.  Thurn, 
who  arrived  before  Viemia  shortly  afterwards,  was  soon  obliged  to 
retire  by  an  unfavorable  turn  of  the  war  in  Bohemia.  ^  Ferdinand 
went  to  Frankfort,  where  he  was  elected  emperor  by  the  other  six 
electors. 

1619-1637.    Ferdinand  II. 

Meantime  the  Bohemians  had  deposed  him  from  the  throne  of 
Bohemia  and  elected  the  young  Frederic  V.,  elector  palatine,  the  head 
of  the  Union  and  of  the  German  Calvinists,  son-in-law  of  James  I., 
king  of  England.     ("The  Winter  King"). 

Count  Thurn,  for  the  second  time  before  Vienna,  allied  with  Beth- 
len  Gabor,  prince  of  Transylvania  (Nov.  1619).  Cold,  want,  and  an 
inroad  of  an  imperial  partisan  in  Hungary,  caused  a  retreat. 

Ferdinand  leagued  himself  with  Maximilian,  duke  of  Bavaria,  head 
of  the  Catholic  League,  the  friend  of  his  youth,  who  helped  him  sub- 
due the  Austrian  estates,  with  Spain  (Spinola  invaded  the  county 
palatine;  treaty  of  Ulm,  July  3,  1620;  neutrality  of  the  Union  se- 
cured), and  with  the  Lutheran  elector  of  Saxony,  who  re-subjugated 
Lusatia  and  Silesia.  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  with  the  army  of  the 
League  commanded  by  Tilly,  marched  to  Bohemia  and  joined  the 
imperial  general  Buquoy.     They  were  victorious  in  the 

1620,  Nov.  8.     Battle  on  the  White  Hill 

over  the  troops  of  Frederic  V.,  under  the  command  of  Chris' 
tian  of  Anhalt.  Frederic  was  put  under  the  ban,  and  his  lands  confis- 
cated ;  he  himself  fled  to  Holland.  Christian  of  Anhalt  and  John 
George  of  Brandenburg-Jagerndorf,  also  put  under  the  ban.  Sub- 
jugation of  the  Bohemians,  destruction  of  the  Royal  Charter,  ex- 
ecution of  the  leading  rebels,  extirpation  of  Protestantism  in  Bohemia. 
Afterwards,  violent  anti-reformation  in  Austria,  and,  with  less  vio- 
lence, in  Silesia. 

Dissolution  of  the  Protestant  Union  and  transfer  of  the  seat  of  war 

1  Cf.  Gindely,  Gesch.  d.  dreissioiahr.  Kriegs,  vol.  i.  (1869),  chap.  2. 
a  Gindely,  ii.  (1878),  chap.  2. 


I 


310  Modern  History.  ▲.  ix 

to  the  palatinate,  which  was  conquered  in  execution  of  the  ban  by 
Maximilian's  general,  Tilly  {.Tan  TzerklaSy  baron  of  Tilly,  born  1559, 
in  the  Walloon  Brabant),  with  the  help  of  Spanish  troops  under 
Spinola.  Tilly,  defeated  at  Wiesloch  by  Mansfeld  (April,  1622),  de- 
feated the  margrave  of  Baden-Durlach  at  Wimpfen  (May),  and 
Christian  of  Brunswick,  brother  of  the  reigning  duke  and  administra- 
tor of  the  bishopric  of  Halberstadt,  at  Hochst  (June,  1622),  and  again 
at  Stadtlohn  in  Westphalia  (1623). 

1623.  Maximilian  received  the  electoral  vote  belonging  to  Frederic 
V.  and  the  Upper  Palatinate  ;  Saxony  obtained  Lusatia  for  the 
present  in  pledge. 

2.    Danish  Period.     Seat  of  "War  in  Lower  Saxony. 

1625-1629. 

Christian  IV.,  king  of  Denmark  and  duke  of  Holstein,  was  the  head 
of  the  Lower  Saxon  Circle,  and  the  leader  of  the  Protestants. 

Albert  of  Wallenstein  (Waldstein,  born  1583,  in  Bohemia,  of  an 
utraquist  family,  but  educated  in  the  Catholic  faith,  1617  count,  1623 
prince  of  the  empire,  1624  duke  of  Friedland)  became  the  imperial 
commander  of  an  army,  recruited  by  himself,  which  was  to  be  provi- 
sioned by  a  system  of  robbery. 

Wallenstein  defeated  Mansfeld  at  the  Bridge  of  Dessau  (1626), 
pursued  him  through  Silesia  to  Hungary,  where  Mansfeld  joined 
Bethlen  Gabor.  Mansfeld  died  in  Dalmatia  (Nov.,  1626).  Christian 
of  Brunswick  had  died  in  June  of  the  same  year. 

Tilly  defeated  Christian  IV.  at  Luther  am  Barenberge,  in  Bruns- 
wick (Aug.,  1626).  Tilly  and  Wallenstein  conquered  Holstein  (1627). 
Wallenstein  alone  conquered  Schleswig  and  Jutland,  drove  the  dukes 
of  Mecklenburg  from  the  country,  forced  the  duke  of  Pommerania  to 
submission,  but  besieged  Stralsund  (1628)  in  vain,  the  citizens  de- 
fending themselves  heroically  for  ten  weeks. 

1629.    Peace  of  Liibeck 

May  22.     between  the  emperor  and  Christian  IV.     The  latter  re- 
ceived his  lands  back,  but  promised  not  to  interfere  in  German 
affairs,  and  abandoned  his  allies.     The  dukes  of  Mecklenburg  put  un- 
der the  ban.     Wallenstein  invested  with  their  lands. 

1629,  March  29.  Edict  of  Restitution:  1.  Agreeably  to  the  ecclesias- 
tical reservation  (p.  306),  all  ecclesiastical  estates  which  had 
been  confiscated  since  the  convention  of  Passau  should  be  restored. 
This  affected  two  archbishoprics:  Magdeburg  and  Bremen;  twelve  bis- 
hoprics: Minden,  Verden,  Halberstadt,  Lubeck,  Ratzeburg,  Meissen^ 
Merseburg,  Naumburg  (the  latter  three  were,  however,  left  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  elector  of  Saxony),  Brandenburg,  Havelberg,  Lebus  and 
Camin,  besides  very  many  (about  120)  monasteries  and  foundations. 
2.  Only  the  adherents  of  the  Augsburg  confession  were  to  have  free 
exercise  of  religion  ;  all  other  "  sects  "  were  to  be  broken  up.  Be- 
ginning of  a  merciless  execution  of  the  edict  by  Wallenstein's  troops 
and  those  of  the  League. 


A.  D.  Germany. —  Thirty  Years'  War.  311 

1630.     Electoral  Assembly  at  Regensburg  (Ratisbon). 

The  party  of  Bavaria  and  the  League  was  hostile  to  Wallen- 
stein  and  took  up  a  position  of  determined  opposition  to  the  too  pow- 
erful general.  An  excuse  was  found  in  the  loud  and  well  founded 
complaints  of  all  estates  of  the  empire,  particularly  the  Catholics,  over 
the  terrible  extortion  and  cruelty  practiced  by  Wallenstein's  army. 
The  emperor  consented  to  decree  the  dismissal  of  the  general  and  a 
large  part  of  the  army. 
1627-1631.     War  of  succession  over  Mantua  by  the  houses  of  Nevers 

and  Guasialla.  The  former,  supported  by  France  (Richelieu 
himself  took  the  field)  obtained  the  duchy  in  the  peace  of  Cherasco 
(April  6)  although  the  imperial  forces  had  been  victorious  and  cap- 
tured Mantua. 

3.  Swedish  Period  (1630-1635). 

1630.  Gustavus  II.,  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  landed  on 
July,    the  coast  of  Pomerania. 

Object  and  grounds  of  his  interference :  protection  of  the  oppressed 
Protestants  ;  restoration  of  the  dukes  of  Mecklenburg,  his  relatives  ; 
the  rejection  of  his  mediation  at  the  peace  of  Liibeck  ;  anxiety  in 
regard  to  the  maritime  plans  of  the  emperor. 

Political  position  of  Sweden  :  Finland,  Ingermannland,  Esthonia, 
Livonia,  belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  Gustavus  ;  Curland  was  under 
Swedish  influence.  An  ambitious  monarch  might  easily  dream  of 
the  acquisition  of  Prussia  and  Pomerania,  which  would  have  almost 
made  the  Baltic  a  Swedish  sea. 

Gustavus  concluded  a  subsidy  treaty  with  France  (Richelieu). 

Gustavus  Adolphus  drove  the  imperial  forces  from  Pomerania 
and  marched  up  the  Oder,  where  Tilly  came  against  him  (1631).  The 
king  went  to  Mecklenburg.  Tilly  retired  to  the  Elbe,  and  laid  siege 
to  Magdeburg.  Gustavus  Adolphus  captured  Frankfort  on  the  Oder. 
Negotiations  with  his  brother-in-law,  'George  William,  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg (1619-1640),  who  was  under  the  influence  of  Schwarzenberg. 
Spandau  was  at  last  surrendered  to  him.  Negotiations  in  regard  to 
the  surrender  of  Wittenberg,  with  Saxony,  which  endeavored  to  main- 
tain the  position  of  a  third,  mediatory,  party  in  the  empire,  a  sort  of 
armed  neutrality  (diet  of  princes  at  Leipzig,  1631),  and  was  with 
difficulty  brought  to  form  an  alliance  with  an  enemy  of  the  empire. 
Meanwhile 

1631.  Capture  of  Magdeburg  by  Tilly.     The  storm  was  conducted 
May  20.     by  Pappenheim.     Terrible  massacre  and  sack  of  the  city  by 

the  unbridled  soldiery  of  Tilly,  who  did  what  he  could  to  check 
the  outrages.  Fire  broke  out  suddenly  in  many  places  far  removed 
from  one  another,  and  the  whole  city  with  the  exception  of  the  cathe- 
dral was  consumed  (Not  by  Tilly's  command). ^ 

Tilly  took  possession  of  Halle,  Eisleben,  Merseburg,  and  other  cities 

1  Probably  the  fire  was  set  by  previous  ap'eement  of  the  more  determined 
portion  of  the  defenders  (Falkenbery).  Ct.  Wittich,  Magdeburg,  Gustav  Adolf 
u.  Tilly,  vol.  ii.  1874. 


312  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

and  burned  them.  John  George^  elector  of  Saxony,  formed  an  alli- 
ance with  Gustavus  Adolphus,  who  crossed  the  Elbe  at  Wittenberg. 
Leipzig  occupied  by  Tilly.  The  imperial  army  and  that  of  the 
Swedes  and  Saxons,  each  about  40,000  strong,  were  face  to  face. 

1631.  Battle  of  Leipzig  or  Breitenfeld. 

Sept.  17.  The  Saxons  were  at  first  put  to  rout  by  Tilly,  but  after  a 
bloody  fight  Gustavus  Adolphus  won  a  brilliant  victory. 

The  Saxons  entered  Bohemia.  Gustavus  crossed  Thuringia  and 
Franconia  to  the  Rhine  by  way  of  Erfurt,  Wurzburg,  Hanau,  Frank- 
fort, Darmstadt,  crossed  the  Rhine  at  Oppenheim,  and  occupied  Mainz. 
Winter  quarters. 

Meantime  Prague  was  captured  by  the  Saxons  under  Arnim  {Boyt" 
zenhurg),  a  former  subordinate  of  Wallenstein.  The  emperor  held 
fruitless  negotiations  with  the  Saxons. 

At  the  urgent  request  of  Ferdinand,  Wallenstein  collected  an  army, 
over  which  he  received  uncontrolled  command.  He  recaptured  Prague, 
and  drove  the  Saxons  from  Bohemia.  Their  eagerness  for  the  war 
and  the  Swedish  alliance  was  already  chilled. 

1632.  Gustavus  advanced  to  the  Danube  by  way  of  Nuremberg  to 
meet  Tilly.     Conflict  at  Rain,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Lenz 

and  the  Danube.  Tilly,  mortally  wounded,  died  at  Ingolstadt.  He 
was  seventy-three  years  old. 

Gustavus  went  to  Augsburg,  vainly  besieged  Maximilian  in  Ingol- 
stadt, but  forced  Munich  to  surrender.     Wallenstein  summoned  to 
the  assistance  of  Maximilian. 
1632.     Fortified  camp  near  Nuremberg. 

July-Sept.  (Burgstall).  Gustavus  and  Wallenstein  face  to  face  for 
eleven  weeks.  Wallenstein  declined  battle.  Reinforced  by 
Bernhard  of  Saxe- Weimar,  the  Swedes  attacked  Wallenstein's  in- 
trenchments,  but  were  repulsed  with  heavy  loss.  Gustavus  advanced 
to  the  Danube.  Wallenstein  turned  upon  Saxony,  now  defenseless, 
Arnim  having  marched  through  Lusatia  to  Silesia  with  the  Saxon 
and  Brandenburg  troops.  Terrible  ravages  committed  by  the  bands 
of  Wallenstein.  At  the  call  of  the  elector  of  Saxony,  Gustavus 
hastened  back  by  way  of  Kitzingen  and  Schweinfurt,  joined  Bern- 
hard  of  Saxe- Weimar  in  Arnstadt,  marched  upon  Naumburg,  and 
hearing  that  Wallenstein  had  dispatched  Pappenheim  from  L  aipzig 
to  the  Rhine,  attacked  the  imperial  forces  (18,000  against  20,000 
Swedes). 

1632.  Battle  of  Liitzen.  Death  of  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus/ 

Nov.  16.  Pappenheim,  recalled  in  haste,  took  part  in  the  battle 
with  his  cavalry,  after  three  o'clock  ;  he  was  mortally  wounded. 

The  victory  of  the  Swedes  was  completed  by  Bernhard  of  Saxe- 

Weimar. 

Bernhard,^  Gustavus  Horn,  and  Baner  took  command  of  the  Swedish 

forces.     The  conduct  of  foreign  affairs  was  assimied  by  the  Swedish 

1  The  suspicion  that  the  king  was  murdered  by  Francis  Albert,  duke  of  Lau- 
enburg,  is  totally  unfounded. 


A.  D.  Germany.  —  Thirty  Years'  War.  313 

chancellor,  Axel  Oxenstierna  (born  1583,  councillor  since  1609). 
League  of  Heilhronn  between  the  circles  of  Swabia,  Franconia,  Upper 
and  Lower  Rhine,  on  the  one  part,  and  Sweden  on  the  other. 

1633.  Expedition  of  Bernhard  of  Saxe- Weimar  to  Franconia.  He 
took  Bamberg  and  Hochstadt,  drove  back  the  Bavarians  under 

Aldringer,  and  joined  fieldmarshal  Horn.  Bernhard  received  from 
the  chancellor  the  investiture,  with  the  bishoprics  of  Wiirzburg  and 
Bamberg,  under  the  name  of  the  Duchy  of  Franconia,  and  occupied 
the  upper  Palatinate. 

Feb.  After  Wallenstein  had  tried  and  punished  with  death  many 
of  his  officers  in  Prague,  and  had  filled  their  places  with  new 
recruits,  he  marched  to  Silesia,  fought  with  the  Saxon,  Brandenburg, 
and  Swedish  troops,  and  negotiated  frequently  with  Arnim.  Nego- 
tiations with  Oxenstierna. 

Oct.     Capture  of  a  Swedish  corps  at  Steinau-on-the-Oder.    Wallenstein 
invaded  Brandenburg,  sending  raiders  as  far  as  Berlin,  and 
then  plundered  Lusatia. 
Nov.    Regensburg  (Ratisbon)  captured  by  Bernhard  of  Saxe- Weimar. 
Wallenstein  found  himself  unable  to  go  to  the  assistance  of  the 
elector  of  Bavaria,  as  the  emperor  urged,  and  went  into  winter 
quarters  in  Bohemia. 
Growing  estrangement  between  Wallenstein  and  the  imperial  court. 
The  Spanish  party  and  the  league  wished  him  removed  from  his  com- 
mand.    Wallenstein  conducted  secret  negotiations  with  the  Saxons, 
the  Swedes,  the  French.     He  intended  to  create,  with  the  help  of  the 
army  (declaration  of  the  generals  Piccolomini,  Gallas,  and  Aldringer, 
at  Pilsen),  an  independent  position  for  himself,  whence  he  could,  with 
the  aid  of  the  two  north  German  electors,  liberate  the  emperor  from 
the  control  of  the  Spanish  party,  and,  if  necessary,  compel  him  to 
make  peace  and  reorganize  the  internal  affairs  of  the  empire  (on  the 
basis  of  a  religious  peace?).    He  had  resolved  upon  open  revolt  if  the 
hostile  party  continued  in  power.     Whether  he  harbored  a  wish  for 
the  crown  of  Bohemia,  along  with  other  fantastic  plans,  it  is  hard  to 
decide.     The  court  of  Vienna  succeeded  in  detaching  the  principal 
generals  (Piccolomini,  Gallas,  Aldringer,  Marradas,  Colloredo)  from 
his  cause.     How,  Trzka,  Kinski,  remained  faithful. 
1834.     Imperial  proclamation  :  "  Friedland  was  concerned  in  a  con- 
Jan.  24.     spiracy  to   rob   the   emperor   of  his   crown."      Tlie   chief 

officers  of  the  army  commanded  to  no  longer  obey  him. 
Feb.  18.  Second  proclamation,  formally  deposing  Wallenstein.  On 
the  24th  Wallenstein  went  to  Eger,  where  he  was  to  be  met  by 
Bernhard  of  Saxe- Weimar,  and  Arnim.  There  occurred  the 
Feb.  25.  Assassination  of  Wallenstein  by  captain  Devereux,  at 
the  instigation  of  the  Irish  general,  Butler,  after  his  intimate 
friends  had  been  treacherously  massacred.  The  emperor  had 
not  commanded  the  murder,  nor  had  he  definitely  desired  it ; 
but  he  had  given  rein  to  the  party  which  he  knew  wished  "  to 
bring  in  Wallenstein,  alive  or  dead,"  and,  after  the  deed  was 
done,  he  rev/arded  the  murderers  with  honor  and  riches. 

1634.  Victory  of  the  imperialists  under  Ferdinand,  the  emperor's  son, 
and  Gallas  and  the  Bavarians  {John  of  Werth),  over  the  Swedes 
at  Ndrdlingenc 


314  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

1635.  Peace  of  Prague, 

May  30.  between  the  emperor  and  the  elector  of  Saxony.  1.  The 
elector  received  Lusatia  permanently,  and  the  archbishopric  of 
Magdeburg  for  his  second  son,  August,  for  life.  2.  Those  ecclesiastical 
estates,  not  held  immediately  of  the  emperor,  which  had  been  confis- 
cated before  the  convention  of  Passau  (p.  305),  should  remain  to  the 
possessor  forever  ;  all  others  should  remain  for  forty  years  (from 
1627),  and  in  case  no  further  understanding  was  reached  before  the 
expiration  of  that  period,  forever,  in  the  condition  in  which  they  were 
on  Nov.  12,  1627.  3.  Amnesty,  except  for  participants  in  the  dis- 
turbances in  Bohemia  and  the  Palatinate  ;  common  cause  to  be  made 
against  Sweden.  The  Lutherans  alone  to  be  allowed  freedom  of  wor- 
ship. Brandenburg  and  the  majority  of  the  other  Protestant  estates 
accepted  the  peace. 

4.  Swedish-French  period  (1635-1648). 

The  policy  of  Sweden  was  determined  by  Oxenstierna,  that  of 
France  by  Richelieu  (f  1642),  and  afterwards  by  Mazarin.  France 
fought  at  first  in  the  person  of  Bernhard  of  Saxe- Weimar  only,  with 
whom  subsidy-treaties  had  been  concluded,  and  who  was  trying  to 
conquer  himself  a  new  state  in  Alsace,  in  place  of  the  duchy  of 
Franconia,  which  he  had  lost  by  the  battle  of  Nordlingen.  Capture 
of  Breisach,  1638.  After  his  death  (1639)  France  took  control  of  his 
army. 

1636.  Victory  of  the  Swedes  under  Baner  at  "Wittstock  over  the 
imperialists  and  the  Saxons.  Death  of  Ferdmand  II.  His 
son, 

1637-1657.     Ferdinand  III.,  was  desirous  of  peace. 
The  ducal  house  of   Pomerania  became  extinct  (1637). 
After  the  death  of  Baner  (1641)  Torstenson  became  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Swedes. 

1640.  Death  of  George  William.  Frederic  William,  elector  of 
Brandenburg.     (The  great  elector,  1640-1688). 

1641.  Discussion  of  the  preliminaries  of  peace  in  Hamburg.  A  con- 
gress agreed  upon. 

1642.  Second  Battle  of  Leipzig  (Breitenfeld).  Torstenson  defeated 
the  imperialists  under  Piccolomini. 

Torstenson  threatened  the  hereditary  estates  of  the  emperor.  These 
Swedish  successes  aroused  the  envy  of  Christian  IV.  of  Denmarko 
Hence 

1643-1645.     War  bet-ween  Denmark  and  S^veden. 

1643.  Torstenson  hastened  by  forced  marches  through  Silesia,  Sax- 
Sept,    ony,  Brunswick,  to  the  north,  conquered  Holstein  and  Schles- 

wig,  and  invaded  Jutland. 
Meanwhile  the  French  in  South  Germany,  under  Marshall  GuSriant 
had  penetrated  to  Rottweil  (Wiirtemberg).  Guebriant  fell  in  battle. 
Shortly  afterwards  the  French,  under  Rantzau,  were  surprised  at 
Duttlingen.  by  an  Austro-Bavarian  army  under  Mercy  and  Werth,  and 
totally  defeated. 


A.  D.  Germany. —  Thirty  Tears'  War.  315 

1643.  Opening  of  the  negotiations  for  peace  in  Osnabriick  with  the 
Swedes  ;  1644  in  Miinster  Avith  the  French. 

Marshal  Turenne  and  the  twenty-one-year-old  prince  of  Bourbon, 
duke  of  Enghien,  afterwards  Prince  of  Conde,  appointed  commanders- 
in-chief  of  the  French  troops.     They  forced  the 

1644.  Bavarians  under  Mercy  to  retreat.  Conde  captured  Mann- 
heim, Speier,  and  Philippsburg.  Turenne  took  Worms,  Oppen- 
heim,  Mainz,  and  Landau. 

Meanwhile  an  imperial  army,  under  Gallas,  had  been  sent  to 
the  aid  of  the  Danes,  who  were  hard  pressed,  both  by  land  and 
by  sea  (by  the  Swedish  admiral,  Gustavus  Wrangel).     The  im- 

1645.  perial  force  was  repulsed  by  Torstenson  and  Konigsmark,  pur- 
Jan,      sued  into  Germany,  and  almost  annihilated  at  Magdeburg. 
March.     Brilliant  victory  of  Torstenson  over  the  imperialists  at  Jan- 

kau,  not  far  from  Tabor,  in  Bohemia,  whereupon,  in  union 
with  the  prince  of  Transylvania,  Rakoczy,  he  conquered  the 
whole  of  Moravia,  and  advanced  hard  upon  Vienna. 

May.  Turenne  defeated  by  John  of  Werth  at  Mergentheim,  in  Fran- 
conia. 

Aug.     Turenne,  at  the  head  of  the  French  and  Hessians,  defeated  the 
Bavarians  at  Alter sheim. 
Peace  between  Sweden  and  Denmark  at  Bromsebro  (p.  352). 
After  a  futile  siege  of  Briinn,  the  plague  having  broken  out  in  his 

army,  Torstenson  returned  to  Bohemia.     He  resigned  his  command 

on  account  of  illness,  and  was  succeeded  by  Wrangel. 

1646.  Wrangel  left  Bohemia,  united  to  his  own  force  the  Swedish 
troops  under  Konigsmark  in  Westphalia,  and  joined  Turenne  at 
Giessen.  Swedes  and  French  invaded  Bavaria  and  forced  the 
elector  Maximilian  to  conclude  the 

1647.  Truce  of  Ulm,  and  to  renounce  his  alliance  with  the  emperor, 
after   Turenne  had  been  recalled,  from  envy  at  the  Swedish 

successes,  and  Wrangel  had  gone   to  Bohemia,  Maximilian  broke  the 
truce  and  joined  the  imperialists  again. 

1648.  Second  invasion  of  Bavaria  by  the  French  and  Swedes  ;  terrible 

ravages.  A  flood  in  the  Inn  prevented  the  further  advance 
of  the  allies,  who  returned  to  the  upper  Palatinate.  The  Swedish 
general  Konigsmark  captured  that  part  of  Prague  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Moldau  (Kleinseite). 

Terrible  condition  of  Germany.  Irreparable  losses  of  men  and 
wealth.  Reduction  of  population  ;  increase  of  poverty  ;  retrograda- 
tion  in  all  ranks. 

1648.   Peace  of  Westphalia. 
Oct.  24. 

Negotiations  from  1645-1648.  Imperial  ambassadors,  count 
Trautmannsdorf  and  Dr.  Volmar.  French,  count  d^Avaux  and  count 
Servien.  Swedish,  count  Oxenstierna,  son  of  the  chancellor,  and 
baron  Salvius.  France  and  Sweden,  against  the  will  of  the  emperor, 
secured  the  participation  of  the  estates  of  the  empire  in  the  negotia* 
tions. 


316  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

Conditions  of  the  Peace.^ 

A.   Indemnifications. 

1.  Sweden  received  as  a  fief  of  the  empire  the  whole  of  hither 
Pomerania  and  Rugen  with  a  part  of  farther  Pomerania  (Stettin, 
Garz,  Damm,  GoUnow,  WoUin,  and  Usedom),  the  city  of  Wismar, 
formerly  belonging  to  Mecklenburg,  and  the  bishoprics  Bremen  (not 
the  city)  and  Verden  as  secular  duchies,  and  five  million  rix  dollars. 
Sweden  became  a  member  of  the  diet  with  three  votes. 

2.  France  received  without  reservation  of  the  feudal  overlordship 
of  the  empire,  hence  with  absolute  sovereignty  :  the  bishoprics 
and  cities  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun,  which  had  been  in  French 
hands  since  1552  ;  Pignerol,  the  city  of  Breisach,  the  landgx'avate  of 
upper  and  lower  Alsace,  which  belonged  to  a  branch  of  the  Austrian 
house,  and  the  government  of  ten  imperial  cities  in  Alsace  (praefec- 
tura  provincialis  decem  civitatum  imperialium),  with  express  acknowl- 
edgment of  their  previous  freedom.  The  other  imperial  estates  in 
Alsace  (particularly  Strasburg)  retained  their  immediate  relation  to 
the  empire  and  their  freedom.  France  also  received  the  right  of  gar- 
risoning Philippsburg. 

3.  Hesse-Cassel  :  abbey  of  Hersfeld,  Schaumburg,  the  fiefs  of 
the  foundation  of  Minden,  and  600,000  rix  dollars. 

4.  Brandenburg  :  as  indemnification  for  Pomerania  which  be- 
longed to  Brandenburg  by  the  law  of  inheritance,  but  of  which  it  re- 
ceived the  larger  part  of  farther  Pomerania  only,  the  bishoprics  of 
Halberstadt,  Minden,  and  Cambi  as  secular  principalities,  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Magdeburg  as  a  duchy,  with  the  reservation  that  it  should 
remain  in  possession  of  the  administrator  August  of  Saxony,  durmg 
his  Hfe  (t  1680). 

5.  Mecklenburg  :  the  bishoprics  of  Schwerin  and  Ratzehurg  as 
principalities. 

6.  Brunswick  :  alternate  presentation  to  the  bishopric  of  Osna- 
bruck,  where  a  Catholic  and  evangelical  bishop  were  to  alternate. 

B.    Secular  Affairs  of  the  Empire. 

1.  General  amnesty  and  return  to  the  condition  of  things  in  1618. 

2.  The  electoral  dignity  and  the  upper  Palatinate  were  left  in 
the  hands  of  the  Wilhelmian  line  (Bavaria)  of  the  house  of  Wittels- 
bach,  while  a  new  electorate  (the  eighth)  was  created  for  the  Ru- 
dolfian  line  (Palatinate). 

3.  The  territorial  superiority  {Landeshoheit)  of  the  whole  body  of 
estates,  as  regarded  their  relation  to  the  emperor,  was  recognized, 
which  involved  the  right  of  concluding  alliances  with  one  another 
and  \/ith  foreign  powers,  if  they  were  not  directed  against  empire  or 
emperor.  (Afterwards,  since  1663,  the  standing  diet  at  Regensburg 
developed  the  German  constitution  more  in  detail.) 

4.  The  republics  of  the  United  Netherlands  and  of  Switzerland 
were  recognized  as  independent  of  the  empire  (p.  247). 

1  K.  F.  Hichhorn,  Deutsche  Staats-  u.  Eecktsgeschichte,  iv.  §  522  foil. 


A.  D.  Germany.  —  Thirty  Years'  War.  317 


C.  Ecclesiastical  Affairs  {Gravamina  ecclesiastical. 

1.  The  Convention  of  Passau  and  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  (p.  305) 
were  approved  and  extended  so  as  to  include  the  Calvinists. 

2.  Catholic  and  Protestant  estates  were  to  be  on  an  entire  equality 
in  all  affairs  of  the  empire. 

3.  January  1,  1624,  was  adopted  as  the  norm  (annus  normalis)  by 
which  questions  of  ownership  of  ecclesiastical  estates  and  exercise  of 
religion  should  be  settled.  As  things  were  upon  that  date,  so  they 
were  to  remain  forever  ;  that  is,  the  ecclesiastical  reservation  (p.  306) 
was  acknowledged  to  be  binding  for  the  future.  The  subjugated  Pro- 
testants in  Austria  and  Bohemia  obtained  no  rights  by  the  peace,  but 
those  evangelical  states  which  had  been  gained  by  the  anti-reformation 
during  the  war  (the  Lower  Palatinate,  Wiirtemberg,  Baden,  etc.)  were 
allowed  to  resume  the  exercise  of  that  religion  which  had  been  theirs 
in  1618.  The  Jus  reformandi,  the  privilege  of  deciding  by  fiat  the  re- 
ligion of  those  subjects  to  whom  the  year  1628  did  not  secure  free  ex- 
ercise of  religion,  was  retained  for  the  future  by  the  territorial  lords. 
The  right  of  emigration  was,  however,  reserved  to  the  subjects  in  such 
cases.  The  imperial  court  (Reichskammergericht)  was  restored,  and 
its  members  were  to  be  equally  divided  between  Protestants  and 
Catholics. 

France  and  Sweden  guaranteed  the  peace.  (Seep.  371.) 


818 


Modern  History. 


A.  D. 


§5.    FRANCE.  {Sttp,zu2.) 

1498-1589.   Houses  of  Orleans  and  Angouleme. 

Branch  line  of  the  house  of  Valois  (since  1328,  p.  257)  whose 
relation  to  the  main  line  is  shown  in  the  following  genealogical  table  : 

Charles  V.  (third  king  of  the  hous^e  of  Valois).     1364-1380. 


I 
Charles  VL 

1380-U22. 


Charles  VII. 

1422-1461. 


liOuis  XI. 
1461-1483. 


I 
Louis,  duke  of  Orleans,  f  1407. 

m.  Valentine  Visconti. 
I 


Charles,  duke  of  Orleans, 
t  1467. 


Xiouis  XII. 

1498-1515. 
m.  (2)  Anna 
of  Brittany, 
died  without 

male  issue. 


Charles  VHI. 

m.  Anna  of  Brit- 
tany. 1483-1498. 
died  without 
male  issue. 


John,  count  of 

Angouleme. 

t  1467. 


Charles,  count 

of  Angouleme. 

t  1496. 

m.  Louise 

~     of  Savoy- 


Claudia 


Henry  II. 

1547-1559. 
m.  Catharine  of  Medici. 

I 


(2)  Francis  L 
1515-1547. 


I  I  I 

Francis  II.     Elizabeth     Charles  IX. 
1559-1560  m.  m.  1560-1574. 

Mary  Stuart.      Philip  II. 
king  of 
Spain. 


Henry  III, 

1574-1589. 
duke  of 
Anjou; 
king  of 
Poland. 


I 
Francis, 
duke  of 
Alencon 
and 
Anjou, 
t  1584. 


Margaret 
m. 
Henry  IV. 
see  p.  323. 


1498-1515.    Louis  XII. 

obtained  a  divorce  from  Joanna,  daughter  of  Louis  XI,,  and 
married  Anna  of  Brittany,  widow  of  Charles  VIII.,  in  order  to  keep 
this  duchy  for  the  crown  ;  as  grandson  of  Valentina  Visconti  he  laid 
claim  to  Milan,  drove  out  Ludovico  Moro,  who  was  imprisoned  when 
he  ventured  to  return  to  Milan  (1500). 
1501.  Louis  XII.  in  alliance  with  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  king  of  Ar- 

agon,  conquered  the  kingdom  of  Naples.     The  Spaniards  and 
French  soon  falling  out,  the  latter  were  defeated  by  the  Spanish  general 
Gonzalvo  de  Cordova  on  the  Garigliano  (1504).     Louis  XII.  gave  up 
his  claims  to  Naples. 
1508.  Louis  a  party  in  the  League  of  Cambray,  p.  300.     In  1511  the 

Pope,  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  and  Venice,  concluded  the  Holy 
League,  with  the  object  of  driving  the  French  out  of  Italy.     The  lat- 


A..  D.  France,  819 

ter,  under  the  young  Gaston  de  Foix,  duke  of  Nemours,  nephew  of 
Louis  XII.,  were  at  rirst  successful  in  the  war,  taking  Brescia  (1512) 
by  storm  (Bayard,  "  without  reproach  or  fear "),  and  defeating 
the  united  Spanish  and  Papal  armies  at  Ravenna,  with  the  aid  of 
5000  German  mercenaries,  in  the  same  year  ;  they  were,  however, 
compelled  by  the  Swiss  to  evacuate  Milan.  In  1513  the  French 
formed  a  new  alliance  with  Venice,  but  were  defeated  by  the  Swiss 
at  Novara  and  withdrew  from  Italy.  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  who 
had  joined  the  Holy  League  in  1512,  and  the  emperor  Maximilian 
who  had  joined  in  1513,  invaded  France,  and  defeated  the  French  at 
1513.  Guinegate,  called  the  "  Battle  of  the  Spurs  "  from  the  hasty 
Aug.  17.     flight  of  the  French. 

France  concluded  peace  with  the  Pope,  with  Spain  (1513), 
with  the  emperor,  and  with  Henry  VIII.  (1514).  Anna  of  Brittany 
having  died,  Louis  took,  as  his  third  wife,  Mary  the  sister  of  Henry 
VIII.  He  died  soon  after  the  marriage  (Jan.  1,  1515).  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  cousm,  the  Count  of  Angouleme,  who  had  married 
Claudia,  daughter  of  Louis  XII.  and  Anna,  hence  heiress  of  Brittany, 
which,  however,  was  not  actually  incorporated  with  France  until  1598. 
As  king  the  count  of  Angouleme  is  known  as 

1515-1547.     Francis  I.     Courageous,  fond  of  display,  dis- 
solute. 

1515.  He  reconquered  Milan  by  the  brilliant  victory  of  Marignano 
Sept.  13-14.     over  the  Swiss,  who  fought  most  bravely.     Peace  and 

alliance  between  France  and  Switzerland.  Treaty  of  Geneva 
(Nov.  7,  1515) ;  treaty  of  Fribourg  (Nov.  29, 1516).  The  lat- 
ter (la  paix  perpetuelle)  endured  till  the  French  Revolution. 

1516.  Increase  of  the  royal  power  by  a  Concordat  with  the  Pope 
which  rescinded  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  1438  and  placed  the 

choice  of  bishops  and  abbots  in  the  hands  of  the  king  ;  the  Pope  on 
the  other  hand  received  the  annates,  or  the  first  year's  revenue  of 
every  ecclesiastical  domain  where  the  king's  right  of  presentation  was 
exercised.  Francis  also  abandoned  the  principle  of  the  Council  of 
Basle,  that  the  Pope  was  subordinate  to  an  oecumenical  council. 
1520.  Meeting  of  Francis  and  Henry  VIII.  of  England  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Calais.  "  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold."  The  wars 
of  Francis  with  Charles  V.  (p.  302,  etc.)  occupied  the  rest  of  Francis' 
reign.  Restrictions  upon  the  political  rights  of  the  Parliaments. 
Cultivation  of  literature  and  the  arts.  Rabelais  (1483-1553).  Perse- 
cutions of  the  Protestants.  Francis  died  March  31,  1547.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son 

1547-1559.     Henry  XL 

Growing  power  of  the  house  of  Guise  (Francis,  duke  of  Guise^ 
and  Charles,  "  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  "). 


820 


Modern  History. 


A.  D. 


HOUSE  OF  LORRAINE  AND  GUISE. 

Ren^  le  Bon,  d.  of  Anjou 
and  titular  king  of  Naples 
and  Sicily,  ni.  Isabella,  d. 
of  "Lorraine. 
I 


Margaret,  m. 

Henry  VI.,  k. 

of  England. 


John  II., 
d.  of  Lor- 
raine and 
Bar. 

Nicolas, 
d.  of  Lorraine  and  Bar 
t  U73. 
no  male  issue. 


Antoine,  d.  of 
Lorraine  and 
Bar.     t  1544. 


Yolande, 
d.  of  Lorraine, 
m.  Ferri  II.,  c.  of 
Vaudemont,  Guise,  etc. 

I 
Rene  II., 
d.  of  Lorraine  and  Bar, 
c.  of  Vaudemont,  Guise,  etc 
t  1508. 

I 

I 


Claude  L,  c.  of 
Aumale,  d.  of 

Guise  (1527). 


Francis  I., 

d.  of  Lorraine 

and  Bar. 


I 
Francis,  d.  of 
Guise,  mur- 
dered 1563. 


Charles, 
Card,  of 
Lorraine. 


Claude,  d. 
of  Aumale. 


I  I 

Louis,     Mary,  m. 
Card,  of  James  V. 
Guise,      of  Scot- 
land. 

Marv,  queen 
of  Scots. 


Charles  II.,  d.  of 
Lorraine  and  Bar. 
t  1608. 


Henry,  d. 

of  Guise. 

t  1588. 


Charles,  d.  of 
Mayenne. 


Louix,  Cardinal 
of  Guise. 
t  1588. 


Henry's  mistress,  Diana  of  Poitiers,  duchess  of  Valentinois,  ruled 
him  almost  absolutely.     Montmorency,  constable.     Persecution  of  the 
Protestants  in  France  ;  assistance  to  German  Protestants. 
1547.     Final  union  of  Brittany  with  the  French  crown. 

DESCENT  OF  BRITTANY. 

Francis  II.,  d.  of  Brittany, 
t  1488. 

Charles  VHI.  =  (i)  Anne  (2)  =  Louis  Xn.,  k.  of  France, 
k.  of  France.  | 

Claude  =  Francis  I. 

I 


Francis  the 

dauphin. 

t  1536, 

without  male 


Henry  II., 
k.  of  France 


A.  D.  France.  321 

1552.  War  with  Charles  V.  (p.  306.)     Seizure  of  the  three  bishop* 

rics,  Toul^  MetZy  Verdun. 
1556-1559.     War  with  Philip  II.  of  Spain.     The  French  defeated  by 

the  Spaniards  with  the  aid  of  the  English  at 

1557.  St.  Quentin  (on  the  Somme),  and  by  count  Egmont  at  Grave' 
lines  (1558). 

1558.  Calais  and  Guines,  the  last  English  possessions  in  France, 
Jan.     captured  by  Francis,  duke  of  Guise. 

1559.  Peace  of  Cateau-Cambresis  :  the  French  restored  all  their  con- 
April,     quests  except   Calais  and  the  three  bishoprics  (Metz,  Tout 

and  Verdun).     Henry  II.,  who  died  of  a  wound  i»ceived  in  a 
tourney,  was  succeeded  by  his  three  weak  sons. 

1559-1560.     Francis  II.  (sixteen  years  old), 

the  first  husband  of  Mary  Stuart  of  Scotland,  a  niece  of  the 
Guises.  Persecution  of  the  Protestants  {chambres  ardentes).  Cruel 
executions.  The  king's  mother,  Catharine  de'  Medici,  struggled  for 
power  and  influence  against  the  Bourbon  prmces,  Anton  (king  of  Na- 
varre) and  Louis  of  Conde',  descended  from  Louis  IX.  The  Guises, 
at  first  rivals  of  the  queen  and  then  in  alliance  with  her,  conducted  all 
affairs  of  state  and  surpassed  in  influence  their  opponents,  the  Catholic 
constable  Montmorency,  and  his  nephews,  the  three  brothers  Chdtillon : 
Gaspard,  admiral  de  Coligny  (1517-1572),  Francois  d'Andelot,  Cardi- 
nal Chdtillon,  afterwards  leaders  of  the  Huguenots.  De  I'Hopital, 
chancellor.  Conspiracy  of  Amboise  (La  Renaudie)  against  the  Guises 
defeated  (1560).     Death  of  Francis  II. 

1560-1574.     Charles  IX., 

ten  years  old,  under  the  influence  of  his  mother,  Cathar 
rine  de'  Medici. 

1562-1598.    Wars  of  the  Huguenots.^ 

Cruel  persecutions  compelled  the  Huguenots  to  take  up  arms. 
At  the  same  time  they  became  &  political  party  opposed  to  the  Catho- 
lic party.  The  wars  of  the  Huguenots  were  therefore  not  simply 
religious  wars,  but  also  political  civil  wars,  in  which  the  leaders  of 
both  parties  were  endeavoring  to  take  advantage  of  the  weakness  of  the 
king  and  get  control  of  the  government.  The  first  three  -wars  form 
properly  one  war,  interrupted  by  truces  called  peaces  (Amboise,  1563, 
Longjumeau,  1568,  St.  Germain,  1570),  which  were  without  result. 
The  conditional  freedom  of  religious  worship  permitted  the  Hugue- 
nots was  to  be  guaranteed  by  the  surrender  to  them  for  two  years,  of 
the  four  strong  towns  La  Rochelle,  Cognac,  Montauban,  La  Charite. 
1572.     Night  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

Aug.  23-24.  Murder  of  admiral  Coligny  and  general  massacre  of  Hu- 
guenots, under  the  conduct  of  Henry  of  Guise  and  Tavannes, 
on  the  occasion  of  the   marriage  of   Henry  of    Bourbon,    king    of 

1  Huguenots  is  said  to  be  a  nickname  derived  from  King  Hugo,  a  spectre 
which,  in  the  belief  of  the  people,  nightly  haunted  the  streets  of  Paris;  whence 
the  Protestants,  from  their  nocturnal  gatherings,  were  called  Huguenots.  Others 
derive  the  name  from  a  corruption  of  Eidgenossen,  confederates. 
21 


322  Modern  History.  A.  D, 

Kavarre  (son  of  Anton,  king  of  Navarre)  with  the  sister  of  Charles 
IX.,  Margaret  of  Valois.  Henry  of  Navarre  saved  his  life  by  a  pre- 
tended conversion  to  Catholicism.  Over  3,000  Huguenots  were  slain 
:n  the  capital,  in  the  whole  of  France  about  30,000.  This  bloody  deed 
led  to  the 

1572-1573.  Fourth  Civil  War.  La  Rochelle,  besieged  by  Henry, 
duke  of  Anjou,  brother  of  Charles  IX.,  made  a  brave  defense. 
The  election  of  the  duke  of  Anjou  to  the  crown  of  Poland 
brought  about  a  compromise.  Edict  of  Boulogne  (July  8, 
1573)  ended  the  war  favorably  to  the  Huguenots. 
Charles  IX.  died  May  30,  1574.  His  brother,  who  fled  from  Po- 
land, becam"fe  king. 

1574-1589.     Henry  III.,  a  debauched  weakling. 

The  fifth  civil  vrar,  during  which  Henry  of  Navarre  re-as- 
sumed the  Protestant  faith,  was  concluded  (1576)  by  conditions  more 
favorable  to  the  Huguenots  than  those  of  any  previous  peace.  Peace 
of  Chastenoy  (  Paix  de  Monsieur,  after  the  duke  of  Alen9on)  May  6, 
1576.  Hence  dissatisfaction  among  the  Catholics.  Origin  of  the 
Holy  League  (1576)  which  in  alliance  with  Philip  II.  of  Spain 
purposed  the  annihilation  of  the  reformed  party,  and  the  elevation  of 
the  Guises  to  the  throne.  The  king,  out  of  fear  of  the  League  pro- 
claimed himself  its  head  and  forbade  the  exercise  of  the  Protestant 
religion  throughout  France.  The  Protestants  and  moderate  Catho- 
lics had  joined  forces  in  1575  by  the  confederation  of  Milhaud  (po- 
litique-Huguenot) . 

Sixth  Civil  War,  wherein  the  Huguenots  were  defeated,  but  ob- 
tained favorable  terms  at  the  peace  of  Bergerac  (or  Poitiers, 
Sept.  17, 1577),  as  the  king  was  unwilling  to  let  the  League  become 
too  powerful.  In  spite  of  the'  renewal  of  the  treaty  of  peace,  not  one 
of  its  articles  was  executed.     This  caused  the 

Seventh  Civil  War  {La  guerre  des  amour eux)  (1580),  which  was 
ended  in  the  same  year  by  the  treaty  of  Fleix  (near  St.  Foy), 
Nov.  26,  in  which  the  conditions  granted  the  Huguenots  in  former 
treaties  were  confirmed.  The  death  of  Francis,  duke  of  Alen^on 
(since  the  accession  of  Henry  III.,  duke  of  Anjou),  the  younger 
brother  of  the  king,  in  1584  rendered  the  extinction  of  the  house  of 
Valois  certain.  As  it  was  the  intention  of  the  League  to  exclude 
from  the  throne  Henry  of  Navarre,  who  belonged  to  the  reformed 
religion,  and  to  give  the  crown  to  the  latter's  uncle,  the  Cardinal  of 
Bourbon,  and  as  the  League  meantime  induced  the  king  to  revoke  the 
concessions  granted  to  the  Huguenots,  there  broke  out  the 
1585-1589.  Eighth  Civil  War  called  the  War  of  the  Three 
Henrys  {Henry  III.  of  Valois,  Henry  of  Navarre,  Henry  of 
Guise).  The  Catholic  party  triumphed  in  spite  of  the  victory  of 
Coutras  (Oct.  20,  1587),  gained  by  Henry  of  Navarre.  Formation 
of  the  League  of  Sixteen  at  Paris,  which  purposed  the  deposition 
of  the  weak  king.  Guise  entered  Paris,  was  received  with  ac- 
clamation ("  King  of  Paris  ")  ;  the  timid  resistance  of  the  king  was 
broken  by  a  popular  insurrection  (day  of  the  Barricades,   May  12, 


A.  D. 


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824  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

1588).  Henry  III.  fled  to  Blois,  where  he  summoned  the  estates 
of  the  kingdom  (Etals-GenerauXy  States  General).  Fmding  no  sup- 
port among  them  against  the  League,  he  caused  Henry,  duke  of  Guise, 
and  his  brother,  Louis  the  Cardinal,  to  be  murdered  (Dec.  23,  1588). 
At  this  news,  a  revolt  of  the  Catholic  party  broke  out,  headed  by 
the  brother  of  the  murdered  men,  the  duke  of  Mayenne.  Henry  III. 
fled  to  Henry  of  Navarre  in  the  Huguenot  camp,  where  he  was  mur- 
dered before  Paris,  at  St.  Cloud,  by  the  monk  Jacques  Clement 
(July  31,  t  Aug.  2).  Death  of  Catharine  de'  Medici  (Jan.  5,  1589). 
Michael  Montaigne,  1533-1592. 

1589-1792.     (1830.)     House  of  Bourbon 

descended  from  St.  Louis  IX.'s  younger  son  Rdberty  count  of 
Clermont,  husband  of  Beatrice  of  Bourbon. 

1589-1610.     Henry  IV. 

The  Catholic  party  refused  to  recognize  Henry  and  made  the 
old  cardinal  of  Bourbon  king  under  the  name  of  Charles  X.  (f  1590). 
Some  wished  the  duke  of  Mayenne  to  be  his  successor,  while  others 
joined  themselves  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  who  laid  claim  to  the  throne 
of  France  on  behalf  of  his  daughter  by  his  third  marriage  with  Eliz- 
abeth of  Valois,  sister  of  Henry  III.  Victory  of  Henry  IV.  over  the 
duke  of  Mayenne  at  Arques  (1589)  and  at  the 

1590.     Battle  of  Ivry. 
March  14. 

Henry  besieged  Paris,  which  was  relieved  by  Mayenne  r.nd 
the  duke  of  Parma.  Henry  abjured  the  reformed  religion  at  St. 
Denis  (1593)  and  was  crowned  at  Chartres  (1594).  Brissac  having 
thereupon  surrendered  Paris  to  him,  the  power  of  the  League  was 
broken.  Not,  however,  until  Henry,  after  public  penance,  by  his 
ambassadors  at  Rome,  had  been  freed  from  the  papal  ban,  was  he 
generally  recognized  (by  Mayenne  too).  The  civil  wars  of  religion 
were  ended  by  the 

1598.  Edict  of  Nantes, 
April  15. 

which  gave  the  Huguenots  equal  political  rights  with  the 
Catholics,  but  by  no  means  secured  them  entire  freedom  of  religious 
worship.  The  edict  granted  the  exercise  of  the  reformed  religion  to 
nobles  having  the  right  of  criminal  jurisdiction  {seigneurs  hauls  jus- 
ticiers},  and  to  the  citizens  of  a  certain  number  of  cities  and  towns, 
but  prohibited  it  in  all  episcopal  and  archiepiscopal  cities,  at  the 
court  of  the  king,  and  in  Paris,  as  well  as  within  a  circle"  of  twenty 
miles  around  the  capital.  Public  offices  were  opened  to  the  Huguenots 
and  mixed  chambers  were  established  in  four  Parliaments  (Paris, 
Toulouse,  Grenoble,  Bordeaux).  The  Huguenots  obtained  some  forti- 
fied towns,  and  were  recognized,  to  a  certain  extent,  as  an  armed  po- 
litical party.  The  Edict  of  Nantes  was  registered  by  the  Parliament 
only  after  a  long  delay.  Treaty  of  Vervins  (May  2,  1598)  with 
Spain  ;  restoration  of  all  conquests  to  France. 

Adoption  of  measures  looking  to  the  improvement  of  the  finances 


A,  D.  France,  325 

and  the  general  prosperity,  which  had  gone  to  decay,  especially  by 
Rosny,  afterwards  duke  of  Sully  (1560-1641).  Fantastic  plan  of 
the  king's  (?)  to  establish  a  universal  Christian  republic  in  Europe, 
comprising  six  hereditary  monarchies  (France,  England,  Spain,  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  Lombardy),  five  elective  monarches  (the  Empire, 
Papacy,  Hungary,  Poland,  Bohemia),  and  four  republics  (Switzer- 
land, Italy,  Venice,  Belgium),  which  probably  would  have  turned 
out  to  be  a  league  against  the  too  great  power  of  the  house  df  Haps- 
burg.  Question  of  Cleves-Julich  succession.  Henry  IV.  supported 
the  claims  of  Brandenburg.  In  the  midst  of  great  preparations  for 
war,  Henry  was  assassinated  at  Paris,  1610  (May  14),  by  the  fanatic 
(Francois)  RavaiUac.     He  was  succeeded  by  his  minor  son, 

1610-1643.  Louis  XIIL. 

nine  years  old.  Regency  of  his  mother,  Mary  d^  Medici 
(1610-1617).  Sully  removed  from  office  ;  the  Italian  Concini 
(^Marechal  d'Ancre)  was  placed  in  control  of  affairs.  Louis  XIII., 
declared  of  age  in  1614,  was  in  fact  all  his  life  under  the  guidance 
of  others.  Summons  of  the  States-General,  1614,  being  the  last 
before  the  Revolution  of  1789.  Arrest  and  murder  of  Concini/ 
the  queen  mother  banished  to  Blois  (1617).  The  king  under  the  in- 
fluence of  his  favorite,  the  duke  of  Luynes.  By  the  mediation  of 
Armand-Jean  du  Plessu  (born  1585,  in  Poitou,  1607  bishop  of  Lucon, 
1622  cardinal),  duke  of  Richelieu,  a  treaty  was  concluded  between 
Luynes  and  the  queen  mother  (1619).  New  civil  war.  Contest  of 
the  crown  with  the  nobility  and  the  Huguenots.  After  the  death  of 
Luynes  (1621)  Mary  de'  Medici  and  her  favorite,  Richelieu,  obtained 
control  of  affairs.  The  influence  of  the  latter  soon  became  supreme, 
and  the  queen-dowager  quarreled  with  him. 

1624-1642.     Administration   of    Richelieu,  whose   influence 
over  the  kmg  was  henceforward  unbroken.     Numerous  con- 
spiracies against  Richelieu  instigated  by  Gaston  of  Orleans,  the  king's 
brother. 

1625.  Revolt  of  the  Huguenots  under  the  dukes  of  Rohan  and  Sou- 

bise. 
1627-1628.  Siege  of  La  Roohelle,  under  the  personal  supervision 
of  Richelieu.  In  spite  of  the  dispatch  of  three  fleets  from 
England  to  the  aid  of  the  Huguenots,  the  city  surrendered  Oct.  28, 
1628,  after  a  heroic  resistance  of  fourteen  months.  Defeat  of  the 
duke  of  Rohan,  and  complete  subjugation  of  the  Huguenots,  who 
hereafter  were  no  longer  an  armed  political  party,  but  only  a  toler- 
ated sect.  War  in  Italy  with  Spain  ;  subjugation  of  Savoy,  Riche- 
lieu at  the  head  of  the  army.  Treaty  of  Cherasco  (April  6,  1631). 
France  renounced  all  conquests  in  Italy,  but  by  a  secret  treaty  with 
Victor  Amadeus,  duke  of  Savoy,  Pignerol  was  surrendered  to  France 
(negotiators  of  these  treaties,  Richelieu's  confidant.  Father  Joseph 
and  the  Pope's  agent,  Mazarin). 

A  final  attempt  of  Mary  Medici  to  overthrow  the  cardinal  igno- 
miniously  failed  (Nov.  11,  1630,  the  "  Day  of  Dupes  ").  Mary  died 
at  Cologne,  1642. 


326  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

Conspiracy  of  Gaston  and  the  duke  of  Montmorency. 
1632,  Oct.  30.     Defeat  of  the  allies  and  execution  of  Montmorency. 

Foundation  of  the  French  Academy  (1635). 
1631-48.  Participation  of  France  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War.     See 

p.  314. 

1641.  Conspiracy  of  Henri  d^Effiat,  marquis  of  Cinq-Mars  ("  Mon- 

sieur le  Grand  ").     Secret  treaty  with  Spain.     The  plot  was 
exposed  by  Richelieu. 

1642.  Dec.  4.  Death  of  Richelieu. 

The  effect  of  Richelieu's  admmistration  had  been  to  break  the 
power  of  the  nobles  and  make  the  crown  independent  of  the  parlia- 
ments. He  restored  French  influence  in  Italy,  in  the  Netherlands,  in 
Germany  (311),  and  established  it  in  Sweden.  Richelieu  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  power  of  Louis  XIV. 

Louis  XIII.  died  May  14,  1643.  (Seep.  365.) 

§  6.    ITALY.  {Seep.  263.) 

The  duchy  of  Milan,  since  1556  (p.  306)  an  appanage  of  the 
Spanish  crown,  was  held,  nominally,  as  a  fief  of  the  empire. 

Venice. 

The  discovery  of  the  new  route  to  the  Indies  struck  at  the  root  of 
the  commercial  prosperity  of  Venice,  and  her  power  was  steadily  de- 
clining during  this  period.  The  danger  which  tlireatened  the  repub- 
lic from  the  League  of  Cambray  (1508),  between  the  Pope,  the 
emperor  Maximilian,  Louis  XIL,  and  Ferduiand  the  Catholic,  passed 
away  as  the  Pope,  Julius  II.  withdrew  from  the  League  in  1510,  made 
his  peace  with  the  Venetians  and  induced  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  to 
join  the  Holy  League,  which  had  for  its  object  the  expulsion  of  the 
French  from  Italy.  On  the  other  hand  the  Turkish  power  confined 
Venice  to  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  1570  the  Turks  at- 
tacked Cyprus,  of  which  Venice  had  acquired  possession  in  1489 
(p.  262).  The  victory  of  Lepanto,  gained  by  Don  John  of  Austria 
(p.  330),  retarded  the  progress  of  the  Turks  but  little.  In  1573 
Venice  was  forced  to  deliver  Cyprus  to  them,  and  at  the  close  of 
this  period  retained  of  all  her  possessions  in  Grecian  waters,  Candia, 
Paros,  and  the  Ionian  Islands  only. 


Genoa. 

Genoa  freed  herself  in  1529  from  French  supremacy^  under  the 
doge,  Andrea  Doria,  who  gave  the  republic  a  new  constitution. 
Unsuccessful  conspiracy  of  Fiesco  (Jan.  2,  1547).  Gianettino  Doria, 
the  nephew  of  the  doge,  was  murdered,  and  Andrea  Doria  was  com- 
pelled to  fly.  The  conspirators  had  got  possession  of  nearly  the  whole 
city,  when  Fiesco  was  accidentally  drowned.  Return  of  the  doge, 
restoration  of  the  constitution. 


A.  D. 


Italy,  S27 


Savoy. 

The  dukes  of  Savoy,  who  also  possessed  Piedmont^  were  the  most 
powerful  of  the  native  dynasties  of  northern  Italy.  Nevertheless, 
during  this  period,  Bern  deprived  them  of  the  Waadtland,  and  they 
got  into  straits  during  the  war  between  France  and  the  empire. 
After  the  peace  of  Cateau-Camhresis  (1559),  Emmanuel  Philibert  was 
reinstated  in  his  duchy. 

Florence. 

In  the  year  in  which  Charles  VIII.  of  France  invaded  Italy  (1494), 
Peter  de'  Medici,  son  of  Lorenzo,  who  had  concluded  a  treaty  with  the 
king,  was  driven  from  the  city.  The  Dominican  monk  Savonarola 
(born  1452,  prior  of  San  Marco,  1490)  was  leader  of  the  democratic 
party  in  Florence  ;  asceticism  for  a  short  time  fashionable  in  Flor- 
ence. Savonarola  excommimicated,  and  executed  (May  23,  1498). 
In  1512  the  Medici  were  restored  in  consequence  of  the  victory  of  the 
Holy  League  (pp.  300  and  318).  In  1527  the  Medici  were  a  second 
time  expelled,  and  the  republic  for  a  while  restored.  In  1530,  how- 
ever, Charles  V.  appointed  Alexander  de^  Medici  hereditary  ruler  lu 
Florence,  and  he  soon  assumed  the  ducal  title.  After  his  murder  by 
his  cousin,  Lorenzino,  Cosimo  (^Cosmus)de' Medici  hecs,me  duke  (1537). 
He  incorporated  the  republic  of  Siena  with  his  territory,  and  in  1569 
was  created  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  by  Pope  Pius  V.  Under  Cosi- 
mo II.,  Galileo  Galilei  (1564-1642)  taught  in  Florence,  who,  in 
1633,  was  forced  to  abjure  the  Copernican  System  by  the  Inquisition 
at  Rome  ("  It  does  move  though  "  i). 

The  Papacy. 

The  following  popes  of  this  period  deserve  mention  :  the  debauched 
and  criminal  Alexander  VI.  (1492-1503),  of  the  family  of  Borgia. 
His  daughter  was  Lucrezia  Borgia;  his  second  son  Ccesar  Borgia, 
ruler  of  the  Romagna;  the  warlike  Julius  II.  (1503-1513);  the  schol- 
arly Leo  X.  (1513-1521)  of  the  family  of  Medici^  a  patron  of  art ; 
the  fanatical  Paul  IV.  (Caraffa,  1555-1559),  upon  whose  advice 
Paul  III.  had  established  the  Inquisition  in  1542  ;  Gregory  XIII. 
(1572-1585),  who  revised  the  calendar  by  striking  out  leap  year  at 
the  close  of  each  century,  excepting  every  fourth  century ;  the  wise 
and  severe  Sixtus  V.  (1585-1590),  who  suppressed  the  banditti  in  the 
Papal  States  and  adorned  Rome.  (Reerection  of  obelisks,  completion 
of  the  dome  of  St.  Peter's  2), 

Naples. 

Naples  throughout  this  period  was  an  appanage  of  Spain  (since 
1504,  see  p.  318).  Insurrection  of  the  fisherman,  Tommaso  AniellOf 
called  Masaniello  (1647),  soon  suppressed  (f  July  16). 

Most  flourishing  period  of  Italian  art.  Painters  :  Leonardo  da 
Vinci  (1452-1519) ;  Raphael  Santi  (erroneously  called  Sanzio,  1483- 

1  This  saying:,  it  is  now  claimed,  i'^  unauthenticated.  —  [Trans.] 

2  Kanke,  die  rdmigchen  Pdpste,  6th  ed.,  1878. 


328  Modern  History.  A.  D, 

1520);  Antonio  Allegri,  called  Ccrrreggio  (1491-1534) ;  Michael  Angela 
Bumarotti  (1475-1564),  also  sculptor  and  architect  ;  Titian  (1477- 
1576);  Paul  Veronese  (about  1535-1588).  Poets:  Ariosto  (1474- 
1533);  Torquato  Tasso  {IM^imo).  Politician:  Macchiavelli (1^^ 
1527).  {Seep.  415.) 

§  7.    SPANISH  PENINSULA  AND  THE  NETHERLANDS. 
{Seep.  276.) 
By  the  marriage  of 

1479-1516.  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  of  Aragon  and  Isabella 
1474-1504.     of  Castile  (p.  276),  which  was  consummated  before  the 

accession  of  either  to  the  throne,  the  way  was  prepared  for  the 

future  union  of  the  two  kingdoms. 
1492.     Conquest  of  Grenada,  capital  of  the  last  Moorish  kingdom 
Jan.  2.      in  the  peninsula.     In  the  same  year,  discovery  of  America 

(p.  282),  and  consequent  acquisitions  on  the  other  side  of  the 
ocean  for  the  crown  of  Castile.  Conquest  of  Naples  (1501-1504,  see 
p.  327)  for  the  crown  of  Aragon.  Annexation  of  the  grandmaster- 
ships  of  the  three  military  orders  of  Calatrava  (1487),  Alcantara 
(1494),  and  San  Jago  (1499),  to  the  crown.  Support  given  to  the 
league  of  the  cities  {Hermcmdad)  against  the  robber-nobles;  (Spanish) 
Inquisition. 

Upon  Isabella's  death  (1504)  her  daughter,  Joannay  wife  of  PkUip, 
archduke  of  Austria  (p.  301),  was  the  legal  heiress  of  Castile.  Her 
father,  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  however,  who  had  long  planned  the 
union  of  the  two  kingdoms  in  one  kingdom  of  Spain^  obtained  from 
the  Cortes  authority  to  carry  on  the  government  in  place  of  his  absent 
daughter.  In  1506,  Philip  and  Joanna  went  to  Castile  to  expel  Fer- 
dinand by  force.  Meeting  of  the  two  princes  and  treaty  of  Villafa- 
Jila,  whereby  the  regency  was  granted  to  Philip.  Shortly  after  the 
treaty  Philip  died  suddenly  (of  poison  ?),  and  Ferdinand  resumed  the 
regency  (f  1516).  Joanna,  who  was  insane,  was  kept  in  strict  con- 
finement for  49  years  (f  1555),  first  by  her  father,  afterwards  by  her 
son  Charles.^  Ferdinand  was  succeeded  in  both  kingdoms  (at  first  as 
co-regent  of  his  mother,  in  theory)  by  the  son  of  Philip  and  Joanna. 

Netherlands. 

Preliminary  :  These  provinces,  originally  inhabited  by  Batavians 
and  other  German  tribes,  formed  a  part  of  the  empire  of  Charles  the 
Great,  and  after  the  treaty  of  Mersen  (870)  belonged  in  great  part  to 
Germany,  forming  a  dependence  of  the  duchy  of  Lotharingia.  The 
decline  of  the  ducal  power  favored  the  growth  of  powerful  counties 
and  duchies,  such  as  Brabant,  Flanders^  Guelders,  Holland,  Zealand^. 
Hainaulty  and  the  bishopric  of  Utrecht.  After  1384,  and  during  the 
fifteenth  century,  the  provinces  were  brought  under  control  of  the 
dukes  of  Burgundy. 

1  The  view  advanced  by  BerRcnroth  [Karl  V.  und  Johanna,  in  V.  Sybel's 
Hist.  Zeits.,  1868),  that  Joanna  was  onlv  declared  insane  from  political  reasons, 
has  been  clearly  shown  by  other  scholars\Qacliaxd,  Boesler,  Maurenbrecherj 
to  rest  on  misunderstandings. 


A..  D.  Spanish  Peninsula  and  the  Netherlands.  329 

Philip  n.  the  Bold, 

fourth  son  of  John  II.,  k.  of  France.  In  1363  made  duke 
of  Burgundy  (the  duchy  reverted  to  the  crown,  1361,  by  the 
extinction  of  the  first  ducal  line  in  the  person  of  Philip  I.). 
In  1369  m.  Margaret,  dan.  and  heiress  of  Louis  III.,  c.  of 
Flanders  and  Artois,  f  1404. 


John  the  Fearless, 
duke  of  Burgundy,  1404-1419. 


Philip  the  Good, 
duke  of  Burgundy,  1419-1467. 
Acquired  Namur,  by  purchase,  in  1425  ;  in  1430,  Brabant 
and  Limburg,  which  had  been  bequeathed  by  Joanna,  dau. 
of  John  III.,  d.  of  Brabant,  to  her  great-nephew,  Antoine, 
brother  of  John  the  Fearless ;  in  1433,  Holland,  Hainault 
(Hennegau),  Zealand,  by  cession  from  Jacqueline  c.  of  Hoi- 
land  (of  the  Bavarian  line) ;  in  1443,  Luxemburg,  by  ces- 
sion from  Elizabeth  of  Luxemburg,  and  by  purchase  ;  ho 
also  acquired  Antwerp  and  Mechlin. 


Charles  the  Bold, 

duke  of  Burgundy,  1467-1477. 
Acquired  Gelderland  and  Zutphen  in  1472,  by  bequest 
from  duke  Arnold. 


Mary,  f  1482  =  Maximilian,  arch- 
duke of  Austria. 


Joanna,  dau.  of  Ferdi-  ■ 
nand  of  Arragon,  and 
Isabella  of  Castile. 


Philip  the  Handsome, 

archduke  of  Austria, 
duke  of  Burgundy. 


Charles  I.  (V.) 

k.  of  Spain;  archduke  of  Austria,  d.  of  Burgundy, 
k.  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  lord  of  Spanish  America, 
emperor. 

They  descended  to  the  Hapsburg  heirs  of  Charles  the  Bold,  united 
and  having  a  common  states-general.  In  1548  Charles  V.  annexed  the 
seventeen  provinces  (Brabant,  Limburg^  Luxemburg,  Gelderland,  Flan- 
ders, Artois,  Hainault,  Holland,  Zealand,  Namur,  Zutphen,  East  and 
West  Friesland,  MecJdin,  Utrecht,  Overyssel,  Groningen)  to  the  Bur* 
gundian  circle  of  the  empire. 

1516-1556.     Charles  I.  (as  emperor,  Charles  V.  p.  302). 


830  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

After  suppressing  a  revolt  in  Castile  he  founded  the  absolute  mon- 
archy, the  Cort»s  henceforth  having  no  importance.  In  America  con- 
quest of  Mexico,  Peru,  Chili,  New  Granada  (p.  283,  etc.).  Upon  his 
abdication  the  Spanish  lands  and  the  colonies,  the  Netherlands, 
Franche-Comte,  Naples,  and  Milan,  descended  to  his  son 

1556-1598.     Philip  II.,  who  married  four  times  :  1.  Mary  of 
Portugal,  mother  of  Don  Carlos  ;  2.  Mary  the  Catholic,  of  Eng- 
land (p.  336);  3.  Elizabeth  of  Valois  (p.  318);  4.  Anne,  daughter  of 
Maximilian  II. 

War  with  France  (p.  381).  Bloody  persecution  of  the  Moors  and 
the  Protestants  in  Spain.  Inquisition,  autos  da  Je  (i.  e.  acts  of  the 
faith).  Conflict  between  the  king  and  his  heir,  Don  Carlos  ;  the  lat- 
ter was  arrested  and  died  in  prison  (1568).  Don  John  of  Austriay  a 
natural  son  of  Charles  I.  (V.)»  gained  over  the  Turks  the 

1571,  Oct.  7.     Naval  battle  of  Lepanto  (on  the  Gulf  of  Corinth). 
1568-1648.     "War  of  Liberation  in  the  Netherlands. 

Cause :  The  provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  which  fell  to  Spain  after 
the  abdication  of  Charles  I.,  rejoiced  in  the  possession  of  ancient  and 
important  privileges.  The  estates  (Staaten,  etats)  granted  taxes  and 
troops.  The  Spanish  garrison,  the  penal  edicts  against  heretics,  the 
dread  of  the  introduction  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  led,  during  the 
rule  of  the  regent  Margaret  of  Parma  (1559-1567),  the  natural  sister 
of  king  Philip  II.,  and  her  adviser,  bishop  Granvella,  to  a  league  of 
the  nobles  (the  Compromis  de  Breda),  headed  by  Philip  Marnix  of  St. 
Aldegonde.  Presentation  of  a  petition  by  300  nobles  (Gueux,  Beggars, 
a  party  name,  originating  in  the  contemptuous  exclamation  of  the 
count  of  Barlaimont  :  Ce  n'est  qu'un  tas  de  gueux).  Insurrection  of 
the  lower  classes.  Destruction  of  images,  and  sack  of  the  churches. 
These  disturbances  were  opposed  by  Lamoral,  count  of  Egmont  (b. 
1522,  fought  under  Charles  V.  in  Algiers,  Germany,  France  ;  led  the 
cavalry  at  St.  Quentin,  and  Gravelines,  1558  ;  appointed  governor  of 
Flanders  and  Artois  by  Charles  V.  ;  executed  June  5,  1568),  and 
William  of  Nassau,  prince  of  Orange,  the  leaders  of  the  higher  nobil- 
ity in  the  Netherlands,  who  were  soon  no  longer  masters  of  the  move- 
ment. Separation  into  a  Catholic  and  a  Protestant  party.  Although 
quiet  was  finally  restored  Philip  sent  the 

1567.  Duke  of  Alva  with  20,000  Spaniards  by  way  of  Genoa,  Savoy, 
and  Franche  Comte  to  the  Netherlands.  William  of  Orange 
and  many  thousand  Netherlanders  left  their  native  land.  Margaret 
resigned  her  regency  and  left  the  country.  Creation  of  the  "  Council 
of  Blood."  The  counts  of  Egmont  and  of  Hoorn  and  many  others 
were  executed  (1568).  The  estates  of  those  who  did  not  appear  be- 
fore the  tribunal  were  confiscated,  including  those  of  William  of 
Orange.  The  latter  and  his  brother,  Louis  of  Orange,  invaded  the 
Netherlands,  but  were  repulsed  by  Alva. 

The  arbitrary  taxes  imposed  by  Alva  (the  tenth  pfennig  from  the 
price  of  every  article  sold,  the  one  hundredth  part  of  every  income), 
produced  a  new  revolt.  Capture  of  Brille,  on  the  mouth  of  the  Meuse 
by  the  Water  Beggars  (1572).  Rapid  spread  of  the  insurrection, 
particularly  in  the  northern  provinces. 


I 


A.  D.  Spanish  Peninsula  and  the  Netherlands.  331 

1573.  Alva  recalled  at  his  own  request.     His  successor,  Luis  de  Re- 
quesens  y  Zuniga,  gained  a  victory 

1574.  At  Mookerheide,  where  two  brothers  of  the  prince  of  Orange 
fell,  but  could  not  suppress  the  revolt,  and  died  (1576).     The 

sack  of  the  cities  of  Antwerp,  Mastricht,  Ghent,  etc.,  by  the  royal 
troops  brought  about  the 

1576.     PacUacation  of  Ghent,  a  treaty  between  all  the  provinces, 
whereby  they  united,  without  regard  to  national  or  religious 
difPereuces,  to  drive  the  Spanish  soldiers  from  the  country. 

The  new  governor,  Don  John  of  Austria  (p.  330),  was  not  recog- 
nized by  the  majority  of  the  provinces.  In  spite  of  the  new  disputes 
which  had  broken  out  among  them  he  was  unable  to  quiet  the  country, 
and  died,  1578.  He  was  succeeded  by  Alexander  Farnese,  duke  of 
Parma  (1578-1592),  a  shrewd  statesman  and  an  excellent  general. 
He  reduced  the  southern  Catholic  provinces,  which  form  modern  Bel- 
gium, to  submission  on  condition  of  the  restoration  of  their  old  politi- 
cal freedom.  The  seven  northern  provinces,  Holland,  Zealand, 
Utrecht,  Gelderland,  Groningen,  Friesland,  Overyssel,  con- 
cluded 

1579.     The  Union  of  Utrecht, 

proclaimed  their  complete  independence  of  Spain  (in  1581) 
and  settled  the  hereditary  Statthaltership  upon  "William  of  Orange 
(the  Silent,  b.  1533,  inherited  the  principality  of  Orange,  1544,  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief  of  the  Netherlands  and  governor  of  Hol- 
land, Zealand  and  Utrecht,  by  Charles  V.,  resigned  his  offices  1567, 
converted  to  Protestantism,  elected  commander-in-chief  by  the  rebels, 
1572,  relieved  Leyden,  Oct.,  1574,  murdered  by  Balthazar  Gerard, 
10th  Jidy,  1584),  After  his  murder  at  Delft,  his  son,  the  seventeen- 
year-old  Maurice  of  Nassau,  became  the  head  of  the  seven  provinces. 
Successful  campaign  of  Alexander  of  Parma  ;  capture  of  Antwerp. 
The  help  furnished  the  Hollanders  by  the  English  (Leicester)  induced 
Philip  to  fit  out  the  Great  Armada,  which  was  destroyed  by  terrible 
storms  and  the  bravery  of  the  English  (1588).  After  a  long  contest 
with  changing  fortunes,  there  was  concluded  under 

1598-1621.     Philip  III. 

1609.  The  twelve  years'  truce,  on  the  basis  of  possession  at  the 
time.  Under  the  weak  king,  who  was  controlled  by  his  fa- 
vorites, the  dukes  of  Lerma  and  Uzeda,  father  and  son,  the  power  and 
the  prosperity  of  Spain  declined,  exhausted  by  constant  war,  the 
demoralization  consequent  on  the  discovery  of  America  and  the  intro- 
duction of  American  gold,  and  the  expulsion  of  800,000  Moors,  the 
most  learned  and  industrious  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula.  After  the 
expiration  of  the  truce  with  Holland  the  war  was  resumed  until  under 

1621-1665.   Philip  IV. 

The  Republic  of  the  United  Provinces  obtained  the 
1648«  recognition  of  their  independence  from  Spain  and  the 
empire  at  the  Peace  of  Westphalia. 


332 


Modem  History. 


A.  D. 


Under  Philip  III.  and  IV.  (minister  Olivarez),  decline  of  the 
Spanish  power.  Insurrection  of  the  CatdUmianSy  lasting  twelve  years. 
Revolt  of  Portugal. 

Portugal,  under  the  illegitimate  house  of  Burgundy  (1385- 
1580),  descendants  of  John  the  Bastard  (f  1433),  son  of  Peter  the 
Cruel,  who  was  a  descendant  of  Robert,  duke  of  Burgundy,  grandson 
of  Hugh  Capet. 


John,  the  Bastard, 
son  of  Pedro  the  Cruel. 

I 


I 
Edward. 

I 
Ferdinand. 

Emanuel. 
I 


Isabella  m.    John  HI. 
Charles  V. 


I  I 

Lewis.   Henry. 


Edward. 


Philip  n.  =  Maria.  John.  The  Prior 
k.  of  Spain,  j  I        of  Crato. 

Don  Carlos. 


Sebastian. 


Beatrice,  m. 
Charles  III. 
d.  of  Savoy. 


Alfonso. 
Fernandoi. 
Fernanda 


James. 


Emanuel 

Fhilibertj 

d.  of  Satoy. 


Theodosius. 

I 


Maria  m. 
Alexander  of 
Parma. 

Ranuccio 
of  Parma. 


Catharine 


John, 


Theodosius. 
John  IV. 


Kings  of  Portugal  in  heavy  type.    Claimants  (except  Philip  II.)  in  itahcs. 


1495-1521.   Emanuel  the  Great.    Golden  age. 

Acquisitions  in  the  East  Indies,  South  America  (Brazil),  and 

Northern  Africa.     Under  his   successors,  decline  of  the  Portuguese 

power.     Sebastian  fell  in  the  unfortunate 

1578.  Battle  of  Alkassor'va.  Morocco.  After  the  death  of  his  succes- 
sor, Henry, 

1581-1640.  Portugal  became  a  Spanish  province.  Four  (?)  false 
Sebastians.'^  An  almost  bloodless  revolution  raised  to  tho 
throne  of  Portugal  the  duke 

1640.  John  of  Braganza,  as  John  IV.  (descended  through  his  mother 
from  the  legitimate,  through  his  father  from  the  illegitimate 
son  of  John  the  Bastard).  {See  pp.  390,  JtU.) 

1  After  the  death  of  Henry  (1580)  there  were  five  claimants  for  the  crown  (4 
Portugal. 


A..  D.  England  and  Scotland.  333 

§  8.    ENGLAND  AND  SCOTLAND.  {Seep.  275.) 

1485-1603.  House  of  Tudor  (pp.  273,  275). 
1485-1509.  Henry  VH. 

Henry's  first  act  was  to  imprison  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  son  of 
the   duke   of  Clarence.     The   first   parliament    (1485)    secured   the 
crown  to  Henry  and  his  heirs.     Five  checks  on  the  crown  :  1.  imposi- 
tion of  new    taxes   and  2,  the  enactment  of  new  laws  without  the 
consent  of  parliament  prohibited  ;  3.  no  man  could  be  imprisoned 
without  legal  warrant  ;  4.  trial  should  be  before  twelve  jurors  in  the 
county  where  the  offense  was  committed,  and  there  should  be  no  ap- 
peal ;  5.  officers  of  the  crown  were  liable  to  trial  for  damages  before 
a  jury  in  case  any  person  were  injured  by  them,  and  no  authority 
from  the  king  could  be  pleaded.     Violation  of  these  checks.     Rees- 
tablishmeut  of  the  king's  court  (Star  Chamber  ?  1488),  which  took 
cognizance  of  forgery,  perjury,  fraud,  libel,  conspiracy,  etc.,  gave  sen- 
tence without  the  use  of  a  jury,  and  inflicted  fines  and  mutilations. 
1487,  The  pretended  earl  of  Warwick  (Simnel)  landed  in  England, 
but  was  defeated  at  Stoke   (16  June,  1487),  and  became  one 
of  the  king's  scullions. 
1488-1499.  Attempts  of  Perkin  Warbeck,  a  Fleming  who  person- 
ated the  duke  of  York,  to  overthrow  Henry.     Disavowed  by 
Charles  VIII.  in  the  peace  of  Estaples  (Nov.  9,  1492)  which  ended 
the  war  in  which  Henry  had  engaged  on  account  of  the  annexation 
of  Brittany  by  Charles  VIII.  (1491),  Perkin  found  a  warm  reception 
in  Flanders  from  the  duchess  of  Burgundy,  sister  of  Edward  IV. 
Expelled  from  Flanders  by  a  provision  of  the  commercial  treaty  with 
England  (1496  Magnus  intercursus),  Perkin  fled  to  Scotland,  where 
his  claim  was  recognized.      Perkin  and  James  IV.  of  Scotland  in- 
vaded England  in  1496.     In  1497  a  formidable  insurrection  broke 
out  in  Cornwall  on  occasion  of  an  imposition  of  a  tax  by  parliament. 
It  was  suppressed  by  the  defeat  at  Blackheath  (June  22,  1497),  and 
the  leaders  executed  (Flammock).     Peace  with  Scotland  (Sept.  1497). 
Warbeck  was  soon  taken  and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  where  he 
escaped,  but  was  recaptured.     Plotting  another  escape  with  the  earl  of 
Warwick,  both  Perkin  and  Warwick  were  executed  (1499). 
1495.  Statute  of  Drogheda  (Poyning's  law).     1.  No  Irish  parliament 
should  be  held  without  the  consent  of  the  king  of  England. 
2.  No  bill  could  be  brought  forward  in  an  Irish  parliament 
without  his  consent.     3.  All  recent  laws  enacted  in  the  Eng- 
lish parliament  should  hold  in  Ireland. 
1502.  Marriage  of   Henry's  eldest  daughter,  Margaret,  with  James 
IV.,  king  of  Scotland. 
Henry's  distinguishing  characteristic  was  his  avarice  ;  by  various 
extortions  (£'?w/)son,  Dudley,  "Morton's  Fork")  he  accumulated  a  for- 
tune of  nearly  £2,000,000. 

During  this  reign  occurred  the  discovery  of  the  West  Indies  by 
Columbus  (1492)  and  that  of  North  America  by  the  Cabots. 


334  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

1509-1547.  Henry  VIII., 

of  a  cruel  disposition  and  variable  temperament.  He  was  six 
times  married  :  1.  Catharine  of  Ar agon,  widow  of  his  brother  Arthur, 
mother  of  Mary  the  Catholic  (married  June  3,  1509,  divorced  March 
30,  1533).  2.  Anne  Boleyn,  mother  of  Elizabeth  (married  Jan.  25, 
1533,  beheaded  May  19,  1536).  3.  Jane  Seymour  (married  May  20, 
1536,  died  after  the  birth  of  her  son  Edward  VI.,  Oct.  24,  1537). 
4.  Anne  of  Cleves  (married  Jan.  6, 1540,  divorced  June  24,  1540).  5. 
Catharine  Howard  (married  Aug.  8,  1540,  beheaded  Feb.  12,  1542) „ 
6.  Catharine  Parr,  widow  of  lord  Latimer  (married  July  10,  1543, 
outlived  the  king).  Henry  united  in  his  person  the  claim  of  both 
Lancaster  and  York. 

Execution  of  Empson  and  Dudley. 
1511.  Henry  a  member  of  the  Holy  League  (p.  300),  received  from 

the  Pope  the  title  of  "  Most  Christian  King." 
Henry  having  laid  claim  to  the  French  crown  sent  troops  to 

Spain,  which  were   unsuccessful  (1512).     In   1513  the   king 

went  to  France  in  person  and  with  Maximilian,  the  emperor, 

won  the  bloodless  victory  of 
1513,  Aug.  17.     Guinegate,  the  "  Battle  of  the  Spurs  "  (p.  319). 

1513,  Sept.  9.      Battle  of  Flodden  Field.      Defeat  and  death  of 

James  IV.  of  Scotland  who  was  allied  with  France. 

1514,  Aug.     Peace  with  France  (Tournay  ceded  to  England,  after- 

wards (1518)  bought  by  France  for  600,000  crowns)  and  with 
Scotland. 

1515,  Thomas  Wolsey,  the  king's  favorite,  chancellor  (b.  1471,  ap- 
pointed almoner  and  dean  of  Lincoln  by  Henry  VII.,  member 
of  the  council  1510,  bishop  of  Tournay  1513,  bishop  of  Lin- 
coln and  archbishop  of  York  1514,  cardinal  and  chancellor 
1515,  papal  legate  1517,  surrendered  the  great  seal  1529,  f 
Nov.  28,  1530). 

1520,  June  7.  Meeting  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Francis  I.  of  France  near 

Calais  ("  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold  "). 
1.521.  Execution   of  the  duke  of  Buckingham   on   a   charge   of  high 
treason.     Buckingham  was  descended  from  Edward  III.  (p. 
277). 

1521.  Henry  wrote  the  "  Assertion  of  the  Seven  Sacraments  "  in  re- 

ply to   Luther,  and   received  the   title  of  "Defender  of  the 

Faith  "  from  Pope  Leo  X. 
After  the  battle  of  Pavia  the  relations  between  Henry  and  the 
emperor,  which  had  been  weakened  by  the  double  failure  of  the  em- 
peror to  secure  the  promised  election  of  Wolsey  as  Pope,  became  so 
strained  that  war  seemed  inevitable,  and  a  forced  loan  was  assessed 
on  the  kingdom,  which  brought  in  but  little.  In  1523  an  attempt  to 
force  a  grant  from  parliament  met  with  no  success,  but  a  rebellion 
was  provoked  which  was  suppressed  only  by  abandoning  the  demand. 
1527.  Henry,  desiring  to  divorce  his  wife   in  order  to  marry  Anne 

Boleyn,  alleged  the  invalidity  of  marriage  with  a  deceased 
brother's  wife,  and  appealed  to  Rome.  The  delays  of  the  Pope  and 
the  scruples  of   Wolsey  enraged  the  king,  who  deprived  the  latter  of 


I 


A.  D.      '        England  and  Scotland.  —  Henry  VIIL  335 

the  great  seal  and  gave  it  to  Sir  Thomas  More  (1529).  Sentence 
and  pardon  of  Wolsey,  who,  however,  died  in  disgrace  (1530).  At 
the  suggestion  of  Cranmer  the  question  was  referred  to  the  univer- 
sities of  England  and  Europe,  and  a  number  deciding  in  the  king's 
favor  Henry  married  Anne  Boleyn.  Henry  also  broke  with  the 
Church  of  Rome.  Confiscation  of  the  annates^  followed  by  the  res- 
ignation of  Sir  Thomas  More  (1532). 

The  Pope  excommunicated  Henry  and  annulled  his  divorce  from 
Catharine,  which  Cranmer,  now  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  had  pro- 
nounced. After  the  birth  of  Elizabeth  parliament  confirmed  the 
divorce,  recognized  Elizabeth  as  heir  to  the  throne  (1534),  and  se- 
cured the  succession  to  other  children  of  Anne  in  case  of  the  death  of 
the  princess. 

1534.  Act  of  Supremacy,  appointing  the  king  and  his  succes- 
sors "  Protector  and  only  Supreme  Head  of  the 
Church  and  Clergy  of  England"  (1531).  Refusal  to 
take  the  oath  of  supremacy  was  made  high  treason,  under 
which  vote  Sir  Thomas  More  was  condemned  and  beheaded 
(1535). 

Thomas  Crom-well,  a  former  servant  of  Wolsey,  and  his  suc- 
cessor in  the  favor  of  the  king,  now  vicegerent  in  matters  relating  to 
the  church  in  England,  issued  a  commission  for  the  inspection  of 
monasteries  which  resulted  in  the  suppression,  first  of  the  smaller 
(1536),  and  afterwards  (1539)  of  the  larger  monasteries,  and  the 
confiscation  of  their  property.  Abbots  now  ceased  to  sit  in  parlia- 
ment. 

1536.  Execution  of  Anne  Boleyn  on  a  charge  of  adultery.  Princess 
Elizabeth  proclaimed  illegitimate  by  parliament.  The  crown 
was  secured  to  any  subsequent  issue  of  the  king,  or  should  that 
fail,  was  left  to  his  disposal. 

1536.  Publication  of  TyndaWs  translation  of  the  Bible,  by  CoverdaUy 
under  authority  from  the  king. 

1536.  Suppression  of  the  Catholic  rebellion  of  Robert  Aske,  aided  by 
Reginald  Pole,  son  of  Margaret,  countess  of  Salisbury,  daughter 
of  George,  duke  of  Clarence. 

1539.  Statute  of  the  Six  Articles,  defining  heresy ;  denial  of  any 
of  these  positions  constituted  heresy  :  1.  Transubstantiation  ; 
2.  Communion  in  one  kind  for  laymen  ;  3.  Celibacy  of  the 
priesthood  ;  4.  Inviolability  of  vows  of  chastity  ;  5.  Necessity 
of  private  masses  ;  6.  Necessity  of  auricular  confession. 

1540.  Execution  of  Crom-well,  on  a  charge  of  treason.  Cromwell 
had  fallen  under  Henry's  displeasure  by  his  advocacy  of  the 
king's  marriage  with  Anne  of  Cleves,  with  whom  the  king  was 
ill  pleased. 

1542.     Ireland  made  a  kingdom. 

1542.     War  with  Scotland.     James  V.  defeated  at  the 

Nov.  25.     Battle  of  Solway  Moss. 

James  V.  died  shortly  afterward.    Henry  proposed  a  marriage 
between  his  son,  Edward,  and  James's  infant  daughter,  Mary, 


•836  Modern  History.  A.  d, 

but  the   Scottish  court   preferred   an  alliance  with  France, 
whereupon  Henry  concluded  an  alliance  with  the  emperor. 

1544.  Parliament  recognized  Mary  and  Elizabeth  as  heirs  to  the 
crown,  in  the  event  of  the  death  of  Edward  without  issue. 

1545.  Invasion  of  France.     Coin  debased ;  property  of  guilds  con- 
fiscated. 

1547.     Execution  of  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  on  charge  of  high  treason. 

Henry  VIII.  died  Jan.  28,  1547,  leaving  a  will,  wherein  the  crown 
was  left  to  the  heirs  of  his  sister,  Mary,  duchess  of  Suffolk,  in 
the  event  of  failure  of  issue  by  all  of  his  children. 

1547-1553.    Edward  VI., 

ten  years  of  age  ;  his  uncle,  earl  of  Hertford,  was  appointed 

lord  protector  and  duke  of  Somerset,  and  assumed  the  government. 

Eepeal  of  the  six  articles  (1547).      Introduction  of  reformed  doc- 
trines. 

1549.  Execution  of  lord  Seymour,  brother  of  the  duke  of  Somerset, 
who  wished  to  marry  the  princess  Elizabeth. 
Establishment  of  uniformity  of  service  by  act  of  parliament ; 
introduction  of  Edward  VI. 's  first  prayer-book  (second, 
1553). 
Fall  of  the  protector,  Somerset,  who  was  superseded  by  lord 
"Warwick,  afterwards  duke  of  Northumberland  (1550).  Exe- 
cution of  Somerset  (1552). 

1551.     Forty-two  articles  of  religion  published  by  Cranmer. 

1553.  Edward  assigned  the  crown  to  Lady  Jane  G-rey,  daughter 
of  his  cousin,  Frances  Grey,  eldest  daughter  of  Mary,  daughter 
of  Henry  VII.,  to  the  exclusion  of  Mary  and  Elizabeth, 
daughters  of  Henry  VIII.  Lady  Jane  was  married  to  the 
son  of  the  duke  of  Northumberland.  Death  of  Edward  VI 
July  6, 1553. 

1553-1558.    Maxy  the  Catholic. 

The  proclamation  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  as  queen  by  Northumber- 
land meeting  with  no  response,  Northumberland,  Lady  Jane,  and 
others  were  arrested.  Execution  of  Northumberland  (Aug.  22,  1553). 
Restoration  of  Catholic  bishops.  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Winchester, 
author  of  the  Six  Articles,  lord  chancellor. 

1553.  Marriage  treaty  between  Mary  and  Philip  of  Spain,  son  of 

Charles  V.,  afterwards  Philip  II.  Pliilip  was  to  have  the  title 
of  king  of  England,  but  no  hand  in  the  government,  and  in  case  of 
Mary's  death  could  not  succeed  her.  This  transaction  ("  The  Spanish 
marriage  ")  being  unpopular  an  insurrection  broke  out,  headed  by  Sir 
Thomas  Careia,  the  duke  of  Suffolk,  and  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt.  The  sup- 
pression of  the  rebellion  was  followed  by  the  execution  of  Lady  Jane 
Grey  (Feb.  12,  1554),  and  her  husband.  Lady  Jane  was  an  ac- 
complished scholar  (Roger  Ascham)  and  had  no  desire  for  the  crown. 
Imprisonment  of  Elizabeth  who  was  soon  released  on  the  intercession 
of  the  emperor. 

1554.  July  25.     Marriage  of  Mary  and  Philip. 

1555.  Cruel  persecution  of  the  Protestants  (^Bonner,  bishop  of  Lon- 


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don).  Oct.  16,  Ridley  and  Latimer;  March  21, 1556,  Cranmer  burnt 
at  the  stake.  About  300  are  said  to  have  been  burnt  during  this  per- 
secution. Cardinal  Pole,  archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  papal  legate 
(1556). 

1557.  England  drawn  into  the  Spanish  war  with  France.     Defeat  of 
the  French  at  the  battle  of  St.  Quentin  (Aug.  10,  1557). 

1558.  Jan.  7.     Loss  of  Calais,  which  was  captured  by  the  duke  of 
Guise. 

Death  of  Mary,  Nov.  17,  1558. 

1558-1603.     Elizabeth. 

Sir  William  Cecil  (baron  Burleigh,  1571),  secretary  of  state. 
Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  lord  privy  seal.  Repeal  of  the  Catholic  legisla- 
tion of  Mary ;  reenactment  of  the  laws  of  Henry  VIII.  relating  to  the 
church  ;  act  of  supremacy,  act  of  uniformity.  Revision  of  the  prayer- 
book. 

1559.  Treaty  of  Cateau-Cambresis  with  France.  Calais  to  be 
April  2.     ceded  to  England  in  eight  years. 

On  the  accession  of  Francis  II.  king  of  France,  Mary,  his  wife,  as- 
sumed the  title  of  Queen  of  England  and  Scotland.  Conformity 
exacted  in  Scotland.  Treaty  of  Berwick  (Jan.  1560),  between  Eliza- 
beth and  the  Scottish  reformers. 

1560.  Treaty  of  Edinburgh  between  England,  France,  and  Scotland. 
July  6.     French  interference  in  Scotland  withdrawn.     Adoption  of  a 

Confession  of  Faith  by  the  Scotch  estates. 

1561.  Return  of  Mary  to  Scotland  after  the  death  of  Francis  II., 

where  she  was  at  once  involved  in  conflict  with  the  Calvinists. 
(John  Knox,  b.  1505,  the  friend  of  Calvin  at  Geneva,  d. 
1572.) 

1563.  Adoption  of  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles,  in  place  of  the  forty- 

two  published  by  Cranmer.  Completion  of  the  establishment 
of  the  Anglican  Church  (^Church  of  England,  Episcopal  Church^  ; 
Protestant  dogmas,  with  retention  of  the  Catholic  hierarchy  and,  par- 
tially, of  the  cult.  Numerous  dissenters  or  non-conformists  (Presbyte- 
rians, Puritans,  Brownists,  Separatists,  etc.).  Parker,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  (1559). 

1564.  Peace  of  Troyes  with  France.     English  claims  to  Calais  re- 
nounced for  220,000  crowns. 

In  Scotland  Mary  married  her  cousin  Damley,  who  caused  her  fa- 
vorite Rizzio  to  be  murdered  (1566)  and  was  himself  murdered  (Feb. 
10,  1567)  by  Bothwell  (earl  of  Hepburn),  apparently  with  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  queen.i  Marriage  of  Mary  and  Bothwell  May  15,  1567. 
The  nobles  under  Murray,  Mary's  natural  brother,  revolted,  defeated 
Mary  at  Carbury  Hill  near  Edinburgh,  and  imprisoned  her  at  Loch- 
leven  Castle.  Abdication  of  Mary  in  favor  of  her  son,  James  VI., 
July  24,  1567.  Murray,  regent.  In  May,  1568,  Mary  escaped  from 
captivity  ;  defeated  at  Langside,  May  13,  she  took  refuge  in  England, 
where,  after  some  delay,  she  was  placed  in  confinement  (1568). 

1  Gaedeke,  MaHa  Stuart,  1879.  The  cause  of  Mary  and  Bothwell  has  bee» 
racently  defended  by  John  Watts  De  Pejster. 


A.  D.  England  and  Scotland.  —  Elizabeth.  339 

1575.  Elizabeth  declined  the  government  of  the  Netherland  prov- 
inces of  Holland  and  Zealand,  offered  her  by  the  confederates. 

1577.  Alliance  of  Elizabeth  and  the  Netherlands, 

1583-84.  Plots  against  the  queen.  {Arden,  Parry)  ;  Spanish  plot  of 
Tkrogmorton  ;  execution  of  the  earl  of  Arundel  for  correspond- 
ing with  Mary.     Bond  of  Association. 

1585.  Troops  sent  to  the  aid  of  the  Dutch  republic  under  the  earl  of 

Leicester.     Victory  of  Zutphen  (Sept.  22,  1586),  death  of  Sir 
Philip  Sidney. 

1586.  Expedition  of  Sir  Francis  Drake  to  the  West  Indies,  sack  of 

St.  Domingo  and  Carthagena  ;  rescue  of  the  Virginia  colony 
(p.  290). 

1586.  Conspiracy  of  Savage,  Ballard,  Babington,  etc.,  discovered 
by  the  secretary  of  state,  "Walsingham  ;  execution  of  the 
conspirators.  The  government  involved  Mary,  queen  of 
Scots,  in  the  plot.  She  was  tried  at  Fotheringay  Castle,  Oct. 
1586,  and  convicted  on  the  presentation  of  letters  which  she 
alleged  to  be  forged.  She  was  convicted  Oct.  25  and  executed 
Feb.  8, 1587. 

1588.  War  with  Spain.  Construction  of  an  English  fleet  of  war. 
The  Spanish  fleet,  called  the  invincible  armada  (132  vessels, 
3,165  cannon),  was  defeated  in  the  Channel  by  the  English  fleet 
(Howard,  Drake,  Hatvkins),  July  21-29,  and  destroyed  by  a 
storm  off  the  Hebrides. 

1597.  Rebellion  of  the  Irish  under  Hugh  O'Neill,  earl  of  Tyrone  ; 
the  failure  of  the  earl  of  Essex  to  cope  with  the  insurrection  led 
to  his  recall,  and  his  successor  lord  Mountjoy  quickly  subju- 
gated the  country  (1601).  Capture  of  Tyrone,  flight  of  the 
earl  of  Desmond.  A  rebellion  of  Essex  in  London  was  followed 
by  his  execution  (1601). 

1600.    Charter  of   the  East  India  Company.      Death  of   Elizabeth 
March  24,  1603. 
William  Shakespeare,  1564-1616  ;  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  1554-1586; 

Edmund  Spenser,  1553-1599  ;  William  Tyndale,  1485  ?-1536  ;  Ben 

Jonson,  1574-1637. 

1603-1649  (1714).  The  House  of  Stuart.  Personal 
Union  of  England  and  Scotland. 

1603-1625.     James  I., 

as  king  of  Scotland,  James  VI.,  son  of  Mary  Stuart.  The. 
Scotch  had  brought  him  up  in  the  Protestant  faith.  He  was  learned 
but  pedantic,  weak,  lazy,  and  incapable  of  governing  a  large  king- 
dom. Divine  right  of  kingship,  divme  right  of  the  bishops  ("  no 
bishop,  no  king  ").  In  this  century  the  after-effects  of  the  Reformation 
made  themselves  felt  in  England  as  on  the  continent,  and  in  both 
places  resulted  in  war.  In  England,  however,  owing  to  the  peculiar 
circumstances  of  the  Reformation  these  effects  were  peculiarly  condi- 
tioned ;  the  religious  questions  were  confused  and  overshadowed  by 
political  and  constitutional  questions. 
1603.  James  I.  was  proclaimed  king  March  24  ;  he  entered  London 


840  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

on  the  7tli  of  May,  and  was  crowned  July  25.  Presentation  of  the 
millenary  petition  immediately  after  James's  arrival  in  London, 
signed  by  1,000  (800)  ministers,  asking  for  the  reform  of  abuses. 

The  Main  and  the  Bye.  The  "  Main "  was  a  plot  to  dethrone 
James  in  favor  of  Arabella  Stuart  (see  geneal.  table,  p.  337),  con- 
cocted by  lord  Cobham,  Grey  and  others.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was  also 
implicated  and  imprisoned  until  1616  ("History  of  the  World"). 
The  "  Bye  "  or  the  "  Surprising  treason  "  was  a  plot  to  imprison  the 
king.  Alliance  with  France,  negotiated  by  Romy  (Sully). 
1604.  Jan.     Hampton   Court  Conference   between    the    bishops 

and  the  Puritans,  where  James  presided.  The  Puritans  failed 
to  obtain  any  relaxation  of  the  rules  and  orders  of  the  church.  The 
king  issued  a  proclamation  enforcing  the  act  of  uniformity  (p.  338), 
and  one  banisliing  Jesuits  and  seminary  priests  (Goodwin  and 
Fortescue). 
1604,  March  19-1611,  Feb.  9.     First  Parliament  of  James  I. 

The  king's  scheme  of  a  real  union  of  England  and  Scotland 
unfavorably  received.  Appointment  of  a  commission  to  investigate 
the  matter. 

1604.  Convocation  (ecclesiastical  court  and  legislature  at  first 
established  [Edward  I.]  as  an  instrument  for  ecclesiastical  tax- 
ation ;  afterwards  convened  by  archbishops  for  the  settlement  of 
church  questions  ;  since  Henry  VIII.  convened  only  by  writ  from  the 
king,  and  sitting  and  enacting  [canons]  only  by  permission  of  the 
king)  adopted  some  new  canons  which  bore  so  hardly  upon  the  Puri- 
tans that  three  hundred  clergymen  left  their  livings  rather  than  con- 
form. 

Peace  with  Spain.  James  proclaimed  "  King  of  Great  Britain, 
France  and  Ireland  "  (Oct.  24).  Punishment  of  many  recusants 
(under  the  recusancy  laws  of  Elizabeth,  whereby  refusing  to  go  to 
church,  saying  mass  or  assisting  at  mass  was  severely  punished). 

1605.  Nov.  5.     GunpoTvder  Plot, 

originating  in  1604  with  Robert  Catesby,  after  the  edict  banish- 
ing the  priests.  Other  conspirators  :  Winter,  Wright,  Percy.  Prep- 
arations for  blowing  up  the  houses  of  Parliament  with  thirty-six  barrels^ 
of  gunpowder.  Disclosure  of  the  plot  through  an  anonymous  letter  to 
Lord  Monteagle  from  one  of  the  conspirators,  his  brother-in-law, 
Tresham.  Arrest  of  Guy  (Guido)  Fawkes,  in  the  vaults  on  Nov. 
4,  the  day  before  the  meeting  of  parliament.  Trial  and  execution 
of  the  conspirators.     Parliament  met  Nov.  9. 

1606.  Penal  laws  against  papists.  Plague  in  London.  Episco- 
pacy restored  in  Scotland.  James  urged  the  union  anew 
but  in  vain. 

Impositions.  Tlie  grant  of  customs  duties  made  at  the  begin- 
ning of  every  reign  (tonnage  and  poundage,  established  by 
Edward  III.)  proving  insufficient  to  meet  James'  expenditure, 
he  had  recourse  to  impositions  without  parliamentary  grant, 
which  Mary  and  Elizabeth  had  used  to  a  small  extent.  Trial 
of  Bates  for  refusing  to  pay  an  imposition  on  currants.  The 
court  of  exchequer  decided  in  favor  of  the  king. 


A.  D.  England  and  Scotland.  —  James  I.  341 

1607.  Settlement  of  Jamestown  (p.  291). 

1608.  Establishment  of  new  impositions. 

1610.  The  Great  Contract ;  in  return  for  the  surrender  of  some 
feudal  privileges  the  king  was  to  receive  a  yearly  income  of 
£200,000.  The  agreement  was  frustrated  by  a  dispute  over 
the  impositions.     Dissolution  of  parliament  (Feb.  9,  1611). 

1611.  Plantation  of  Ulster y  which  was  forfeited  to  the  crown  by  the 
rebellion  of  Tyrone. 

Creation  of   baronets^  an  hereditary  knighthood  ;  sale  of  the 

patents. 
1611.     Completion  of  the  translation  of  the  Bible,  which  was 

authorized  by  the  king  and  had  occupied  forty-seven  mioid- 

ters  since  1604. 

Imprisonment  of  Arabella  Stuart. 
1613.     Robert  Carr,  the  king's  favorite  (viscount  Rochester  in  1611), 

created  duke  of  Somerset,  and  lord  treasurer,  on  the  death  of 

the  earl  of  Salisbury  (Robert  Cecil).     Death  of  Henry,  prince 

of  Wales  (Nov.  1612).     First  English  factory  at  Surat. 

1613.  Marriage  of  the  prmcess  Elizabeth  ("  queen  of  Bohemia  ")  to 
the  elector  Palatine.  Death  of  Sir  Thomas  Overbury,  who  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  by  the  malice  of  Somerset.  Mar- 
riage of  Somerset  and  the  countess  of  Essex. 

1614.  Apr.  5-June  7.  Second  Parliament  of  James  I.  Three 
hundred  new  members,  among  whom  were  John  Pym  (Somer- 
setshire), Thomas  Wentworth  (Yorkshire),  John  Eliot  (St.  Ger- 
mains).  The  whole  session  was  spent  in  quarrelling  with 
the  king  over  the  impositions,  and  parliament  was  dissolved 
without  making  an  enactment,  whence  it  is  called  the  addled 
parliament. 

1615.  Renewal  of  the  negotiation  for  the  marriage  of  James's  son  to 
a  Spanish  princess  (opened  in  1611).  Imposition  of  a  benevo- 
lence, which  was  resisted  by  Oliver  St.  John  and  condemned 
by  the  chief  justice,  Sir  Edivard  Coke,  who  was  afterwards 
dismissed  from  office.  Death  of  Arabella  Stuart.  Mission  of 
Sir  Thomas  Roe  to  the  Great  Mogul. 

1616.  Condemnation  of  the  duke  and  duchess  of  Somerset  for  the 
poisoning  of  Overbury.  Rise  of  George  Villiers  in  the  king's 
favor  ;  viscount  Villiers,  earl,  marquis,  duke  of  Buckingham. 

1617.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  released  from  the  Tower,  allowed  to 
sail  for  the  Orinoco,  where  he  hoped  to  discover  a  gold  mine 
Failing  in  this  he  attacked  the  Spanish  towns  on  the  Orinoco. 

1618.  Proclamation  allowing  sports  on  Sunday  after  church  in  Scot- 
land (Articles  of  Perth).  Francis  Bacon,  lord  Verulam,  vis- 
count of  St.  Albans,  lord  chancellor.  In  this  year  Sir  Wal- 
ter Raleigh,  returning  from  his  expedition,  was  executed  under 
the  old  sentence,  as  reparation  to  Spain. 

1619.  Commercial  treaty  with  the  Dutch  respecting  the  East  Indies. 

1620.  Settlement  of  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth,  in  New  England 
(p.  294). 

1621.  Jan.  30-1622,  Feb.  8.    Third  Parliament  of  James  I.     The 

parliament  granted  a  supply  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war  in 


342  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

the  palatinate  (p.  310),  in  which  James  was  half-hearted,  and  theji 
took  np  the  subject  of  grievances.  Impeachment  of  Mompesson  and 
Mitchell,  who  had  bought  monopolies  of  inn-licensing  and  the  manu- 
facture of  gold  and  silver  thread;  they  were  degraded,  fined,  and  ban- 
ished. Impeachment  of  Francis  Bacon,  the  chancellor,  for  bribery. 
Bacon  admitted  that  he  had  received  presents  from  parties  in  suits, 
but  denied  that  they  had  affected  his  judgment.  He  was  lined  £40,- 
000  (which  was  remitted)  and  declared  incapable  of  holding  office 
in  the  future.  Petition  of  the  commons  against  popery  and  the 
Spanish  marriage.  The  angry  rebuke  of  the  king  for  meddling  in 
affairs  of  state  ("  bring  stools  for  these  ambassadors  ")  drew  from 
the  parliament 

1621,  Dec.  18.  The  Great  Protestation  :  "  That  the  liberties,  fran- 

chises, privileges,  and  jurisdictions  of  parliament  are  the  ancient 
and  undoubted  birthright  and  inheritance  of  the  subjects  of  England, 
and  that  the  arduous  and  urgent  affairs  concerning  the  king,  state,  and 
defense  of  the  realm  .  .  .  are  proper  subjects  and  matter  of  council 
and  debate  in  parliament."  The  king  tore  the  page  containing  the 
protestation  from  the  journal  of  the  commons. 

1622,  Feb.  8.     Dissolution  of  parliament. 

Imprisonment  of   Southampton,  Coke,  Pym,  Selden.     Earl  of 
Buckingham  made  duke  of  Buckingham. 

1623,  Charles,  prince  of  Wales,  and  the  duke  of  Buckingham, 
went  to  Spain  and  negotiated  a  marriage  treaty,  the  provis- 
ions of  wliich  were  so  favorable  to  the  Catholics  as  to  excite 
great  dissatisfaction  in  England ;  finally,  being  unable  to  secure 
any  help  from  Spain  in  regard  to  the  palatinate,  Charles  and 
Buckingham  returned  in  anger. 

Massacre  of  English  residents  on  the  island  of  Amboyna  by  the 
Dutch. 

1624,  Feb.  12-1625,  Mar.  27.     Fourth  Parliament  of  James  I. 

The  Spanish  marriage  was  broken  off,  but  even  the  anger  of 
Buckingham  could  not  drive  the  parliament  into  a  declaration  of  war 
with  Spain.  Supplies  voted  for  defense.  Mansfeld  raised  1,200 
men  in  England  who  reached  Holland  but  nearly  all  perished  there 
from  lack  of  proper  provisions.  Marriage  treaty  with  France  for  the 
marriage  of  Prince  Charles  with  Henrietta  Alaria,  sister  of  Louis 
XIII. 

1625,  March  27,  death  of  James  I.  at  Theobalds. 

1625-1649.     Charles  I. 

1625,  May  11.  Marriage  of  Charles  I.  and  Henrietta  Maria. 

Ships  sent  to  Louis  XIII.  secretly  engaged  not  to  fight  against 

the  Huguenots. 

1625.     First  Parliament  of  Charles  I. 

(Assembled  June  18  ;  adjourned  to  Oxford  July  11 ;  dissolved 

Aug.  12.) 

Grant  of  tonnage  and  poundage  for  one  year  only,  and  of  £140,000 

for  the  war  with  Spain.      Proceedings  against  Montague  ("  appello 

CcEsarem"   1624).     Unsuccessful   expedition  of   Wimbledon  against 

Cadiz. 


A.  D.  England  and  Scotland.  —  Charles  I.  343 

1626,  Feb.  6-Jime  15.     Second  Parliament  of  Charles  I. 

Charles  had  hoped  for  a  more  pliable  parliament,  as  he  had 
appointed  several  of  the  leaders  of  the  first  parliament  sheriffs, 
and  so  kept  them  out  of  the  second.  But  this  parliament, 
under  the  lead  of  Sir  John  Eliot,  was  more  intractable  than 
the  last.  Lord  Bristol,  to  whom  no  writ  had  been  sent  by  order 
of  the  king,  received  one  on  the  interference  of  the  lords,  but 
*  was  requested  not  to  appear.     He  took  his  seat  and  brought 

charges  against  Buckingham,  on  which  that  lord  was  im- 
peached (May).    Imprisonment  of  Sir  John  Eliot  and  Sir  Dud- 
ley Digges,  who  were  set  at  liberty  upon  the  refusal  of  parlia- 
ment to  proceed  to  business  without  them. 
War  declared  against  France  (1626-1630). 

1627,  Inglorious  expedition  of  Buckingham  to  the  relief  of  B,ochelle 
(Isleo/Rhe). 

Exaction  of  a  forced  loan  to  raise  money  for  the  French  war,  and 
for  the  subsidy  which  Charles  had  agreed  to  supply  to  Chris- 
tian IV.  of  Denmark.  Five  persons,  who  were  imprisoned  for 
refusiug  to  contribute,  sued  out  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  but, 
having  been  committed  by  the  king's  order,  though  without 
distinct  charge,  they  were  remanded  to  prison. 

1628,  March  17-1629,  March  10.     Third  Parliament  of  Charles 
I. 

May.  Passage  of  the  Petition  of  Right  :  1.  Prohibition  of  benevo- 
lences, and  all  forms  of  taxation  icithout  consent  of  parliament. 
2.  Soldiers  should  not  be  billeted  in  private  houses.  3.  No  com- 
mission should  be  given  to  military  officers  to  execute  martial 
law  in  time  of  peace.  4.  No  one  should  be  imprisoned  unless 
upon  a  specified  charge.  Assent  of  the  king  (June  7).  Grant  of 
five  subsidies.  Suppression  of  the  royalistic  sermons  of  Main- 
waring. 
Charles  having,  after  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  continued  to  levy 
toimage  and  poundage,  the  commons  drew  up  a  remonstrance 
against  that  practice. 

June  26.     Prorogation  of  parliament. 

Seizure  of  goods  of  merchants  who  refused  to  pay  tonnage  and 
poundage. 

Aug.  23.     Assassination  of  Buckingham  by  Felton. 

1629,  Jan.     New  session  of  parliament.      Oliver  Cromwell  spoke, 

for  the  first  time,  in  this  parliament.  The  commons  at  once 
took  up  the  question  of  tonnage  and  poundage ;  claim  of  privi- 
lege in  the  case  of  Rolfe,  one  of  the  merchants,  whose  goods 
had  been  seized,  and  who  was  a  member  of  parliament. 
Adjournment  of  the  house  of  commons. 
March  2.  Meeting  of  parliament.  Turbulent  scene  in  the  house  of 
commons  ;  the  speaker  held  in  the  chair  while  the  resolutions 
of  Eliot  were  read  :  Whoever  introduced  innovations  in  relig- 
ion, or  opinions  disagreeing  with  those  of  the  true  church  ; 
whoever  advised  the  levy  of  tonnage  and  poundage  without 
grant  of  parliament  ;  whoever  voluntarily  paid  such  duties, 
was  an  enemy  of  the  kingdom. 


844  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

March  5.  Arrest  of  members  ;  imprisonment  of  Eliot  (f  Nov.  1632). 
March  10.  Dissolution  of  parliament.  For  eleven  years  Charles 
governed  without  a  parliament,  raising  money  by  illegal 
levies  of  taxes,  sale  of  monopolies,  and  many  other  ways. 
Charles'  advisers  :  William  Laud  (b.  1573,  president  of  St.  John's 
college,  1611-1621;  dean  of  Gloucester,  1616;  in  Scotland  as  James  I.'s 
chaplain,  1617;  bishop  of  St.  David's,  1621;  chaplain  to  Buckingham, 
1622  ;  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  dean  of  the  chapel  royal,  1626  ;'' 
privy  councillor,  1627;  bishop  of  London,  1628  ;  chancellor  of  Oxford, 
1630  ;  in  Scotland  with  Charles  I.,  1633  ;  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
1633  ;  commissioner  of  the  treasury,  1634  ;  impeached,  1641  ;  at- 
tainted (by  bill)  and  executed,  1645),  Thomas  Wentworth  (b.  1593; 
\n  parliament,  1614,  1621-1625  ;  sheriff,  1625  ;  imprisoned  for  refus- 
ing to  comply  with  the  forced  loan  ;  in  parliament,  1628  ;  baron  Went- 
worth, lord  president  of  the  council  of  the  north,  viscount  Wentworth, 
1628  ;  privy  councillor,  1629  ;  lord  deputy  of  Ireland,  1633  ;  went  to 
Ireland,  1633  ;  earl  of  Strafford,  and  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
1639  ;  impeached,  1640  ;  attainted  (by  bill)  and  executed,  May,  1641), 
Weston,  lord  treasurer. 
1630,  April.     Peace  with  France. 

1629.  First  charter  of  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  (p.  295). 

1630,  Nov.    Peace  with  Spain. 

1632.  Predominant  influence  of  Wentworth. 

1633.  June.     Charles  crowned  at  Edinburgh  with  ceremonies  distaste- 

ful to  the  Scots. 
Government  of  Laud  and  Wentworth.  Energetic  enforcement  of 
conformity.  The  declaration  of  sports  (p.  341)  reissued.  Inrailment 
of  the  communion  table.  William  Prynne,  author  of  Histrio-Ma^^ix,  an 
attack  on  players,  which  was  thought  to  reflect  on  the  queen,  pilloried 
and  deprived"  of  his  ears.  Wentworth,  governor  of  Ireland.  "  Thor- 
ough." 

1634.  First  writ  for  ship-money,  a  war  tax  levied  only  on  seaboard 
towns,  issued  at  the  suggestion  of  Noy,  attorney-general,  and 
extended  over  the  whole  kingdom. 

1635.  Second  writ  for  ship-money. 

1637.  Prynne,  Bastwick,  Burton,  pilloried. 

June  23.  An  attempt  to  read  the  English  liturgy  in  Edinburgh,  in 
compliance  with  the  order  of  Charles,  produced  a  popular 
tumult  at  St.  Giles. 

June.  Trial  of  John  Hampden,  for  refusing  to  pay  his  allotment  of 
ship-money  (twenty  shillings).  The  court  of  exchequer  de- 
cided against  him,  which  created  a  strong  popular  excitement. 
Shortly  after,  Hampden,  Pym,  Cromwell,  were  prevented  from 
sailing  for  America  by  a  royal  prohibition  of  emigration. 

1638,  Feb.  28.     Signing   of  the    Solemn   League  and  Covenant 

(based  on  that  of  1580),  at  Grey  friar's  church  in  Edinburgh, 
for  the  defense  of  the  reformed  religion  and  resistance  to  inno- 
vations. 
1638,  Nov.  21.  General  assembly  at  Glasgoio;  abolition  of  episcopacy, 
the  new  liturgy,  and  the  canons  ;  the  kirk  declared  independent 
of  the  state. 


A..  D.  England  and  Scotland. —  Charles  I.  345 

1639.     The  first  bishops'  war. 

The  Scots  seized  Edinburgh  castle,  and  raised  an  army. 
Charles  marched  to  meet  them  near  Bertcick,  but  an  agreement  was 
reached  without  a  battle. 

1639,  June  18.     Pacification  of  Dunse  (or  Berwick).     The  armies 

were  to  be  disbanded,  and  differences  referred  to  a  new 
general  assembly  and  parliament.  The  general  assembly  at  Edin- 
burgh confirmed  the  acts  of  the  assembly  of  Glasgoiv,  and  the  parlia- 
ment proved  intractable.  The  king's  necessities  were  now  so  great 
that  he  took  the  advice  of  Wentworth,  now  made  earl  of  Strafford, 
and  summoned 

1640,  April  13 -May  6.      The  fourth  Parliament  of   Charles  I. 

("  The  Short  Parliament ")  at  Westminster. 
As  no  supplies  could  be  obtained  without  a  redress  of  grievances, 
the  parliament  was  soon  dissolved.  Popular  tumults ;  attack  on  Laud's 
palace  ;  assault  upon  the  court  of  high  commission  (created  1559,  by 
Elizabeth,  to  try  offenses  against  the  ecclesiastical  supremacy  of  the 
crown). 
1640.     Second  bishops'  war. 

Defeat  of  the  royal  troops  at  Newhum  on  the  Tyne  (Aug.  28). 
Tlie  king  summoned  a  council  of  peers  at  York  (Sept.).  Treaty 
of  Ripon  (Oct.  26).  A  permanent  treaty  was  set  in  prospect; 
meanwhile  the  Scottish  army  was  to  be  paid  £850  a  day  by 
Charles.  Acting  upon  the  advice  of  the  peers,  Charles  now 
summoned 

1640,  Nov.  3.     The  Fifth  and  last  Parliament. 

The  Long  Parliament  (Nov.  3,  1640-March  16,.  1660). 
First  Session. 

Nov.  3,  1640-Sept.  8,  1641. 

The  fact  that  the  Scotch  army  was  not  to  be  disbanded  until 
paid,  gave  the  commons  an  extraordinary  power  over  the  king, 
which  they  were  not  slow  to  use.     Lenthall,  speaker. 
Nov.  11.     Impeachment  of  the  earl  of  Strafford,  followed  by  the  im- 
peachment of  Laud.     Both  were  committed  to  the  Tower. 

1641,  Feb.  15.     The  triennial  act  passed,  enacting  that  parliament 

should  assemble  every  three  years  even  without  being  sum- 
moned by  the  king. 

March  22.  Commencement  of  the  trial  of  Strafford.  The  result  of 
the  impeachment  being  uncertain,  it  was  dropped  and  a  bill  of 
attainder  introduced,  which  passed  both  houses  (commons, 
Apr.  21,  lords,  Apr.  29). 
Bill  to  prevent  clergymen  from  holding  civil  office  introduced 
but  thrown  out  by  the  lords  (June).  Introduction  of  a  bill  for 
the  abolition  of  bishops    ('*root  and  branch  bill "). 

May  10.  Charles  with  great  reluctance  signed  the  bill  of  attainder 
against  Strafford,  and  also  the  bill  to  prevent  the  dissolu- 
tion or  proroguing  of  the  present  parliament  without  its 
own  consent.    ("  Act  for  the  perpetual  Parliament") 


846  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

1641,  May  12.     Execution  of  Strafford. 

July.  Abolition  of  the  Star  Chamber  and  the  High  Commis- 
sion. 

Aug.  Treaty  of  pacifioation  with  Scotland.  The  Scotch  and  Eng- 
lish armies  were  paid  with  the  proceeds  of  a  poll-tax.  Charles 
went  to  Scotland.  First  interview  of  Edward  Hyde,  lord  Clar- 
endon (1609-1674  ;  "  History  of  the  Rebellion  and  Civil  Wars 
in  England),"  with  the  king. 

Sept.  8.  Parliament  adjourned,  but  each  house  appointed  a  commit- 
tee to  sit  during  the  recess  ;  Pym  chairman  of  the  commons' 
committee. 
Attempt  of  the  king  to  conciliate  the  "  moderates  "  in  parlia- 
ment by  giving  offices  of  state  to  their  leaders  (Lucius  Cary, 
lord  Falkland). 

Oct.  In  Scotland  the  marquis  of  Montrose  formed  a  plot  for  the 
seizure  of  the  duke  of  Argyle,  the  leader  of  the  Presbyterians, 
in  which  the  king  was  thought  to  have  a  share.  The  discovery 
of  the  plot  ("  the  incident ")  threw  Charles  into  the  hands  of 
Argyle,  and  an  agreement  was  concluded  whereby  Charles 
gave  the  state  offices  to  Argyle  and  his  party,  and  the  latter 
agreed  not  to  interfere  in  the  religious  affairs  in  England. 

Oct.  20.  Parliament  assembled.  Early  in  Nov.  came  news  of  the 
Irish  massacre  in  Ulster  ;  the  lowest  estimate  of  the  number  of 
Protestants  slain  was  30,000.  Great  indignation  in  England. 
Yet  the  parliament  was  unwilling  to  trust  Charles  with  an 
army. 

1641,  Dec.  1.     The   grand  remonstrance,  which  had   passed   the 

house  of  commons  in  November,  after  a  long  and  exciting  de- 
bate, by  a  majority  of  eleven,  presented  to  the  king.  It  was  a 
summary  of  all  the  grievances  of  his  reign.  On  Dec.  14  the 
remonstrance  was  ordered  to  be  printed. 
Several  of  the  bishops  having  declared  their  inability  to  attend 
parliament  on  account  of  the  conduct  of  the  mob,  and  protested 
against  the  action  of  parliament  in  their  absence,  they  were 
committed  to  the  Tower  for  breach  of  privilege  (Dec.  30). 
The  petition  of  the  commons  for  a  guard  under  the  earl  of 
Essex  rejected  by  the  king. 

1642,  Jan.  3.  Impeachment  of  lord  Kimbolton,  and  of  Pym, 
Hampden,  Haselrig,  Holies,  Strode,  members  of  the  com- 
mons, for  treasonable  correspondence  with  the  Scots  in  the  recent 
war.  As  the  commons  declined  to  order  their  arrest  Charles 
resolved  to  take  matters  into  his  own  hands. 

Jan.  4.     Attempt  to  seize  the  five  members. 

Charles  visited  the  house  of  commons  in  person,  with  five 
hundred  troops,  but  finding  that  the  five  members  were  absent 
he  withdrew  quietly.  The  accused  members,  meanwhile,  were 
in  London.  The  commons  immediately  followed  them,  and 
formed  themselves  into  a  committee  which  sat  at  the  Guild- 
hall, under  the  protection  of  the  citizens, 

Jan.  10.  Charles  left  London.  The  five  members  returned  to  par- 
liament on  the  following  day.     Jan.  12,  rising  at  Kingston. 


A.  D.  England  and  Scotland.  847 

The  freeholders  of  Buckinghamshire  sent  a  remonstrance  to  the 
king.  The  commons  made  sure  of  several  places  and  hastened 
to  lay  before  the  king  a  bill  excluding  the  bishops  from 
the  house  of  Lords,  which  he  signed,  and  a  bill  securing  to 
the  parliament  the  command  of  the  militia,  which  he  re- 
fused to  sign.  Charles  at  York  (March),  where  he  was 
joined  in  April  by  thirty-two  peers  and  sixty-five  members  of 
the  lower  house.  The  king  also  obtained  the  great  seal.  At- 
tempt on  Hull. 
Henceforward  the  parliament  at  Westminster  passed  ordinances 
which  were  not  submitted  to  the  king.  By  an  ordinance  passed 
in  May  they  assumed  control  of  the  militia. 

June  2.  Submission  of  nineteen  propositions  by  parliament  to  the 
king,  demanding  that  the  king  should  give  his  assent  to  the 
militia  bill  ;  that  all  fortified  places  should  be  entrusted  to 
officers  appointed  by  parliament  ;  that  the  liturgy  and  church 
government  should  be  reformed  in  accordance  with  the  wishes 
of  parliament  ;  that  parliament  should  appoint  and  dismiss  all 
royal  ministers,  appoint  guardians  for  the  king's  children,  and 
have  the  power  of  excluding  from  the  upper  house  at  will  all 
peers  created  after  that  date.  The  propositions  were  indig- 
nantly rejected. 

July.  Appointment  of  a  committee  of  public  safety  by  parliament. 
Essex  appointed  captain-general  of  an  army  of  20,000  foot  and 
4000  cavalry.     Siege  of  Portsmouth. 

Aug.  22.     Charles  raised  the  royal  standard  at  Nottingham. 

1642-1646.     The  civil  war  ;  the  Great  Rebellion. 

Oct.  23.  Drawn  battle  of  Edgehill,  (Prince  Rupert,  son  of  the 
elector  palatine  and  Elizabeth  of  England.)  The  king  marched 
upon  London,  but  being  confronted  at  Brentford  by  Essex  and 

Nov.  12.  the  trained  bands  of  London  under  Skippon,  he  retired 
without  fighting.      "  Affair  of  Brentford." 

Dec.  The  associated  counties  of  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Essex,  Cambridge, 
Hertfordshire,  and  Huntingdonshire  raised  a  force  which  was  en- 
trusted to  Oliver  Crom-well  (born  April  25, 1599  in  Hunting- 
don), who  made  them  a  model  band,  "  the  Ironsides." 

1643,  Feb.- Apr.  Fruitless  negotiations  at  Oxford,  followed  by  a  re- 
newal of  the  war.  In  Feb.  the  queen  landed  in  Yorkshire, 
bringing  assistance  from  Holland. 

Apr.  27.     Capture  of  Reading  by  Essex. 

IVlay.  Royalist  rising  in  Cornwall  ;  defeat  of  the  parliament  at  Strat- 
ton  Hill  (May  16).  Defeat  of  Waller  at  Lansdowne  Hill,  and 
at  Roundway  Down  (July). 

Jime  18.  Hampden  wounded  in  a  skirmish  with  Rupert  at  ChaU 
grove  f  eld,  f  June  24. 

July  1.  Westminster  assembly  (continued  until  1649),  for  the 
settlement  of  religious  and  theological  matters. 

July  25.  Capture  of  Bristol  (the  second  city  in  the  kingdom)  by 
Rupert.     Discouragement  of  the  supporters  of  the  parliament. 

Sept.    Essex  relieved  Gloucester,  which  was  gallantly  defended  by 


848  Modern  History.  A.  ix 

1643,  Sept.  20.     First  battle  of  Newbury.     Death  of  lord  Falkland. 
Sept.  25.    Signature   of  the   Solemn   League   and   Covenant   by 

twenty-five  peers  and  288  members  of  the  commons.  Parlia- 
ment thus  agreed  to  make  the  religions  of  England,  Ireland, 
and  Scotland  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible,  and  to  reform  re- 
ligion "  according  to  the  word  of  God,  and  the  example  of  the 
best  reformed  churches."  All  civil  and  military  officers  and  all 
beneficed  clergymen  were  compelled  to  sign  the  covenant 
(nearly  2000  clergymen  were  thus  deprived  of  their  livings). 
Thus  the  assistance  of  the  Scots  was  secured. 

Sept.  Charles  concluded  peace  with  the  Irish  insurgents,  and  took 
the  fatal  step  of  enlisting  a  force  from  their  numbers  for  the 
war  in  England. 

Dec.  8.    Death  of  Pym. 

1644.  Jan.  A  Scotch  army  crossed  the  Tweed.  Parliament  con- 
vened at  Oxford  by  the  king. 

Jan.  25.    Battle  of  Nantwich.     Defeat  of  the  Irish  by  Sir  Thomas 

Fairfax. 
Feb.  15.    Joint  committee  of  the  tvro  kingdoms. 
March.    Trial  of  Laud. 

York  besieged  by  Fairfax  and  the  Scots.     Siege  of  Oxford  by 
Essex  and  Waller.     Siege  of  Latham  House  (countess  of  Derby) 
raised  by  Rupert    (May). 
July  2.    Battle  of  Marston  Moor. 

Prince  Rupert,  who  defeated  the  Scots,  was  in  turn  totally  de- 
feated by  Crom'well  at  the  head  of  liis  picked  troops  (Ironsides). 

Hitherto  the  king  had  held  the  west  and  north  of  England,  while 
the  parliament  was  supreme  in  the  east.  This  victory  gave  the 
north  to  parliament.  Surrender  of  York  July  16,  of  Newcastle 
Oct  20.  This  success  was  partially  offset  in  the  south  by  the  de- 
feat of  Waller  at  the 

June  29.  Battle  of  Copredy  Bridge,  and  by  the 

Sept.         Surrender  of  Essex's  infantry  in  Cornwall  to  Charles.     Es- 
sex escaped  to  London  by  sea. 
1644,  Aug.-1645,  Sept.     Campaign  of  Montrose  in  Scotland. 

Montrose  entered  Scotland  in  disguise,  Aug.  1644.  Victory 
of  Tippamuir  Sept.  1  ;  sack  of  Aberdeen  (Bridge  of  Dee)  Sept.  13  ; 
capture  of  Perth  ;  Montrose  retired  to  Athole  (Oct.  4)  ;  Fyrie  castle 
(Oct.  14)  ;  Montrose  retired  to  Badenach  (Nov.  6)  ;  harrying  of 
Argyleshire  (Dec-Jan.  18)  ;  march  from  Loch  Ness  to  Inverlochy  at 
Ben  Nevis  (Jan.  31-Feb.  1).  Battle  of  Inverlochy,  Feb.  2.  Surren- 
der of  Elgin,  Feb.  19.  Montrose  at  Aberdeen  (March  9)  ;  Stone- 
haven (March  21).  Victory  of  Auldearn  (May  4)  ;  victory  of 
Alford  (July  2)  ;  of  Kilsyth  (Aug.  15)  ;  court  at  Bothwell  (Sept. 
3)  ;  Kelso  (Sept.  10)  ;  Leslie  crossed  the  Tweed  (Sept.  6).  De- 
feat of  Montrose  at  Philiphaugh  (Sept.  13). 

1644,  Oct.  27.  Second  battle  of  Newbury  fought  between  the  king 

and  Essex,  Waller,  and  Manchester. 
Dec.     Promulgation  of  a  directory  instead  of  a  liturgy.     Christmas 
made  a  fast. 

1645.  Jan.  Attainder  and  execution  (Jan.  10)  of  Laud. 


A..  D.  England  and  Scotland,  849 

1645,  Jan.-Feb.     Truce  known  as  the  treaty  of  Uxbridge;  the  pro- 

posals of  the  parliament  rejected  by  the  king. 
Dissensions  within  the  parliament,  iiise  of  the  sect  of  indepen- 
dents (advocates  of  religious  liberty)  who  formed  a  growing  opposi- 
tion to  the  Presbyterians.  Crom-well  fast  becoming  the  leading  man 
in  England  since  the  victory  of  Marston  Moor.  Quarrel  with  Man- 
chester. 

April  3.    The  Self-denying  Ordinance  passed  by  both  houses  (the 
commons  had  passed  a  similar  bill  Dec.  1644)  preventing  mem- 
bers of  either  house  from  holding  military  command.     Estab- 
lishment of  Presbyterianism,  with  some  reservations  in  favor 
of  the  independents, 
Fairfax   superseded  Essex  as   captain-general.      Qromwell, 
lieutenant-general  (suspension  of  the  self-denying  ordinance 
in  his  case). 
Introduction  of  reform  in  the  army  after  the  plans  of  Crom- 
well ;  the  new  model. 
June  14.    Battle  of  Naseby. 

Complete  defeat  of  the  king,  followed  by  the  general  ruin  of 
his  cause.  Capture  of  his  private  letters.  Surrender  of  Lei- 
cester (June  18),  Bridgewater  (July  23),  Bristol  (Sept.  11), 
Carlisle,  Winchester,  Basing  House  (Oct.),  Latham  House 
(Dec). 
March  26.  Defeat  and  capture  of  lord  Ashley  at  Stow-on-the-WcM } 
last  battle  of  the  civil  war. 

1646,  May  5.    Charles  surrendered  himself  to  the  Scots. 
July  24.  Parliamentary  propositions  submitted  to  Charles  at  Newcastle. 

Parliament  to  have  control  of  the  militia  for  twenty  years  ; 
Charles  to  take  the  covenant  and  support  the  Presbyterian 
establishment.  Charles  rejected  the  propositions,  preferring 
to  await  the  result  of  the  impending  breach  between  parlia- 
ment, representing  Presbyterianism,  and  the  army,  comprising 
the  independents.  The  independent  opposition,  the  "  tolera- 
tion "  party  in  parliament,  grew  constantly  in  strength. 

1647,  Jan.  30.    The  Scots  surrendered  Charles  to  the  parliament  on 

payment  of  the  expenses  of  their  army  (£400,000).  Charles 
was  brought  to  Holmby  House  in  Northamptonshire. 
Contention  between  parliament  and  the  army.  The  commons 
voted  the  disbandment  of  all  soldiers  not  needed  for  garrison 
purposes  or  in  Ireland.  Fairfax  appointed  commander-in- 
chief.  The  self-denying  ordinance  re-enacted.  The  new 
model,  however,  refused  to  disband  until  its  claims  for  arrears 
were  satisfied. 

May  12.  Charles  accepted  a  modified  form  of  the  parliamentary 
propositions.     It  was  too  late, 

June  4.  Charles  seized  at  Holmby  House  by  comet  Joyce  and  carried 
to  the  army.  On  the  same  day  Cromwell,  having  heard  of  the 
intention  of  the  Presbyterians  to  seize  him  in  parliament,  fled 
to  the  army  at  Triptow  Heath.  Here  the  army  had  taken  an 
oath  not  to  disband  until  liberty  of  conscience  was  secure,  and 


850  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

had  adopted  a  new  organization  ;  appointment  to  a  council  of 
adjudicators. 

1647,  June  10.     The  army  at  St.  Albans.     "  Humble  representation  " 

addressed  to  parliament. 

June  16.  The  army  demanded  the  exclusion  from  parliament  of 
eleven  members  who  were  peculiarly  obnoxious  to  it  (Holies). 

July  26.    The  house  of  commons  mobbed  by  London  apprentices  on 
account  of  a  change  in  the  commanders  of  the  London  militia 
which  the  army  had  requested. 
The  two  speakers,  fourteen  lords,  and  one  hundred  commons 
fled  to  the  army. 

July  24.  Proposals  presented  to  the  king  by  the  army.  Belief  and 
worship  should  be  free  to  all  ;  parliament  to  control  the  mili- 
tary and  naval  forces  for  ten  years,  and  to  appoint  officers  of 
state  ;  triennial  parliament  ;  reformation  of  the  house  of 
commons,  etc.,  rejected  by  the  king,  who  was  invited  to  Lon- 
don by  that  part  of  the  parliament  still  sitting  at  Westmin- 
ster. 

Aug.  6.  The  army  entered  London  and  restored  the  members  which 
had  taken  refuge  with  it.  Charles  removed  to  Hampton 
Court. 

Sept.  7.  Parliament  again  offered  Charles  a  modified  form  of  the 
nineteen  propositions  ;  on  its  rejection  a  new  draft  was  pre- 
pared, but  before  its  presentation 

Nov.  11.  Charles  escaped  to  the  Isle  of  Wight,  where  he  was  detained 
by  the  governor  of  Carisbrooke  Castle. 

Dec.  24.  "  The  four  bills  "  presented  to  the  king  by  parliament :  1. 
Parliament  to  command  the  army  for  twenty  years  ;  2.  All 
declarations  and  proclamations  against  the  parliament  to  be 
recalled  ;  3.  All  peers  created  since  the  great  seal  was  sent  to 
Charles  to  be  incapable  of  sitting  in  the  house  ;  4.  The  two 
houses  should  adjourn  at  pleasure.  Charles,  who  was  only 
playing  with  the  parliament  in  the  hope  of  securing  aid  from 
Scotland,  rejected  the  four  bills  (Dec.  28),  after  he  had 
already  signed 

Dec.  26.  A  secret  treaty  with  the  Scots  ("  The  Engagement"). 
Charles  agreed  to  abolish  Episcopacy  and  restore  Presbyte- 
rianism  ;  the  Scots,  who  looked  with  horror  on  the  rising  tide 
of  toleration  in  England,  agreed  to  restore  him  by  force  of 
arms. 

1648.  Jan.  15.  Parliament  renounced  allegiance  to  the  king, 
and  voted  to  have  no  more  communication  with  him. 

1648.     Second  Civil  War. 

At  once  a  war  between  Scotland  and  England,  a  war  between 

the  Royalists  and  the   Roundheads,  and  a  war  between  the 

Presbyterians  and  the  Independents. 
Committee  of  safety  renewed,  sitting  at  Derby  House. 
March.     A  meeting  of  army  officers  at  Windsor  resolved  that  the 

king  must  be  brought  to  trial. 
April  24.     Call  of  the  house.      306  members.      The  Presbyterians 

having  returned  to  their  seats,  now  regained  control,  and  mani- 


A.  D.  The  North  and  East.  351 

fested  a  desire  to  come  to  an  agreement  with  the  king.     Vir- 
tual repeal  of  the  non-corajnunication  resolution. 

1648,  May  2.     Ordinance  for  suppression  of  blasphemies  and  heresies, 

aimed  at  the  independents,  especially  at  Cromwell,  Ireton,  etc. 
July  20-29.     Parliament  resolved  to  open  negotiations  with  the  king. 
Aug.  14.     Holies  resumed  his  seat. 

Royalist  outbreaks  in   Wales,  Cornwall,  Devon,  Kent;  riots  in 

London. 
July  25.     The  duke  of  Hamilton  led  a  Scotch  army  into  England. 

Cromwell  having  suppressed  the  rising  in  Wales  met  the  Scots 

in  the 
Aug.  17-20.     Three  days'  battle  at  Preston  Fans, 

and  anniliilated  their  army. 
Aug.  28.    Surrender  of  Colchester  to  Fairfax.     End  of  the   second 

civil  war. 
Sept.  18-Nov.    "  Treaty  of  Ne^wport  "  negotiated  between  the  king 

and  the  parliament,  without  result. 
Nov.  16.     Grand  remonstrance  of  the  army. 
Dec.  1.     Charles  seized  by  the  army  and  carried  to  Hurst  Cattle. 
Dec.  4.    The  army  entered  London  (19  peers,  232  commons). 
Dec.  5.    Parliament  voted  that  the  king's  propositions  formed  a  basis 

on  which  an  agreement  might  be  reached.     This  vote  was  the 

last  straw  ;  the  army  took  matters  into  its  own  hands. 
Dec.  6-7.    Pride's  Purge.     Colonel  Pride,  by  order  of  the  council 

of  officers,  forcibly  excluded  the  Presbyterian  members  (96) 

from  the  parliament. 
The  "  Rump  "  Parliament  (some  60  members). 
Dec.  13.    Repeal  of  the  vote  to  proceed  with  the  treaty.     Vote  that 

Charles  should  be  brought  to  trial.     The  king  conveyed  to 

Windsor  (Dec.  23). 

1649,  Jan.  1.    Appointment  of  a  high  court  of  justice  (135  members) 

to  try  the  king  ;  as  this  was  rejected  by  the  lords  (Jan.  2)  the 
commons  resolved 

Jan.  4.  That  legislative  power  resided  solely  with  the  com- 
mons. 

Jan.  6.  Passage  of  the  ordinance  without  the  concurrence  of  the 
lords. 

Jan.  20.  Agreement  of  the  people,  a  form  of  government  drawn  up 
by  the  army. 

Jan.  20-27.  Trial  of  Charles  I.  before  the  high  court  (67  members 
present,  Bradshaw  presiding)  ;  the  king  merely  denied  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  court.     He  was  sentenced  to  death. 

Jan.  30.    Execution  of  Charles  I.  at  Whitehall  in  London. 

(Seep.  375.) 

§  9.    THE  NORTH  AND  EAST.  (Seep.  276.) 

The  Union  of  the  three  Scandinavian   kingdoms,  weakened 
by  the  action  of  Sweden,  since  the  election  of 

1448.  Christian  I.  of  Oldenburg,  as  king  of  the  Union,  was  com- 
pletely dissolved  in  consequence  of  the  cruelties  of  Christian  IL 


352  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

1520.  MasBacre  of  Stockholm.  Revolt  of  the  Dalecarlians  un- 
der the  conduct  of  Gustavus  Vasa  (b.  1496,  hostage  in  Den- 
mark, 1518,  fled  to  Dalecarlia,  1519,  concealed  himself  under  dis- 
guises and  worked  in  the  mines).  He  defeated  the  Danes,  and 
became  first  administrator  of  the  kingdom,  then  king  (1523). 

Sweden.  (Seep.  276.) 

1523-1654.   House  of  Vasa. 

1523-1560.     Gustavus  I.,  Vasa.     Introduction  of  the  Reformation. 

The  throne  made  hereditary.  Gustavus  I.  was  succeeded  by 
his  eldest  son  Erik  XIV.,  who,  being  insane,  was  deposed  and  mur- 
dered. His  successor  was  the  second  son  of  Gustavus,  John  IH., 
whose  son  Sigismund  was  Catholic,  and  king  of  Poland  (1587),  and 
hence  displaced  in  Sweden  by  his  imcle  Charles  IX.  the  youngest 
son  of  Gustavus  I.  Charles's  son, 
1611-1632.   Gustavus  II.  Adolphus,  conducted  successful  wars  with 

Poland  and  Russia.    For  his  participation  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  and  his  death  see  p.  311.     He  was  followed  by  his  daughter 
1632-1654.    Christina,  who  was  well  educated,  but  averse  to  affairs 

of  government.  She  abdicated  in  1654  m  favor  of  her  cousin 
Charles  Gustavus  of  Pfalz-Zweibriicken,  son  of  a  sister  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus.     Christina  became  a  Catholic  and  died  at  Rome,  1689. 

(Seep.  373.) 
Denmark  and  Norway.  (See  p.  276.) 

These  countries  remained  united.  Under  Christian  II.  the  Refor- 
mation began  to  spread  into  Denmark.  Christian  was  displaced  by 
his  uncle,  the  duke  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  who  ascended  the  Danish 
throne  as 

1523-1533.  Frederic  I.  and  favored  the  Reformation.  After  his 
death  (1533),  the  so-called  Feuds  of  the  Counts  (Jiirgen 
Wullenwever,  burghermaster  of  Liibeck).  Frederic's  son 
1536-1559.  Christian  III.  completed  the  introduction  of  the  Refor- 
mation. For  the  participation  of  Christian  i  V  .  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  see  p.  310.     After  a 

1643-1645.    War  with  Sweden,  Christian  was  obliged  to  surrender 

the  islands  of  Gottland  and  Oesel  at  the  Peace  of  Bromsebro 

(p.  315).  (Seep.  373.) 

Poland.  (See  p.  277.) 

1386-1572.  Jagellons.  The  kingdom  reached  its  greatest  extent 
(Baltic,  Carpathians,  Black  Sea),  but  already  the  germ  of  de- 
cay was  forming  in  the  privileges  of  the  numerous  nobility. 
1572-1791.  Poland  an  elective  monarchy.  Introduction  of  the 
liberum  veto.  Elected  kings  :  Henry  of  Anjou  (p.  322);  Ste- 
phen Bathory  of  Transylvania,  followed  by  three  kings  of  the  house 
of  Vasa  ;  Sigismund  III.,  Vladislas  IV.,  John  Casimir  (to  1668). 

(Seep.  374.) 

Russia.  (Seep.  276.) 

After  the  extinction  of  the  house  of  Rurik  (1598),  and  a  war  of 
succession  lasting  ten  years  (the  false  DemetriusJ 


A.  D.  The  North  and  East.  853 

1613-    The  house  of  Romanow  succeeded  to  the  throne, 
which  it  occupied  uutil  1762.  {See  p.  3/^4-) 

Turks.  (Seep.  278.) 

The  empire  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  reached  its  highest  development 
under  Soliman  II.  (1520-1566),  the  Magnificent,  the  contemporary 
of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  (p.  303).  Under  his  successors  began 
the  decline,  caused  especially  by  the  influence  of  the  Janizaries. 

India.  {See  p.  2^1.) 

1497.  Oovilham  reached  Calicut  by  land  from  Portugal. 

1498.  Portuguese  vessels  under  Vasco  da  Gama  reached  Calicut 
by  the  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

The  Muhammedan  power  which  the  sultans  of  Delhi  under  various 
dynasties  had  extended  oyer  almost  all  India,  broke  up  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  fourteenth  and  during  the  fifteenth  century.  When  the 
Portuguese  gained  a  foothold  m  the  peninsula,  its  political  constitu- 
tion was  as  follows  :  At  Delhi,  Muhammedaii  sultans  of  the  Afghan 
dynasty  with  greatly  reduced  dominion;  in  Bengal  (1340-1576), 
Afghan  (Muhammedan)  kings;  in  Guzerat  (1391-1573)  a  Muham- 
medan dynasty  had  its  capital  at  Ahmeddbdd ;  in  the  Deccan  the 
Muhammedan  empire  of  the  Bahmani  (1347-1525)  had  separated 
into  five  kingdoms  :  Bijdpur  (1489-1686),  Golconda  (1512-1687), 
Ahmednagar  (1490-1636),  Ellichpur  (1484^1572),  Bidar  (1492- 
1609[57].  The  southern  part  of  the  peninsula  was  still  in  the  hands 
of  the  powerful  Hindu  kingdom,  Vijayanagar  (1118-1565). 

Da  Gama  was  followed  in  1500  by  Cabral  (on  the  voyage  acciden- 
tal discovery  (?)  of  Brazil) ;  in  1502  a  papal  bull  created  the  king  of 
Portugal  "  Lord  of  the  navigation,  conquests,  and  trade  of  Ethiopia, 
Arabia,  Persia,  and  India."  First  Portuguese  governor  and  viceroy 
of  India,  Almeida  (1505).  In  1509  Alfonso  rf'  Albuquerque  was  ap- 
pointed to  this  office  ;  capture  of  Goa  (1510),  and  of  Malacca. 

1526-1761  (1857).  Mughal  (Mogul)  Empire  in  India. 
The  founder  of  the  Mughal  empire  was  Babar,  a  descendant  of 
Tamerlane  (1494  king  of  Ferghana  on  the  Jaxartes,  1497  con- 
queror of  Samarkand,  seized  Kabul,  1504),  who  in  1526  invaded  the 
Punjab  and  defeated  the  sultan  of  Delhi  in  the 

1526.     Battle  of  Panipat.i 

Defeat  of  the  Rajputs  of  Chittor  (1527).  Under  Bdbar's  son  Hur- 
mdyun  (1530-56)  the  Mughals  were  driven  from  India  by  Sher  Shdh, 
the  Afghan  ruler  of  Bengal;  but  they  returned  in  1556  and  under 
Humayun's  son  Akbar  (Bairdm  the  real  commander),  defeated  the 
Afghans  at  Panipat  (1556). 

1556-1605.     Akbar  the  Great 

whose  reign  is  a  long  series  of  conquests. 

1  The  first  of  the  three  great  battles  which  decided  the  fate  of  India  on  that 
same  plain  ;  viz.  in  1526,  1556,  1761.    (Hunter,  Indian  Empire,  p.  234.) 
22 


354  Modern  History,  a.  d, 

1565.     Battle  of  Talikot. 

Destruction  of  the  Hindoo  empire  of  Vijayanagar  by  a  union  of 
the  Muhanimedan  kingdoms  of  the  Deccan. 

Conquests  of  Akbar  :  1561-68,  Rajputs  of  Jaipur,  Jodhpur,  Chit- 
lar;  1572-73,  Guzerat  (revolted  1581,  reconquered  1593);  1586-92 
Kashmir  ;  1592,  Sind  ;  1594,  Kandahar^  Akbar's  empire  now  comprised 
all  India  north  of  the  Vindhyar  Mts.  ;  in  the  Deccan  he  was  not  suc- 
cessful. Akbar  organized  the  administration,  reformed  the  military 
and  financial  system,  and  conciliated  the  Hindus.  Akbar  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Salim,  Jahangir  (1605-27).  His  reign  was  much 
troubled  by  rebellions,  and  his  wars  in  the  Deccan  were  without  last- 
ing success.  Shah  Jahau  (1628-1658).  Kandahar,  several  times 
lost  and  recovered  between  the  Mughals  and  the  Persians,  was  finally 
lost  by  the  Mughal  empire,  1653.  iShah  Jahdn  won  some  successes  in 
the  Deccan  ;  submission  of  Bijdpur,  Golconday  Ahmednagar.  The 
empire  was  at  the  height  of  its  power  and  magnificence  (peacock 
throne).  Shah  Jahan  deposed  by  his  son  Aurangzeb,  and  imprisoned 
(died  1666). 

From  1500  to  1600  the  Portuguese  had  enjoyed  a  monopoly  of  the 
trade  with  India  ;  with  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Dutch 
and  English  appeared  as  their  rivals.  The  East  India  Company  of 
London  was  mcorporated  in  1660,  and  various  others  similar  com- 
panies were  established  at  different  times  ;  but  all  were  ultimately 
incorporated  with  the  original  company.  ("  The  Governor  and  Com- 
pany of  Merchants  of  London  trading  to  the  East  Indies,"  1600  ; 
Courten's  Association  ["  Assador  Merchants  "]  1635-1650  ;  "  Com- 
pany of  Merchant  Adventurers,"  1655-1657  ;  "  General  Society  trad- 
ing to  the  East  Indies"  ["English  Company  "],  1698-1709,  united 
with  the  original  company  as"  "  The  United  Company  of  Merchants 
of  England  trading  to  the  East  Indies  ").  The  first  twelve  voyages 
were  separate  ventures  ;  after  1612  voyages  were  made  for  the  com- 
pany. Opposition  of  the  Portuguese.  Battle  of  Swally.  Defeat  of 
the  Portuguese.  Establishment  of  an  English  factory  at  Surat,  1614. 
Mission  of  Sir  Thomas  Roe  to  Jahangir  (Great  Mogul),  1615.  Treaty 
with  the  Dutch,  1619,  without  lasting  effect.  Massacre  of  English  on 
the  island  of  Amhoyna  (1623)  followed  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  Eng- 
lish from  the  Indian  Archipelago  (1624).  Presidency  of  Bantam^ 
1635.    Foundation  of  Madras  {FoH  St.  George)^  1639. 

Dutch  East  India  Company,  1602.  French  East  India  Companies 
1604,  1611,  1615, 1642  (Richelieu's).  (Seep.  389.) 

China.  (See  p.  278.) 

1506-1522.     Ching-tih.    Rebellion  of  the  prince  of  Ning  suppressed 

after  a  severe  war.     About  1522  the  Portuguese  established 

themselves  at  Macao. 
1542.     Tatar   invasion  under    Yen-ta,   in   the   reign   of   Kea-tsing. 

Coast  of  China  ravaged  by  a  Japanese  fleet. 
1567-1573.     Lung-king.     His  reign  was  troubled  by  the  Tatars,  to 

relieve  the  country  of  whom  he  resorted  to  bribery. 
1573-1620.     "Wan-leih.     The  Tatars  continuing  their  disturbances 

the  emperor  gave  Yen-ta  lands  in  the  province  of  Shen-se, 


A.  D.  China.  —  Japan.  855 

1592.    The  Japanese  invaded  Corea,  but  were  defeated  and  compelled 

to  sue  for  peace. 
1597.     The  Japanese  renewed  the  attack  and  defeated  a  Chinese  fleet 

and  army,  but  suddenly  evacuated  the  peninsula. 

1603.  Ricci,  the  Jesuit,  at  the  Chinese  court ;  he  preached  Christian- 
ity in  China  (f  1610). 

1604.  Dutch  in  Chma  ;  also  the  Spanish. 

1616.  Invasion  of  China  by  Mauchoo  Tatars  who  defeated  the 
Chinese,  and  returning  in 

1619,  Conquered  and  settled  in  the  province  of  Leaou-tung. 

1620.  Teen-ning,  the  Manchoo  ruler,  threw  off  the  pretense  of  alle- 
giance to  the  Chinese  and  proclaimed  his  independence.  He 
established  his  capital  at  San-Koo. 

Wen-leih  was  succeeded  by  Tai-chang  (1620),  who  was  followed 

by  Teen-ke  (1620-1627).     In 

1627,  Tsung-ching,  the  last  sovereign  of  the  Ming  (1368-1643) 
dynasty  ascended  the  throne.  Rebellion  of  Le  Tsze-ching  and 
Shang  Ko-he.  The  emperor,  being  hard  pressed,  applied  for 
aid  to  the  Manchoo  Tatars.  These  allies  defeated  the  rebels, 
but  refused  to  abandon  the  fruits  of  their  victories.  Seizing 
Pekin  they  raised  to  the  throne  of  China  a  son  of  Teen-ning^ 
the  Manchoo  ruler,  who,  as  the  first  of  the 

1644— X,  Ta-tsing  or  Great  Pure  dynasty,  took  the  name  of 
1644.     Shun-che. 

Capture  of  Nan-king.  Period  of  confusion  wherein  the  lin- 
gering resistance  of  the  Chinese  was  gradually  crushed  out,  and 
the  shaved  head  and  pig-tail,  signs  of  Tatar  sovereignty,  became  more 
and  more  common.  (»See  p.  390.) 

Japan.  (See  p.  278.) 

The  period  of  the  Ashikaga  shoguns  (1344—1573)  contains  few 
events  of  importance,  especially  after  the  end  of  the  dual  dynasties 
in  1391,  by  the  act  of  the  southern  emperor,  who  resigned  his  power 
on  the  condition  that  the  imperial  office  should  henceforward  alternate 
between  the  two  lines.  The  violation  of  this  agreement  was  the  cause 
of  inuch  fighting. 

1558-1588.     Oki-Machi,  mikado. 

This  reign  saw  the  fall  of  the  AsUkagas,  and  the  rise  of  three 
of  the  most  renowned  men  of  Japan  ;  Nohunaga,  Hideyoshi,  Tokugawa 
lyeyasu.  Introduction  of  cannon.  The  development  of  feudalism 
had  weakened  the  power  of  the  shoguns,  as  they  had  formerly  destroyed 
that  of  the  mikado.  Ota  Nohunaga  was  a  feudal  lord  who  acquired 
fame  in  a  war  with  the  head  of  another  powerful  family,  YosJiimoto 
(1560).  To  him  the  mikado  entrusted  the  task  of  pacifying  the  un- 
happy country,  while  his  aid  was  also  sought  by  Yoshiaki,  the  rightful 
shogun,  who  had  been  dispossessed  by  Yoshikage.  By  the  battle  of 
Anagawa  (1570),  where  Tokugaioa  lyeyasu  fought  under  Nobunaga, 
Yoshiaki  was  restored  to  power,  but  in  1573  he  was  deposed  by  No- 
hunaga, whom  he  had  plotted  to  murder. 


356  Modem  History.  a.  d. 

1573-1582.     Government  of  Nobunaga. 

Nobunaga  appointed  no  successor  but  retained  the  power  in 
his  own  hands.  He  was  a  determined  opponent  of  the  over- 
powerful  Buddhist  priests,  and  took  Christianity  (the  Jesuit 
Xavier  at  Kioto)  under  his  protection.  Slaughter  of  the  Bud- 
dhist priests  and  capture  of  their  fortified  temples. 
Death  of  Nobunaga  in  a  revolt  (1582). 

1582-1598.     Government  of  Hideyoshi. 

The  rebel  was  suppressed  by  the  general  Hideyoshi^  who  after 
considerable  fighting  reduced  the  whole  country  to  subjection 
(1592).  War  with  China;  invasion  of  Corea  (p.  355),  Hideyo- 
shi was  unfavorable  to  Christianity.  1588,  publication  of  a  de- 
cree ordering  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  ;  this,  however,  was 
not  obeyed.  In  1593  nine  missionaries  were  burned  at  Naga- 
saki. Hideyoshi,  the  Taiko.  He  was  succeeded  by  an  infant 
son,  under  the  regency  of  Tokuga'wra  lyeyasu,  whose  govern- 
ment was  popular  but  who  was  involved  in  political  troubles 
that  led  to  war. 

1600.  Battle  of  Sekigahara.  lyeyasu  defeated  his  enemies,  and  in 
1603  was  made  Sei~i-tai-shogun,  being  the  first  of  the 

1603-1868.  Tokugawa  Shoguns,  some  of  whom  subse- 
quently took  the  title  of  Tai-kun  (Tycoon)  "  high  prince." 

The  rule  of  lyeyasu  was  distinguished  by  the  revival  of  learning 
and  the  growth  of  foreign  intercourse  (Dutch,  English).  lyeyasu  re- 
signed his  office  in  1605  to  his  son  but  retained  his  power  until  his 
death. 

lyeyasu  died  1616,  leaving  the  "  Legacy  of  lyeyasu,"  a  code  of 
laws.  Redistribution  of  land.  Those  vassals  of  the  crown  who  re- 
ceived a  revenue  of  10,000  measures  of  rice  were  called  daimios  and 
numbered  245,  eighteen  of  whom  were  governors  of  provinces  (koku- 
shiu).  Next  to  the  daimios  stood  the  samurai,  to  whom  the  daimios 
leased  their  farms  in  return  for  military  service. 

The  shogun  (who  was  the  first  of  the  daimios)  was  surrounded  by 
the  hatamoto,  "  house-carls,"  from  whom  he  selected  his  officials. 
They  are  said  to  have  numbered  80,000.  Below  the  hatamoto  were 
the  gokenin,  also  attached  directly  to  the  shogun  as  private  soldiers, 
comprising  the  Tokugawa  clan.  lyeyasu  removed  the  capital  of  the 
shogun  from  Kamakura  to  Yedo.  The  successor  of  lyeyasu,  Hide- 
tada,  sent  a  messenger  to  Europe  to  study  Christianity,  but  his  report 
not  being  considered  favorable,  the  shogun  forbade  the  introduction 
of  that  religion. 

1630-1643.  Too-Fuku-no-in,  daughter  of  the  mikado,  Go-mino-o, 
and  the  daughter  of  the  shogun,  Hidetata,  followed  the  former 
on  the  throne  as  Miosho-Tenno. 

lyemitsu,  who  succeeded  to  the  shogunate  in  1653,  was  an  excel- 
lent ruler,  but  ordered  the  vigorous  enforcement  of  laws  against  the 
Christians,  and  closed  Japan    to  all  foreigners  except  the  Chinese 
and  the  Dutch,  who  were  allowed  to  trade  at  Nagasaki. 
1637.     Revolt  of  the  Christians  at  Shimabara  finally  suppressed; 


A.  D.  America.  357 

massacre  of  the  survivors.   Persecution  throughout  the  empire. 
Extirpation  of  Christianity.     Death  of  lyemitsu,  1649. 

SECOND    PERIOD. 

FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA  TO  THE  BEGINNING  OF 
THE  FIRST  FRENCH  REVOLUTION. 

1648-1789. 

A.  The  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

§  1.    AMERICA.  (See  p.  300) 

British,  Dutch,  and  Swedish  Colonies. 

1644.  Union  of  Providence  and  the  Rhode  Island  towns  (New- 
port, Portsmouth)  under  one  charter,  obtained  by  Roger 
■Williams. 

Union  of  Sayhrook  and  Connecticut  under  the  latter  name. 
The  colony  contained  eight  taxable  towns  ;  that  of  New- 
Haven  nimabered  six. 

Separation  of  the  general  court  of  Massachusetts  Bay  into 
two  houses. 
April  18.     Three  hundred  colonists  massacred  by  the  Indians  in  Vir- 
ginia. 

1645.  Rebellion  of  Clayhorne  and  Ingle  in  Maryland  ;  they  seized 
the  government,  but  were  put  down  iu  1646. 

1646.  In  Massachusetts  John  Eliot  commenced  his  missionary 
labors  among  the  Indians  at  Nonantum.  (Translation  of  the 
Bible  into  Massachusetts  dialect,  1661-63). 

Act  of  parliament  freeing  merchandise  for  the  American  colonies 
from  all  duty  for  tliree  years,  on  condition  that  colonial  pro- 
ductions should  be  exported  only  in  English  vessels. 

In  New  Netherlands  Kieft  was  succeeded  by  Peter  Stuyvesanty 
as  governor,  who  immediately  formulated  a  claim  to  all  the 
region  between  Cape  Henlopen  and  Cape  Cod. 

1648.  The  petition  of  Rhode  Island  i  to  be  admitted  to  the  union 
rejected,  as  that  colony  would  not  submit  itself  to  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  Plymouth. 

1649.  Incorporation  in  England  of  the  "  Society  for  Propagating  the 
Gospel  in  New  England." 

Grant  of  the  land  between  the  Rappahannock  and  Potomac  to 

lord  Culpepper  and  other  royalists. 
Massacre  of  the  Hurons  at  St.  Ignatius  by  the  Iroquois. 

1650.  Agreement  between  New  Netherlands  and  the  United 
Colonies  establishing  the  boundary  between  the  Dutch  and 
English  at  Oyster  Bay,  on  Long  Island,  and  Greenwich  Bay, 
Connecticut. 

T-  "Where  Rhode  Island  is  mentioned,  before  the  charter  of  1663.  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  Island  only  is  meant."     Holmes'  Annals,  I.  287,  note  2. 


358  Modem  History,  a.  d. 

1661.     Passage  of  the  Navigation  Act  in  England  (p.  376). 

1652.     The  province  of  Maine  joined  to  Massachusetts. 

The  parliament  in  England  assumed  control  of  Maryland,  and 
suspended  the  government  of  Rliode  Island,  but  the  latter 
order  did  not  take  effect. 

1655.  Stuyvesant,  governor  of  New  Netherlands,  seized  the  Swed- 
ish forts  on  the  Delaware,  and  broke  up  the  colony  of  New 
Sweden. 

1659.     Virginia  proclaimed  Charles  II.  king  of  England,  Scotland, 
Ireland,  and  Virginia,  and  restored  the  royal  governor,  Sir 
William  Berkeley. 
Execution  of  two  Quakers  in  Massachusetts. 

1661.  Penal  laws  against  Quakers  suspended  by  order  of  the  king. 

1662.  Charter  of  Connecticut  granted  by  the  king.  New  Haven 
refused  to  accept  it.  The  assembly  was  composed  of  the  gov- 
ernor, deputy-governor,  twelve  assistants,  and  two  deputies 
from  every  town. 

1662.  Lord  Baltimore  confirmed  in  the  government  of  Maryland. 

1663.  Grant  of  Carolina  (all  land  between  31°  N.  and  36°  N.)  to 
the  earl  of  Clarendon  and  associates. 

Charter  of  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations. 

1664.  Grant  of  New  Netherlands,  from  the  Connecticut  to  the 
Delaware,  to  the  king's  brother,  James,  duke  of  York  and 
Albany.  The  grant  included  the  eastern  part  of  Maine,  and 
islands  south  and  west  of  Cape  Cod, 

The  region  between  the  Hudson  and  the  Delaware  (Nova  Co^area, 

or  New  Jersey)  was  granted  by  the  duke  to  lord  Berkeley, 

and  Sir  George  Carteret. 
Aug.  27.     Surrender  of  New  Amsterdam  to  the  English  ;  name  ot 

the  colony  changed  to  New  York. 
Sept.  24.     Surrender  of  Fort  Orange,  whose  name  was  changed  to 

Albany. 

1665.  Maine  restored  to  the  heirs  of  Sir  Fernando  Gorges. 
Union  of  Connecticut  and  New  Haven. 

The  royal  commissioners  empowered  to  hear  complaints  in  New 
England,  after  conferring  with  the  general  court  of  Massachu- 
setts, left  the  provinces  in  anger,  as  the  court  would  not  ac- 
knowledge their  commission. 

1666.  Depredations  of  the  buccaneers  in  the  West  Indies. 

1667.  Grant  of  the  Bahamas  to  the  proprietors  of  Carolina. 

1667.  Treaty  of  Breda  between  England  and  France.  Acadia  sur- 
rendered to  France  ;  Antigua,  Monserrat,  and  the  French  part 
of  St.  Christopher  surrendered  to  England. 

1668.  Massachusetts  reassumed  the  government  of  Maine. 

1669.  Adoption  of  the  Fundamental  Constitutions  of  Carolina 

which  were  drawn  up  by  John  Locke. 
Incorporation  of  the  Hudson   Bay   Company.      (Governor 
and  company  of  adventurers  of  England  trading  into  Hud- 
son's Bay.) 

1670.  Foundation  of  Charlestown  in  Carolina. 


A..  D.  America,  359 

Treaty  of  Madrid  between  Spain  and  England,  settling  the 
boundaries  of  their  respective  territories  on  the  basis  of  pos- 
session. 

J.672.  The  Spaniards  at  St.  Augustine  endeavored  to  dislodge  the 
settlers  in  Carolina,  but  were  repulsed. 

1673.  War  having  broken  out  between  England  and  Holland,  the 
Dutch  captured  New  York  and  received  the  submission  of  that 
colony,  of  Albany  and  New  Jersey.  In  the  peace  of  1674 
these  places  were  restored  to  England. 
The  grant  to  lord  Culpepper  was  converted  to  a  lease  for  thirty- 
one  years. 

1675.  Edmund  Andros,  governor  of  Ne-w  York,  attempted  to  secure 
the  land  west  of  the  Connecticut  by  force  of  arms,  but  was 
foiled  by  the  energy  of  the  colonists. 

1675-1676.  King  Philip's  War. 

This  was  the  most  extensive  combination  which  the  natives 
had  formed  against  the  foreign  invaders.  King  Philip  was  the  son 
of  Massasoit  and  chief  of  the  Wampanoags.  He  lived  at  Mount 
Hope,  near  Fall  River,  Mass.  He  formed  a  league  comprising  nearly 
all  the  Indians  from  Maine  to  Connecticut.     War  broke  out  in  June, 

1675.  and  raged  with  peculiar  violence  in  Massachusetts.  Deerjield 
burnt  (Sept.  1).  Attack  on  Hadley  (Sept.  1)  repulsed  by  Goffe, 
one  of  the  judges  of  Charles  I.  (?).  In  the  fall  (Sept.-Oct.)  the 
United  Colonies  took  the  war  upon  themselves  and  raised  2,000  troops. 
Capture  of  the  fort  of  the  Narragansetts  by  Winslow  (Dec.  19). 
Assaults  more  or  less  severe  on  Warwick,  Lancaster,  Medfieldy 
Weymouth,  Chroton,  Rehoboth,  Providence,  Wrentham,  Sudbury,  Scitiiate, 
Bridgewater,  Plymouth,  Hatjield,  and  other  towns  (1676,  Jan.-June). 
Defeat  of  the  Indians  near  Deerjield  (May  19,  Fall  Fight).  Surprise 
of  Philip  by  captain  Church  ;  capture  of  his  wife  and  son  (the  latter 
was  sold  into  slavery),  Aug.  2.     Philip  shot  (Aug.  12). 

1676.  Rebellion  of  Nathaniel  Bacon  in  Virginia.     Jamestown  burnt. 

The  rebellion  came  to  an  end  with  the  sudden  death  of  Bacon. 
In  the  following  year  royal  troops  arrived  to  repress  the  rebel- 
lion, but  found  all  quiet. 
New  Jersey  divided  into  East  and  West  Jersey.  East  Jer- 
sey was  governed  by  Carteret;  "West  Jersey  was  held  by  the 
duke  of  York.     (Hence,  "  the  Jerseys.") 

1677.  The  dispute  between  Massachusetts  and  the  heirs  of  Sir  Fer- 
nando Gorges  over  Maine  being  decided  in  favor  of  the  latter 
by  the  English  courts,  Massachusetts  bought  the  province  of 
Maine,  which  henceforward  formed  a  part  of  that  colony. 

1680.  New   Hampshire    separated  from   Massachusetts   by   royal 

charter.     The  king  appointed  the  president  and  council,  and 

retamed  the  right  of  annulling  all  acts  of  the  legislature. 
Foundation  of  a  new  settlement  in  Carolina,  called,  like  the 

first,  Charlestown  (the  present  Charleston). 
"West  Jersey  restored  to  the  proprietors,  the  heirs   of  lord 

Berkeley. 

1681,  March  4.  Grant  of  Pennsylvania   (the  region   betwce.i  41  ^ 


36u  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

and  43°  N.  lat.  running  5°  west  from  the  Delaware  River)  to 
"William  Penn.     Establisliment  of  a  settlement. 

1682.  Penn  brought  a  colony  to  Pennsylvania  (Aug.).     Publication 

of  a  frame  of  government  and  a  body  of  laws  (April-May). 
Treaty  with  the  Indians.     Foundation  of  Philadelphia. 

1683.  First  legislative  assembly  in  New  York  ;  two  houses.  Only 
two  sessions  are  known  to  have  been  held  before  the  revolu" 
tion  of  1688. 

1684.  The  troubles  between  Massachusetts  and  the  crown  cul- 
minated in  the  forfeiture  of  the  charter. 

These  troubles  were  of  old  standing,  dating  from  the  restoration 
of  Charles  II.  The  favorable  reception  of  Gaffe  and  Whalley,  two 
"  regicides,"  in  Boston,  at  the  opening  of  that  monarch's  reign,  was 
no  favorable  omen  ;  and  almost  the  first  news  received  from  the  col- 
ony brought  complaints  of  ill-treatment  from  Quakers  who  had  suf- 
fered under  the  rigorous  laws.  In  1661  Charles  sent  a  letter  to  Mas- 
sachusetts prohibiting  the  colony  from  proceeding  further  in  the 
prosecution  of  imprisoned  Quakers,  and  ordering  their  release  ;  he 
subsequently  withdrew  his  protection.  Further  controversy  led  to 
the  dispatch  of  agents  to  England.  The  confirmation  of  the  char- 
ter obtained  by  them  was  conditioned  in  a  way  peculiarly  aggra- 
vating to  the  colonists  :  all  laws  derogatory  to  the  royal  authority 
should  be  repealed  ;  the  oath  of  allegiance  should  be  imposed  ac- 
cording to  the  directions  of  the  charter  ;  freedom  and  liberty  of 
conscience  in  the  use  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  should  be 
allowed ;  the  sacrament  should  not  be  denied  to  any  person  of 
good  life  and  conversation  ;  all  freeholders  of  competent  estates  and 
good  character,  and  orthodox  in  religion,  should  be  admitted  to  vote. 
These  demands  being  evasively  met,  the  king,  in  1664,  appointed 
commissioners  (Nicolls,  Carr,  Cartwright,  Maverick)  to  hear  com- 
plaints and  appeals  in  New  England,  and  settle  the  peace  of  the 
country,  who,  barely  touching  at  Boston,  proceeded  to  the  seizure  of 
New  Netherlands.  Returning  to  Boston  in  the  spring  of  1665  their 
demand  for  a  recognition  of  the  commission  was  met  by  the  excuse 
that  the  general  court  would  plead  his  majesty's  charter,  whereupon 
the  commission  returned  to  England  in  anger.  The  court,  however, 
acknowledged  the  conditional  right  of  freeholders  to  vote,  and  agreed 
to  permit  the  toleration  of  Quakers  and  churchmen  for  a  time. 
A  long  period  of  controversy  followed,  and  agents  were  sent  back 
and  forth  with  very  little  effect.  In  1671  the  colony  was  "  almost 
on  the  brink  of  renouncing  any  dependence  on  the  crown."  The 
original  causes  of  dispute  became  complicated  by  the  controversy 
with  the  heirs  of  Gorges  in  regard  to  Maine,  and  by  the  evasion  and 
disregard  of  the  navigation  laws  practiced  by  the  colony  (1663).  In 
1676  the  royal  governors  were  commanded  to  insist  on  strict  compli- 
ance with  the  commercial  laws,  both  the  navigation  laws,  and  those 
imposing  duties  on  intercolonial  trade  (1672).  Johti  Leverett,  gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts,  refused  compliance,  and  in  1679  the  general 
court  voted  "  that  the  acts  of  navigation  are  an  invasion  of  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  subjects  of  his  majesty  in  this  colony,  they  not 
being  represented  in  parliament."     The  agents  then  in  London  to  de« 


A.  D. 


America.  861 


fend  the  colony  in  the  suit  of  the  heirs  of  Gorges  were  sent  home 
with  the  demand  that  the  Maine  purchase  be  undone  and  new  agents 
sent  to  answer  the  complaints  against  the  colony.  Edward  Randolph 
was  sent  over  as  collector  of  customs  for  Boston,  where,  however,  he 
was  sturdily  opposed.  Tlie  new  agents  giving  no  satisfaction,  a  writ 
of  quo  warranto  was  issued  against  the  colony  in  1683  ;  in  1684  a  suit 
of  scire  facias  was  brought  and  the  court  of  chancery  declared  the 
charter  forfeited  (1684).  The  king  appointed  colonel  Kirke  governor 
of  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  Maine,  and  Plymouth,  but  before 
he  received  his  commission  Charles  died,  and  James  II.  appointed 
Joseph  Dudley  president  of  Ne^w  England.     He  took  office  in  1686. 

1686.  Issue  of  a  quo  warranto  writ  against  Connecticut  and  Carolina. 

New  York  deprived  of  an  assembly  and  other  liberties. 
Appointment  of  Sir  Edmund  Andros  as  president  of  New- 
England.  He  arrived  at  Boston  Dec.  20.  Randolph  was 
now  deputy  postmaster  in  New  England.  Andros  assumed 
the  government  of  Rhode  Island.  Establishment  of  an  Epis- 
copal society  in  Boston,  for  the  use  of  which  Andros  forcibly 
seized  the  Old  South  Church. 

1687.  Quo  warranto  against  Maryland. 

Oct.  Sir  Edmund  Andros  assumed  the  government  of  Connecticut 
and  attempted  to  secure  the  charter,  but  it  was  carried  oft' 
from  the  hall  of  assemblv  and  hidden  in  the  famous  Charter 
Oak. 

1688.  Tyranny  of  Andros  in  Massachusetts.  New  York  and  New- 
Jersey  placed  under  his  government.  Erection  of  King's 
Chapel,  as  an  Episcopal  church,  in  Boston. 

1689.  On  the  receipt  of  news  of  the  revolution  in  England,  and  the 
landing  of  William  of  Orange,  Sir  Edmund  Andros  was 
seized  in  Boston  (April  18)  and  thrown  into  prison.  Restora- 
tion of  the  old  government.  *'  Council  of  safety  of  the  people 
and  conservation  of  the  peace."  Assembly  of  representatives 
at  Boston.  Provisional  resumption  of  the  charter  ;  proclama- 
tion of  William  and  Mary.  Reestablishment  of  the  former 
governments  in  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut.  New- 
York,  Virginia  and  Maryland  proclauned  William  and 
Mary. 

1689-1697.  "  King  William's  War  "  with  the  French, 
a  part  of  the  universal  war  against  Louis  XIV.  The  French 
were  assisted  by  the  Canadian  Indians  and  those  of  Maine, 
while  the  Iroquois  took  the  war  path  against  the  French. 

1690.  Surprise  and  destruction  of  Schenectady  (Feb.  8),  of  Salmon 
Falls  (March  18),  and  of  Casco  (May  17),  by  tlu-ee  bands  of 
French  and  Indians. 

April,  Seizure  of  Port  Royal  by  Sir  William  Phips,  who  afterwards 
made  a  futile  attack  upon  Quebec,  by  vote  of  a  congress  of 
Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  Connecticut,  and  New  York.  The 
failure  imposed  so  large  a  debt  on  the  colonies  that  Massa^ 
chusetts  was  obliged  to  issue  paper  money  for  the  first  time. 

1692.  New   charter   for   Massachusetts.     Sir   William  Phips    ap- 


862  Modern  History.  a.  ix 

pointed  governor.  Under  this  charter  were  included  the  colony 
of  Plymouth,  the  provinces  of  Maine,  Nova  Scotia  and  all  land 
north  to  the  St.  Lawrence  ;  also  the  Elizabeth  Islands,  Nantasket, 
and  Martha's  Vineyard.  The  new  charter  gave  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  governor  to  the  crown,  and  vested  in  him  the 
right  of  calling,  proroguing,  and  dissolving  the  general  court, 
of  appointing  military  officers  and  officers  of  justice  (with  the 
consent  of  the  council),  of  vetoing  acts  of  the  legislature  and 
appointments  of  civil  officers  made  by  the  legislature.  The 
electoral  franchise  was  extended  to  all  freeholders  with  a 
yearly  income  of  forty  sliillings,  and  all  inhabitants  having 
personal  property  to  the  amount  of  £40.  Religious  liberty 
was  secured  to  all  except  Papists. 

1692,  Feb.  Commencement  of  the  Salem  •witchcraft  frenzy.     Be- 

fore October  twenty  persons  were  executed. 
Construction  of  Fort  William  Henry  at  Pemaquid  in  Maine  by 

Sir  William  Phips. 
Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut  were  allowed  to  retain  their 

charters. 
Charter  of  the  "  College  of  "William  and  Mary  "  in  Vir^ 

ginia. 
Sir  Edmund  Andros  appointed  governor  of  Virginia  and  Mary^ 

land. 

1693.  Government  of  Pennsylvania  taken  from  Penn  by  the  crown. 

An  English  expedition  against  Canada  was  planned  but  failed 
of  execution.    1694.  Penn  reinstated. 

Fletcher,  governor  cf  New  York  (and  now  of  Pennsylvam'a), 
having  been  entrusted  with  the  command  of  the  militia  of 
Connecticut,  went  to  Hartford  Oct.  26  to  assert  his  authority, 
but  was  repulsed  by  the  assembly,  and  by  Wadsworth,  senior 
captain  of  the  militia. 

French  expedition  of  Frontenac  against  the  Iroquois. 

1696.  Capture  of  the  fort  at  Pemaquid  by  the  French  under  Iberville. 

An  expedition  of  count  Frontenac  agaiast  the  Iroquois  resulted 
in  little  more  than  the  destruction  of  their  harvests. 

1697.  The  Peace  of  Ryswick  (p.  371)  prevented  the  exe- 
cution of  a  French  attack  upon  Newfoundland.  Restoration  of 
conquests  by  both  combatants. 

Third  expedition  of  Frontenac  agaiast  the  Iroquois,  with  little 
effect. 

1699.  The  French  settled  in  Louisiana.  The  French  claimed  control 
of  the  fisheries  on  the  north  coast,  and  of  the  territory  from 
the  Kennebec  eastward. 

Foundation  of  a  Scotch  settlement  at  Darien  in  the  hope  of 
acquiring  great  wealth  by  the  command  of  commercial  transit 
(Paterson).  The  first  expedition  (1,200  men,  besides  women 
and  children)  perished  from  starvation,  or  returned  to  Scot- 
land ;  the  second  was  broken  up  by  the  Spaniards  who  con- 
sidered the  settlement  a  breach  of  the  treaty  of  Ryswick. 

1700.  Iberville  took  possession  of  the  Mississippi  for  France. 

1701.  William  Pemi  gave  a  new  charter  to  Pennsylvania. 


A..  D.  America,  363 

1701.  Foundation  of  Yale  College  at  New  Haven  in  Connecticut. 

1702.  Joseph  Dudley,  governor  of  Massachusetts.  Quarrel  with" 
the  general  court  over  the  proposed  salaries  to  he  paid  the 
governor,  lieutenant-governor,  etc. 

An  expedition  projected  by  governor  Moore  of  Carolina 
against  St.  Augustine  resulted  in  failure.  The  debt  thus  in- 
curred was  discharged  by  an  issue  of  paper  money. 

1702-1713.  "  Queen  Anne's  War"  with  the  French. 

1703.  Pennsylvania  province  separated  from  the  territories,  or  lower 
counties  (Delaware)  ;  separate  assemblies. 

1704.  Deerjield  in   Massachusetts   destroyed  by  French  and  In- 

dians. This  was  avenged  by  an  expedition  under  colonel 
Church  which  ravaged  the  French  settlements  on  the  east 
coast  of  New  England. 
Establishment  of  the  Church  of  England  in  Carolina.  The 
complaints  of  dissenters  against  some  details  of  ecclesiastical 
administration  led  to  the  issue  of  a  quo  warranto  against 
the  colony,  but  nothing  came  of  the  matter. 

1706.  Invasion  of  Carolina  by  the  French  and  Spanish  in  assertion 
of  the  Spanish  claims  to  that  country  as  a  part  of  Florida. 
They  were  repulsed  and  defeated  on  land  and  sea  with  great 
loss  by  William  Rhett. 

1707.  New  England  sent  an  expedition  against  Port  Royal,  which 

returned  without  effectmg  its  capture. 

1708.  Surprise  of  Haverhill  by  French  and  Indians. 

1709.  An  expedition  was  planned  against   Canada  and    Acadia  to 

which  the  colonies  were  to  contribute  2,700  men.  The  project 
was  abandoned  by  the  English  government  after  the  men  had 
been  raised,  and  Coimecticut,  New  York,  and  New  Jersey 
were  obliged  to  issue  paper  money  to  cancel  their  debts. 

1710.  Capture  of  Port  Royal  by  a  fleet  from  England.     Change  of 

the  name  of  the  city  to  Annapolis. 

1711.  An  expedition  against  Canada  numbering  68  sail  and  6,463  sol- 

diers, largely  raised  by  the  colonies,  met  with  disaster  and  was 
abandoned. 

1712.  A  massacre  of  colonists  in  Carolina  by  the  Tuscaroras  and  other 

tribes  was  followed  by  the  dispatch  of  Barnwell  against  the 
Indians.  After  a  difficult  march  he  succeeded  in  almost  anni- 
liilating  the  Tuscaroras,  many  of  whom  fled  to  the  Iroquois. 

1713*  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  between  Great  Britain  and 
France  (p.  393).  Cession  of  Hudson  Bay  and  Straits, 
of  Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland,  and  St.  Christo^pher  (in 
the  West  Indies)  to  England. 

French  settlements  and  discoveries. 

In  the  earlier  part  of  the  century  the  French  had  established  a 
claim  to  Canada  and  Acadia,  extending  to  the  Kennebec  in  Maine, 
although  the  English  claimed  as  far  as  the  Penobscot.     From  this 


364  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

vantage  ground  they  extended  their  discoveries  south  and  west.  Jes- 
uit missionaries  labored  among  the  Hurons  in  the  country  between 
lakes  Erie,  Ontario,  and  Huron,  planted  the  missions  of  St.  Mary 
(1668)  and  Michillimachinac,  died  with  their  flocks  when  the  undying 
enmity  of  the  Iroquois  annihilated  the  Hurons  (Breboeuf,  Lallemont), 
or  sought  torture  and  death  at  the  hands  of  the  Five  Nations  (Isaac 
Jogues,  1640-1654). 
1656.     Acadia  and  Nova  Scotia  granted  to  St.  Etienne  and  others  by 

Cromwell.^ 
1656-1658.     French  colony  in  western  New  York,  soon  broken  up. 
1659.     Francois  de  Laval,  bishop  of  New  France. 
1662.     The  hundred  associates  of  Quebec  reconsigned  their  rights  to 

the  king,  who  soon  after  granted  New  France  to  the  French 

West  India  Company. 

1665.  Courcelles,  governor  of  New  France.  The  colony  was  more 
than  doubled  by  the  transportation  of  many  emigrants  from 
France. 

1666.  Expedition  of  Tracy  and  Courcelles  against  the  Mohawks. 
1666.     Allouez  founded  the  mission  of  St.  Esprit  on  the  southern  shore 

of  lake  Superior. 
1668.  The  peace  of  Breda  ended  the  war  between  England  and 
France  which  had  broken  out  in  1666.  England  restored  Aca- 
dia to  France,  and  obtained  from  France  Antigua,  Montser- 
rat,  and  St.  Christopher.  This  was  followed  by  a  peace  between 
the  French  and  the  Five  Nations.  In  this  year 
Foundation  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  at  the  entrance  of  lake  Superior 
by  Dahlon  and  Marquette. 

1672.  Tour  of  Allouez  and  Dahlon  in  Wisconsin  and  Illinois. 

1673.  Discovery  of  the  Mississippi  by  Marquette  and  Joliet  (June 
17)  who  descended  the  stream  for  an  uncertain  distance. 

Count  Frontenac,  governor  of  Canada,  completed  a  fort  at  On- 
tario called  after  himself.  Construction  of  a  fort  at  Michilli- 
machinac. 

1678.  Robert  .  Cavalier  de  La  Salle  began  his  career  of  discovery  in 
the  great  west.  Launching  in  the  Niagara,  the  Griffin,  a  ves- 
sel of  forty-five  tons,  the  first  ever  seen  on  the  great  lakes,  he 
sailed  Aug.  7,  1679.  He  passed  through  lakes  Erie,  Huron, 
and  Michigan,  and  landed  at  the  extreme  southern  end  of  the 
latter  lake  in  October.  He  built  a  fort  on  the  St.  Joseph  and 
crossed  the  portage  to  the  Illinois.  Not  hearing  from  the 
Griffin  he  returned  on  foot  to  Canada.  Obtaining  fresh  sup- 
plies he  retraced  his  route  to  the  Illinois  only  to  find  the  fort 
which  he  had  there  erected  deserted.  Again  he  returned  to 
Canada  ;  again  he  obtained  aid,  and  again  undertook  his  enter- 
prise. 

1680.  Discovery  of  the  Mississippi  by  Hennepin,  a  priest  in  the  com- 
pany of  La  Salle.  He  ascended  the  river  to  46°  N.,  but  the 
claim  which  he  later  advanced  that  he  had  explored  the  Mis- 
sissippi to  the  sea  is  probably  false. 

1  The  southern  boundary  of  Acadia  in  the  p^rant  of  Henry  IV.,  1630,  wag 
40°  N.  ;  the  pnuthvvestern  limit  of  No^va  Scotia  in  the  s^ant  of  James  I..  1621, 
H'as  the  river  St.  Croix.     Holraes,  Annals,  I.  307,  note  4. 


A..  D.  America.  365 

1682.  La  Salle,  reaching  the  Mississippi  by  way  of  the  St.  Joseph 
aud  the  Illinois^  descended  the  great  river  to  the  sea  and  took 
possession  of  its  valley  for  Louis  XIV.,  April  9,  under  the 
name  of  Louisiana. 

1684.  Expedition  of  De  la  Barre  against  the  Iroquois,  which  failed  of 
success. 
La  Salle  having  announced  his  discovery  in  France  was  sent  out 
at  the  head  of  four  vessels  and  a  number  of  settlers  to  estab- 
lish a  colony  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  Contention  be- 
tween La  Salle  and  the  commander  of  the  vessels,  who  was 
jealous  of  the  discoverer,  resulted  in  disaster.  The  squadron 
missed  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  and  landed  at  Matagorda 
Bay  (St.  Louis),  four  hundred  miles  to  the  west.  Here  La 
Salle  built  a  fort,  but  privation  and  disease  soon  greatly  re- 
ducing the  nimibers  of  the  colony  he  undertook  to  go  on 
foot  to  Canada  for  relief.     On  this  expedition 

1687.     La  SaUe  was  shot  by  one  of  his  own  men.     The  settlement  of 

Mar.  19.     St.  Louis  soon  perished. 

1687.  Expedition  of  De  Denonville  against  the  Senecas.  At  this  time 
there  were  about  11,000  persons  in  New  France. 

1689-1697.     War  of  William  and  Mary,  see  p.  361. 

Expeditions  of  Frontenac  against  the  L-oquois  (1693,  1696, 
1697). 

1699.  The  French  and  the  English  both  attempted  to  found  a  col- 
ony in  Louisiana.  The  French  colony  was  sent  out  by  Louis 
XIV.  under  Lemoine  (T Iberville,  who  entered  the  Mississippi 
March  2,  and  also  founded  a  colony  at  Biloxi.  The  English 
attempt  was  made  by  Coxe,  a  claimant  of  the  old  grant  of 
Carolana,  who  entered  the  Mississippi,  but,  finding  himself  an- 
ticipated, retired  (Detour  aux  Anglais). 

1700.  An  expedition  from  Biloxi  ascended  to  the  falls  of  St.  An- 
thony, in  search  of  gold. 

Iberville  returning  from  France  took  possession  of  Louisiana 
anew  for  the  crown.     Erection  of  a  fort. 
±'omidation  of  Kaskaskia  in  Illinois. 
Foundation  of  Cahokia  in  Illinois.     Fort  at  Detroit  (1701). 
1702-13.     Queen  Anne's  -war,  see  p.  363. 

Iberville  brought  new  settlers  from  France  and  transferred  the 
colony  of  Biloxi  to  Mobile  in  Alabama.     Iberville  f  1706. 
1705.     Foundation  of  Vincennes  in  Indiana. 

1712.  Grant  to  Sieur  Antoine  Crozat  of  the  whole  commerce  of  fif- 
teen years  of  all  the  "  king's  lands  in  North  America  lying  be- 
tween New  France  on  the  north,  Carolina  on  the  east,  and  New 
Mexico  on  the  west,  down  to  the  gulf  of  Florida  ;  by  the  name 
oi  Louisiana.'*  {Seep.  417.') 

§  2.    FRANCE.  {Seep.  326.) 

1643-1715.     Louis  XIY.  (five  years  old), 

under  the  guardianship  of   his   mother,  Anne,   daughter  of 
Philip  III.,  king  of  Spain,  called  by  the  French  Anne  of  Austria,  i.  a 


366  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

of  Hapsburg.      The  government,  even  after  Louis'  arrival  at  ma- 
jority,  was  conducted  by  cardinal  Mazarin. 

1648-1653.  Disturbances  of  the  Fronde  (cardinal  Retz;  prince  of 
Conde  J  resistance  of  the  parliament  of  Paris),  the  last  at- 
tempt of  the  French  nobility  to  oppose  the  court  by  armed  resist- 
ance. Conde,  at  first  loyal,  afterwards  engaged  against  the  court, 
fought  a  battle  with  the  royal  troops  imder  (Henri  de  la  Tour  d'Au- 
vergne,  vicomte  de)  Turenne,  in  the  Faubourg  Saint  Antoine,  and  took 
refuge  in  Spain.  The  first  conspiracy,  the  old  Fronde,  ended  in  1649, 
with  the  second  treaty  of  Ruel ;  the  second  conspiracy,  the  new 
Fronde,  which  involved  treasonable  correspondence  with  Spain,  failed 
in  1650.  A  union  of  the  two  was  crushed  in  1653.  (Gaston  of  Orleans, 
and  his  daughter,  "  Mademoiselle.") 
1648.     Acquisitions  of  France  in  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  p.  316. 

The  war  with  Spain,  which  sprang  up  during  the  Tliirty  Years' 
War  (victory  of  Conde'  at  Rocroy,  May  18,  1643  ;  alliance  with  Eng- 
land, 1657  ;  Cromwell  sent  8,000  men  of  his  army  to  the  assistance  of 
Turenne)  was  continued  till  the 

1659.     Peace  of  the  Pyrenees: 

1.  France  received  a  part  of  Roussillon,  Conjians,  Cerdagne^ 
and  several  towns  in  Artois  and  Flanders,  Hainault  and  Luxembourg. 
2,  The  duke  of  Lorraine,  the  ally  of  Spain,  was  partially  remstated 
(France  received  Bar,  Clermont,  etc.,  and  right  of  passage  for  troops)  ; 
the  prince  of  Conde  entirely  reinstated.  3.  Marriage  between  Louis 
XIV.  and  the  infant  Maria  Theresa,  eldest  daughter  of  Philip  IV.  of 
Spain,  who,  however,  renounced  her  claims  upon  her  inheritance  for 
herself  and  her  issue  by  Louis  forever,  both  for  herself  before  mar- 
riage and  for  herself  and  her  husband  after  marriage,  in  considera- 
tion of  the  payment  of  a  dowry  of  500,000  crowns  by  Spain. 

1661.      Death    of    Mazarin,      Personal    government    of 
Louis   XrV.  (1661-1715),   absolute,  arbitrary,  without   etats 

feneraux,  without  regard  to  the  remonstrances  of  the  parliament  of 
'aris  {Vetat,  c'est  moi).  Colbert,  controller  general  of  the  finances, 
from  1662-1683.  Reform  of  the  finances  ;  mercantile  system.  Con- 
struction of  a  fleet  of  war.  Louvois,  minister  of  war,  1666-1691. 
Quarrel  for  precedence  in  rank  with  Spain.  Negotiations  with  the 
Pope  concerning  the  privileges  of  French  ambassadors  at  Rome. 
The  ambition  of  Louis  for  fame,  and  his  desire  for  increase  of  terri- 
tory were  the  causes  of  the  following  wars,  in  which  these  generals 
took  part :  Turenne,  Conde,  Luxembourg,  Catinat,  Villars,  Vendome, 
Vauban  (inventor  of  the  modern  system  of  military  defense). 

1667-1668.     First  war  of  conquest  (war  of  devolution)  on 

account  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands. 

Cause  :  After  the  death  of  his  father-in-law,  Philip  IV.  of  Spain, 

Louis  laid  claim  to  the  Spanish  possessions  in  the  Belgian  provinces 

(Brabant,  Flanders,  etc.),  on  the  ground  that,  being  the  personal  estates 


A.  D.  France.  367 

of  the  royal  family  of  Spain,  their  descent  ought  to  be  regulated  by 
the  local  " droit  de  devolution"  a  principle  in  private  law,  whereby  in 
the  event  of  a  dissolution  of  a  marriage  by  death,  the  survivor  enjoyed 
the  usufruct  only  of  the  property,  the  ownership  being  vested  in  the 
children,  whence  it  followed  that  daughters  of  a  first  marriage  inher- 
ited before  sons  of  a  second  marriage.^  The  renunciation  of  her 
heritage  which  his  wife  had  made  was,  Louis  claimed,  invalid,  since 
the  stipulated  dowry  had  never  been  paid. 

1667.  Turenne  conquered  a  part  of  Flanders  and  Hainault. 

By  the  exertions  of  Jan  de  Witt,  pensioner  of  Holland,  and  Sir 

1668.  William  Temple,  England,  Holland,  and  Sweden,  concluded  the 
Jan.  23.     Triple  Alliance,  which  induced  Louis,  after  Conde  had, 

with  great  rapidity,  occupied  the  defenseless  free  county  of 
Burgundy  {Franche  Comte)  to  sign  the 

1668.     Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

May  2.  Louis  restored  Franche-Comte  (the  fortresses  having  been 
dismantled)  to  Spain,  in  return  for  which  he  received  twelve 
fortified  towns  on  the  border  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  among 
others,  Lille,  Tournay,  and  Oudenarde.  The  question  of  the  succession 
was  not  settled,  but  deferred. 

1672-1678.  Second  war  of  conquest  (against  Holland). 
The  course  of  Holland  in  these  transactions  had  inflamed  the  hatred 
of  Louis  against  her,  a  hatred  made  still  stronger  by  the  refuge  given 
by  the  provinces  to  political  writers  who  annoyed  him  with  their  abus- 
ive publications.  To  gain  his  purpose,  the  destruction  or  the  humilia- 
tion of  Holland,  Louis  secured  the  disruption  of  the  Triple  Alliance 
by  a 

1670.  Private  treaty  with  Charles  II.  of  England  (p.  380),  and  be- 
1672.     tween  France  and  Sweden.     Subsidy  treaties  with  Cologne  and 

Miinster  J  20,000  Germans  fought  for  Louis  in  the  following 

war. 

1672.  Passage  of  the  Rhine.  Rapid  and  easy  conquest  of  southern 
Holland  by  Turenne,  Conde',  and  the  king,  at  the  head  of  100,000 

men.  The  brothers  De  Witt,  the  leaders  of  the  aristocratic  republican 
party  in  Holland,  were  killed  during  a  popular  outbreak  (Aug.  27), 
and  William  III.  of  Orange  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  state.  The 
opening  of  the  sluices  saved  the  province  of  Holland,  and  the  city  of 
Amsterdam.  Alliance  of  Holland  with  Frederic  Williatn,  elector  of 
Brandenburg  (1640-1688),  afterwards  joined  by  the  emperor  and  by 
Spain. 

1673.  Frederic  William  concluded  the  separate  peace  of  Vossem  (not 
far  from  Louvaine),  in  which  he  retained  his  possessions  in 
Cleves,  except  Wesel  and  Rees. 

1674.  Declaration  of  war  by  the  empire. 

1  "Secundam  antiquas  Meklin.  constitutiones  et  fere  per  universam  Braban- 
tiam  superstes  altero  conjuf2;o  mortuo  usufructuarius  redditur  suorum  bonarum, 
eorum  proprietate  statim  ad  liberos  proximos  vel  qui  ha;redes  futuri  sunt  devo 
luta."     Comm.  to  the  customs  of  Mechlin.    Banke,  Franz.  Gesch.  III.,  226. 


368  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

Peace  between  England  and  Holland. 
Louis  XIV.  conquered  Franche-Comte  in  person  ;  Conde  fought 
against  Orange  (drawn  battle  at  Senef)  in  the  Netherlands.  Brilliant 
campaign  of  Turenne  on  the  upper  Rhine  (first  ravaging  of  the  palat- 
inate) against  Montecuculi,  the  imperial  general,  and  the  elector  of 
Brandenbu7'g .  The  latter,  recalled  by  the  inroad  of  the  Swedish  allies 
of  Louis  XiV.  into  his  lands,  defeated  the  Swedes  in  the 

1675.  Battle  of  Fehrbellin.  In  the  same  year  Turenne  fell  at 
June  18.     Sasbach,  in  Baden  (July  27).     The  French  retreated  across 

the  Rliine. 

1676.  Naval  successes  in  the  Mediterranean  against  the  Dutch  and 
Spanish.     Death  of  De  Ruyter. 

1677.  Marriage  of  William  of  Orange  with  Mary,  eldest  daughter  of 
the  duke  of  York. 

1678.  Surprise  and  capture  of  Ghent  and  Ypres  by  the  French. 
Negotiations  with  each  combatant,  which  had  been  for  some 
time  in  progress,  resulted  in  the 

1678-1679.     Peace  of  Nimwegen. 

Holland  and  France  (Aug.  10,  1678)  ;  Spain  and  Fravce 
(Sept.  17, 1678)  ;  the  Emperor,  with  France  and  Sweden  (Feb.  f», 
1679)  ;  Holland  with  Sweden  (Oct.  12,  1679).  At  FontaineUeaiu, 
France  and  Denmark  (Sept.  2,  1679).  At  Lund,  Denmark  and 
Sweden  (Sept.  26,  1679). 

1.  Holland  received  its  whole  territory  back,  upon  condition  of 
preservhig  neutrality.  2.  Spain  ceded  to  France,  Franche-Comte, 
and  on  the  northeast  frontier,  Valenciennes,  Camhray,  and  the  Cam- 
bresis.  Aire,  Poperingen,  St.  Omer,  Ypres,  Conde,  Bouchain,  Maubeuge, 
and  other  towns  ;  France  ceded  to  Spain,  Charleroi,  Binche,  Oude- 
narde,  Ath,  Courtray,  Limburg,  Ghent,  Waes,  etc.  ;  and  in  Cata- 
lonia, Puycerda.  3.  The  Emperor  ceded  to  France  Freiburg  in  the 
Breisgau  ;  France  gave  up  the  right  of  garrison  in  Philippsburg  ;  the 
duke  of  Lorraine  was  to  be  restored  to  his  duchy,  but  on  such  con- 
ditions that  he  refused  to  accept  them. 

Louis  XIV.  forced  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  to  conclude  the 

1679.  Peace  of  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  whereby  he  surrendered  to 
Sweden  nearly  all  of  his  conquests  in  Pommerania,  in  return 

for  which  he  received  only  the  reversion  of  the  principality  of  East 
Friesland,  which  became  Prussian  in  1744,  and  a  small  indemnifica- 
tion (exclamation  of  the  elector  :  Exoriare  aliquis  nostris  ex  ossibus 
ultor,  Virg.  yEu.  IV.  625). 

Louis  "  the  Great  "  at  the  height  of  his  power.  His  boundless  am- 
bition stimulated  by  the  weakness  of  the  empire  led  him  to  establish 
the 

1680-1683.  Chambers  of  Reunion  at  Metz,  Breisach,  Be- 
san<;on,  and  Tournay. 
These  were  French  courts  of  claims  with  power  to  investigate  and 
decide  what  dependencies  had  at  any  time  belonged  to  the  territories 
and  towns  which  had  been  ceded  to  France  by  the  last  four  treaties 
of  peace.     The  king  executed  with  his  troops  the  decisions  of  his  tri- 


A.  D.  France,  869 

bunals,  thus  adding  to  violence  in  time  of  peace,  the  scoff  of  a  legal 
formality.      Saarhriick,  Luxembourg,   Deuxponts   {Zweibriicken),  and 
many  other  towns  were  thus  aimexed  to  France. 
1681,  Oct.     Capture  of  Strasburg  by  treachery. 

1683.  Invasion  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  occupation  of  Luxemhourgf 
and  seizure  of  Trier  (1684).     Lorraine  permanently  occupied 

by  France.  To  the  weakness  of  the  empire,  the  wars  with  the  Turks, 
and  the  general  confusion  of  European  relations  since  the  peace  of 
Nimwegen,  it  is  to  be  attributed  that  these  outrageous  aggressions 
were  met  by  nothing  more  than  empty  protests,  and  that 

1684.  A  truce  for  twenty  years  was  concluded  at  Regensburg  between 

Louis  and  the  emperor  and  the  empire,  whereby  he  retained 
everything  he  had  obtained  by  reunion  up  to  Aug.  1,  1681,  including 
Strasburg. 

Louis'  mistresses  :  Louise  de  la  Valliere  ;  Madame  de  Montespan ; 
Madame  de  Maintenon  (Francoise  d'Aubigne),  a  narrow  bigot  whose 
influence  over  the  king  was  boundless.  Maria  Theresa  died  1683. 
Louis  privately  married  to  Madame  de  Maintenon.  War  upon 
heresy.     The  dragonnades  in  Languedoc.     Wholesale  conversions. 

1685.  Oct.  18.  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 
The  exercise  of  the  reformed  religion  in  France  was  forbid- 
den, children,  were  to  be  educated  in  the  Catholic  faith,  emigration 
was  prohibited.  In  spite  of  this  more  than  50,000  families,  including 
military  leaders  (Schomberg),  men  of  letters,  and  the  best  part  of 
the  artificers  of  France,  made  their  way  to  foreign  countries.  Their 
loss  was  a  blow  to  the  industry  of  the  country,  which  hastened  the 
approach  of  the  revolution.  The  exiles  found  welcome  in  Holland, 
England  {Spitalfields),  Brandenburg.  The  Protestants  of  Alsace  re- 
tained the  freedom  of  worship  which  had  been  secured  to  them. 

1689-1697.  Third  War.  (War  conceming  the  succession 
of  the  palatinate.) 
Cause  :  After  the  extinction  of  the  male  line  of  the  electors 
palatine  in  the  person  of  the  elector  Charles  (f  1685),  whose  sister 
was  the  wife  of  Louis  XIV. 's  brother,  the  duke  of  Orleans,  the  king 
laid  claim  to  the  allodial  lands  of  the  family,  a  claim  which  he  soon 
extended  to  the  greater  portion  of  the  country.     Another  ground  for 

Frederic  V.  (king  of  Boiemia). 
t  1632. 
\ 

i  I 

Sophia  m.  Charles  Louis, 

Ernest  Augustus,  t  1680. 

of  Hanover. 


Qeorj?©  I.                  Charles,  Charlotte  Elizabeth, 

•f  England.                     f  1685.  m.  Philip,  duke  of 

without  Orleans,  brother  of 

male  issue.  Louis  XIY. 


370  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

war  was  found  in  the  quarrel  over  the  election  of  the  archbishop  of 
Cologne,  which  Louis  was  resolved  to  secure  for  Von  Furstenburg, 
bishop  of  Strasburg,  in  place  of  prince  Clement  of  Bavaria  (1688). 
Meantime  the  unfavorable  impression  produced  throughout  Protes- 
tant Europe  by  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  had  contributed 
to  the  success  of  the  plans  of  William  of  Orange,  and 

1686.  The  League  of  Augsburg,  directed  against  France,  was  signed 
July  9.  by  the  Emperor,  the  kings  of  Sweden  and  Spain,  the  electoi-s 
of  Bavaria,  of  Saxony,  and  the  palatinate.  In  1688  occurred 
the  revolution  in  England  which  placed  William  of  Orange  on  the 
throne  of  that  country,  and  added  a  powerful  kingdom  to  the  new 
foes  of  Louis.  Tlie  exiled  James  11.  took  refuge  with  the  French 
monarch  (court  at  St.  Germain,  p.  385). 

1688.  Invasion  and  frightful   devastation  of  the  Palatinate,  by 
Oct.     order  of  Louvois,  executed  by  Melac  (Heidelberg,  Mannheim, 

Speier,  Worms,  and  the  whole  country  as  far  as  the  borders  of 
Alsace  ravaged  and  burnt).  The  military  successes  of  the  French  on 
the  Rhine  were  unimportant,  especially  after  1693,  when  prince  Louis 
of  Bavaria  assumed  the  chief  command  against  them. 

1689.  The  Grand  Alliance,  between  the  powers  who  had  joined  the 
League  of  Augsburg  and  England  and  Holland  (Savoy  had 

joined  the  league  in  1687).     The  principal  scene  of  war  was  in  the 
Netherlands. 

1690.  June  30.  Battle  of  Fleurus,  defeat  of  the  prince  of  Waldeck  by 

Louis'  general,  Marshal  Luxembourg. 
The  French  expedition  to  Ireland  in  aid  of  James  had  but  a 
temporary  success. 

1690,  July  1.  Victory  of  William  III.  over  the  adherents  of  James 
11.  at  the  Battle  of  the  Boyne  in  Ireland  (p.  387). 
French  successes    in   Piedmont  ;  Catinat  reduced  Savoy  ;  de- 
feat of   Victor  Amadeus  at  Staffarda. 

1692,  May.  Defeat  of  the  French  fleet  under  Tourville  by  the  Eng- 
lish and  Dutch  at  Cape  La  Hogue.  The  mastery  of  the  sea 
passed  from  the  French  to  the  English.     Death  of  Louvois. 

1692,  July  24.  Battle  of  Steinkirk  (Steenkerken)  in  Hainault. 
Victory  of  Luxembourg  over  William  III.  Fall  of  Namur. 
(June). 

1693,  July  29.  Battle  of  Neerwinden.     Victory  of   Luxembourg 

over  William  III.,  who  in  spite  of  his  many  defeats  still  kept 
the  field. 
In  Italy  Marshal  Catinat  defeated  the  duke  of  Savoy  at  Mar- 
saglia.  Rise  of  prince  Eugene  ("  Eugenia  von  Savoye,"  "  the  little 
abbe,"  son  of  Maurice  of  Savoy-Carignan,  count  of  Soissons  and 
Olympia  Mancini,  niece  of  Mazarin,  b.  1663  at  Paris  ;  refused  a 
commission  by  Louis  XIV.,  he  entered  the  Austrian  service  in  1683  ; 
died  April  21,  1736).  On  June  30,  the  English  fleet  was  defeated  at 
Lagos  Bay  by  Tourville.  Failure  of  the  English  attack  upon  Brest 
(1694),  not  by  the  treachery  of  Marlborough.  Death  of  Luxem- 
bourg (Jan.  1696)  ;  he  was  succeeded  by  the  incapable  VUleroy. 


A.  D.  France.  371 

1695,  Sept.  Recapture  of  Namur  by  William  III. 

1696,  May  30.  Separate  Peace  with  Savoy  at  Turin.      All   con- 

quests were  restored  to  the  duke  {Pignerol  and  Casale),  and 
his  daughter  married  Louis'  grandson,  the  duke  of  Burgundy. 
Savoy  promised  to  remain  neutral. 

1697,  Peace  of  Ryswick,  a  village  near  the  Hague.    Treaty 
Sept.  30.  between  France,  England,  Spain,  and  Holland. 

1.  Confirmation  of  the  separate  peace  with  Savoy.  2.  Restoration 
of  conquests  between  France  and  England  and  Holland ;  William 
III.  acknowledged  as  king  of  England,  and  Anne,  as  his  successor, 
Louis  promising  not  to  help  his  enemies.  3.  It  was  agreed  that  the 
chief  fortresses  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands  should  be  garrisoned 
with  Dutch  troops  as  a  barrier  between  France  and  Holland.  4. 
France  restored  to  Spain  all  places  which  had  been  "  reunited  "  since 
the  peace  of  Nimwegen,  with  the  exception  of  eighty-two  places,  and 
all  conquests.  5.  Holland  restored  Pondicherri  in  India  to  the 
French  East  India  Company  and  received  commercial  privileges  in 
return. 

1697,  Oct.  30.     Treaty  between  France  and  the  emperor  (and  em- 
pire.) 

1.  France  ceded  all  the  "reunions  "  except  Alsace,  which  hencefor- 
ward was  lost  to  the  empire.  2.  Strasburg  was  ceded  to  France. 
3.  France  ceded  Freiburg  and  Breisach  to  the  emperor,  and  Phillips- 
burg  to  the  empire.  4.  The  duchy  of  Zweibriicken  was  restored  to  the 
king  of  Sweden,  as  count  palatine  of  the  Rhine.  5.  Lorraine  was  re- 
stored to  duke  Leopold  (excepting  Saarlouis).  6.  The  claims  of  car- 
dinal Furstenburg  to  the  archbishopric  of  Cologne  were  disavowed. 
7.  The  Rhine  was  made  free. 

Brilliant  period  of  French  literature  in  the  age  of  Louis  XIV. 
Comeille  (1606-1684) ;  Racine  (1639-1699) ;  Moli^re  {Jean  Baptiste 
Poquelin,  1622-1673)  ;  La  Fontaine  (1621-1695)  ;  Boileau  (1636- 
1711) ;  Bosmet  (1627-1704) ;  Flechier  (f  1710) ;  Fenelon  {Frangois  de 
Salignac  de  Lamothe,  1651-1715). 

Louis'  court  at  Versailles  (after  1680)  was  the  pattern  for  all  the 
other  courts  of  Europe.  Buildings,  luxury,  mistresses  (La  Valliere, 
Montespan,  Fontange).  After  the  death  of  his  wife,  Maria  Theresa  of 
Spain  (1683),  Louis  made  a  secret  marriage  with  Francoise  d'Aubigne, 
widow  of  the  poet  Scarron  (1610-1660),  whom  he  made  Marquise  de 
Maintenon.  (^See  pp.  890,  445.) 

§  3.    GERMANY.  (Seep.  317.) 

1658-1705.     Leopold  I.,  son  of  Ferdinand  III. 

After  1663  permanent  diet  at  Regensburg,  consisting  of  the 
representatives  of  the  eight  electors,  the  sixty-nine  ecclesiastical,  the 
ninety-six  secular  princes,  and  the  imperial  cities.  [A  miracle  of  te- 
dious legislation,  often  degenerating  into  a  squabble  for  precedence. 
"  A  bladeless  knife  without  a  handle."]  Corpus  Catholicorum  and  Cor- 
pus Evangelicorum ;  [the  corporate  organizations  of  the  Catholic  and 
the  evangelical  estates,  the  latter  being  the  most  important.     This  or- 


372  Modern  History.  A.  D, 

ganization  of  the  Protestant  estates  had  existed,  in  fact,  since  the  latter 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  but  it  was  legally  recognized  in  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia,  where  it  was  decreed  that  in  the  diet  matters 
relating  to  religion  and  the  church  should  not  be  decided  by  a  majority, 
but  should  be  settled  by  conference  and  agreement  between  the  Cath- 
olic and  Protestant  estates,  as  organized  corporations.] 
1661-1664.  First  war  with  the  Turks  ;  caused  by  a  dispute  con- 
cerning the  election  of  a  prince  in  Transylvania. 
The  Turkish  successes  at  last  enabled  the  emperor  to  obtain  help 
from  the  empire  and  from  the  French.  Victory  of  the  imperial  gen 
eral  Montecuculi  over  the  Turks  at  St.  Gotthard  on  the  Raab  (1664). 
A  truce  for  twenty  years,  favorable  to  the  Turks,  was,  nevertheless 
concluded. 

War  of  the  empire  against  Louis  XIV.   (see  p.  367). 
1666.     Settlement  of  the  contested  succession    of    Cleve-Julich : 
Cleve,  Mark,  Ravenstein,  and  half  of  Ravensberg  given  to  Bran- 
denburg ;  afterwards,  the  whole  of  Ravensberg  instead  of  Ra 
venstein. 
1682-1699.     Second  war  with  the  Turks.     Conspiracy  of  Hun- 
garian magnates  detected  and  punished.     Count  Tokoly  ap- 
pealed to  the  Turks  for  aid.     Invasion  of  Hungary  by  the 
Grand  Vizier  Kara  Mustapha  and 

1683.     Siege  of  Vienna. 

Heroic  defense  conducted  by  Rudiger  von  Stahremberg.  Suo 
cessful  relief  by  a  united  German  and  Polish  army  under  Charles  oj 
Lorraine  and  John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland.  Henceforward  active 
participation  of  the  German  princes  in  the  war,  assisted  by  Venice. 
After  the  victory  of  Charles  of  Lorraine  over  the  Turks  at  Mohacs 
(pron.  Mohatch)  Aug.  12,  1687,  the  diet  at  Pressburg  conferred  the 
hereditary  succession  to  the  throne  of  Hungary  upon  the  male  line 
of  Austria.  The  war  continued  with  varying  fortune  until  Prince 
Eugene,  by  the 

1697.      Victory  of  Zenta,  brought  about  the 
1699,  Jan.  26.     Peace  of  Carlowitz  : 

1.  Tlie  Porte  received  the  Banat    Temesvar ;  Austria,  the  rest  of 

Hungary  and  Transylvania. 

2.  Venice  received  Morea  (the  Peloponnesus,  p.  416). 

Toward  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  and  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  several  German  princes  obtained  an  elevation  in  rank. 
1692.     1.  Hanover  became  the  ninth  electorate. 
1697.     2.  The  elector  of  Saxony  {Augustus  II.),  after  the  death  of 
John  Sobieski,  became  king  of  Poland,  and  adopted  the  Cath- 
olic faith. 
3.  Frederic  III.,  elector  of  Brandenburg  (1688-1713),  son  of  the 
Great  Elector,  assumed,  with  the  consent  of  the  emperor,  the 
1701.    title  of  king  in  Prussia  (Frederic  I.)  and  crowned  himself  at 
Jan.  18.    Konigsberg.  {See  p.  397.) 


1 


A.  D.  The  North  and  Hast,  873 


§  4.    THE  NORTH  AND  EAST. 

Sweden.  (Seep.  S52.) 

Sweden,  whose  possessions  almost  surrounded  the  Baltic  Sea, 
was  the  first  power  of  the  North  after  the  Thirty-Years'  War. 
1654-1718    (1751).     Dynasty   of  the   oounts   palatine   of 

Zweibrucken  (p.  352). 
1654-1660.     Charles  X.,  Gustavus,  undertook  a  war  with  Poland, 

because  John  Casimir  (of  the  house  of  Vasd)  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge him.  He  invaded  Livonia  and  Poland,  captured  Warsaw 
and  drove  John  Casimir  into  SUesia.  Frederic  William,  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg, who  had  come  with  an  army  to  the  defense  of  East  Prussia, 
was  obliged,  by  the  treaty  of  Konigsberg  (1656)  to  receive  his  duchy 
in  fee  from  Sweden,  as  he  had  heretofore  held  it  from  Poland.  He 
received  also  the  bishopric  of  Ermeland.  Uprising  in  Poland  against 
the  Swedes.  Charles  Gustavus  and  the  elector  Frederic  William,  who 
had  become  a  still  closer  ally  by  the  treaty  of  Marienburg,  gained  the 
1656.     Three  days'  battle  of  Warsaw  over  the  Poles.     In  order  to 

further  secure  for  himself  the  aid  of  the  elector  of  Brandenburg, 
Charles  Gustavus  granted  him,  in  the  treaty  of  Labiau  (1656)  the  sov- 
ereignty over  East  Prussia  and  Ermeland.  Nevertheless,  Russia,  Den- 
mark and  the  emperor,  declared  war  upon  Sweden,  and  they  were  soon 
joined  by  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  who  received  from  Poland  in 
the  treaty  of  Wehlau  (1657)  recognition  of  his  sovereignty  over  East 
Prussia,  but  not  over  Ermeland,  for  which  he  received  compensation 
elsewhere.  The  Swedes  were  soon  driven  out  of  Poland,  retaining  a 
hold  on  Polish  Prussia  only.  Charles  Gustavus  attacked  Denmark 
which  he  soon  conquered  (crossing  of  the  frozen  Belt,  Jan.  1658), 
and  compelled  to  make  important  cessions  in  the  peace  of  Roeskild 
(1658).  In  the  same  year  Charles  Gustavus  invaded  Denmark  a  sec- 
ond time,  purposing  the  annihilation  of  the  monarchy.  Courageous 
defense  of  Copenhagen.  The  Danes  received  assistance  from  all 
sides.  Raise  of  the  siege.  Sudden  death  of  Charles  Gustavus  (1660), 
Under  his  minor  son 
1660-1697.     Charles  XI.,  the 

1660.     Peace  of  Oliva  (monastery  near  Danzig)  was  con- 
cluded with  Poland. 

John  Casimir  abandoned  his  claims  upon  the  throne  of  Sweden,  as 
well  as  upon  Livonia  and  Esthonia.  Restoration  of  the  duke  of  Cur- 
land.     The  sovereignty  of  Prussia  ratified  by  Sweden  and  Poland. 

This  was  followed  immediately  by  the 
Peace  of  Copenhagen  with  Denmark,  which  surrendered  forever 
the  southern  part  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  which  had  been 
ceded  already  by  the  peace  of  Roeskild,  but  retained  Drontheim  and 
Bornholm. 

Peace  between  Sweden  and  Russia  at  Kardis  (1661)  ;  reciprocal 
surrender  of  conquests. 


874  Modern  History.  A.  Di^ 

Wai-  between  Sweden,  as  the  ally  of  France,  and  Brandenburg  ; 
battle  of  Fehrbellin,  p.  368;  peace  of  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  p.  368. 

{See  pp.  394,409.) 
Denmark.  {See  p.  352.) 

Immediately  after  the  peace  (1660)  the  third  estate  (burghers),  im- 
patient of  the  rule  of  the  nobility,  and  the  clergy,  conferred  upon  the 
king,  Frederic  III.  (1648-1670),  an  absolutely  uncontrolled  authority. 
Lex  Regia. 

In  the  same  way  the  Swedish  estates,  weary  of  the  over-great  power 
of  the  royal  council,  conferred  almost  unlimited  power  upon  king 
Charles  in.,  who  was  now  of  age.  (See  p.  409.) 

Poland.  (See  p.  352  ) 

In  Poland,  on  the  contrary,  the  royal  power  had  become  a  mere 
shadow  at  this  period,  and  the  state  was,  in  fact,  a  republic  of  nobles. 
The  diet,  composed  of  the  senate  (bishops,  woiwods,  castellanes),  and 
the  elected  representatives  from  the  country  (representatives  of  the 
nobility)  exercised  every  function  of  government.  The  liberum  veto, 
that  is,  the  right  of  each  individual  member  of  the  diet  to  defeat  a 
resolution  by  his  protest,  and  thus  to  break  up  the  diet,  led  to  bribery, 
violence,  and,  in  the  end,  to  absolute  anarchy.  After  the  abdication 
of  John  Casimir  (1668),  there  followed  a  bloody  contest  for  the  throne  ; 
then  John  Sobieski  (1674-1696),  the  liberator  of  Vienna  (p.  372),  and 
finally  Augustus  II.  of  Saxony  (1697-1733),  uuder  whom  the  war  with 
the  Turks  Was  ended  by  the  Peace  of  Carlo-witz  (p.  372). 

{See  pp.  397,  410.) 
Russia.  {See  p.  3o3.) 

Under  the  house  of  Romanow  Russia  developed  in  strength  and 
influence.  The  son  of  the  founder  of  the  dynasty,  Alexis,  reconquered 
Little  (White)  Russia  from  Poland,  and  began  to  introduce  European 
civilization  into  Russia.  After  the  death  of  his  eldest  son,  Feodor 
(1682),  his  brothers,  Ivan  and  Peter  (son  of  the  Czar's  second  wife, 
Natalia  Narischkin),  proclaimed  Czars  under  the  guardianship  of  their 
elder  sister,  Sophia,  by  the  Strelitzes,  the  noble  body-guard  of  the 
emperor.  Peter  in  Preobaschensk,  under  the  guidance  of  Lefort,  a 
Swiss.  Playing  soldiers  :  origin  of  the  later  guard.  His  half-sister, 
Sophia,  endeavored  to  exclude  him  from  the  throne,  but  was  sent  to 
a  cloister  by  Peter  (1689). 

1689-1725.     Peter  I.,  the  Great, 

reigned  as  sole  monarch,  his  weak  minded  brother,  Ivan,  con- 
tinuing until  his  death  (1696)  without  the  least  authority. 
Peter  began  his  reforms  with  the  assistance  of  Gordon,  a  Scot,  and 
Lefort.  Conquest  of  Azoff  (A&^Q).  After  cruelly  punishing  a  revolt 
of  the  Strelitzes,  Peter  undertook  \\\s  first  journey  (1697-1698),  for  his 
instruction,  through  Germany  to  Holland,  where  he  worked  as  a  ship's 
carpenter  in  Saardam  {Zaandam),  and  afterwards  to  England  (en- 
gagement of  foreign  artisans,  artists,  and  military  officers).  Peter 
intended  to  visit  Italy,  but  was  recalled  by  a  new  revolt  of   the 


A.  D.  England.  375 

Strelitzes  (1698).     Bloody  punishment ;  dissolution  of  the  Strelitzes, 
who  were  replaced  by  an  army  after  the  European  pattern  (1699). 
1699.     Peace  with  the  Turks  at  Carloioitz.     Acquisition  of  Azoff. 

{See  pp.  894,  410.) 
§  5.    ENGLAND.  {Seep.  351.) 

1649-1660.  England  a  republic;  the  Commonwealth. 
The  government  was  actually  in  the  hands  of  the  army  of  inde- 
pendents under  Oliver  Cromwell  (b.  at  Huntingdon,  April 
25,  1599;  where  he  met  prince  Charles,  1603  ;  admitted  to 
Sidney-Sussex  College,  1616  ;  death  of  his  father,  1617  ;  mar- 
ried Elizabeth  Bourchier,  1620  ;  M.  P.  for  Huntingdon,  1628  ; 
his  first  speech,  Feb.  1629  ;  removed  to  St.  Ives,  1631  ;  re- 
moved to  Ely,  1636  ;  affair  of  Bedford-Level,  1638  ;  M.  P..  for 
Cambridge,  1640  ;  removed  to  London  ;  resided  at  the  Cock- 
pit [Westminster],  1650  ;  at  Whitehall,  1654 ;  died  Sept.  3, 
1658.  Children  :  Oliver,  Richard,  b.  1626  ;  abdicated  May  25, 
1659  ;  died,  1712  ;  Henry,  b.  1628  ;  Biidget,  married  Ireton, 
1646  [Fleetwood,  1651]  ;  Elizabeth,  married  Mr.  Claypole  ; 
died,  1658  ;  Frances,  married  Richard  Rich,  grandson  of  War- 
wick, 1657;  Mary,  married  lord  Fauconfter^),  but  theoretically 
the  legislative  department  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Rump  par- 
liament, consisting  of  some  fifty  members  of  the  commons  (in- 
dependents), while  the  executive  was  entrusted  to  a  council  of 
state  numbering  forty-one  members  (three  judges,  tliree  mili- 
tary commanders,  five  peers,  thirty  members  of  the  commons). 
Abolition  of  the  title  and  office  of  king,  and  of  the  house  of  lords. 

Charles  II.  proclaimed  in  Edinburgh   (Feb.  5).      New  great  seal. 

Rising  in  Ireland   in   favor  of  Charles  IL,  under  the  marquis  of 

Ormond.     Expedition  of  Cromwell  to  Ireland  (Aug.  15). 

1649,  Sept.  12.     Storm  of  Drogheda  ;   massacre  of  the  garrison, 

followed  by  the  storm  and  massacre  of  Wexford.  Cromwell 
returned  to  London,  May,  1650,  leaving  Ireton  in  Ireland.  The 
"rebellion"  was  not  thoroughly  put  down  until  1652,  when 
three  out  of  four  provinces  were  confiscated. 

1650,  Montrose  landed  in  Scotland,  was  defeated  at  Corbiesdale 
(April  27),  betrayed,  captured,  and  executed  at  Edinburgh 
May  21. 

June  24.  Charles  II.  landed  in  Scotland,  and  after  taking  the  cov- 
enant, was  proclaimed  king. 

Cromwell  appointed  captain-general  in  place  of  Fairfax.  He 
led  16,000  men  to  Scotland,  and  totally  defeated  the  Scots 
under  Leslie  at  the 

Sept.  3.     Battle  of  Dunbar. 

Surrender  of  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow. 

1651,  Jan.  1.    Charles  II.  was  crowned  at  Scone  and  marched  into 

England  (July)  at  the  head  of  the  Scotch  army  while  Crom- 
well took  Perth  (Aug.  2).      The  latter  followed  the  king,  and 
at  the 
Sept.  3.     Battle  of  "Worcester 

totally  defeated  the  royalists.  Charles  in  disguise  escaped  to 
France. 


876  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

1651,  Oct.  9.  First  navigation  act,  forbidding  the  importation  of 
goods  into  England  except  in  English  vessels  (but  goods 
might  be  conveyed  to  England  in  vessels  belonging  to  the 
country  producing  the  goods).  This  measure  was  aimed  at 
the  Dutch,  and  resulted  in  the 

1652,  July  8-1654,  April  5.     Dutch  War. 

Naval  actions  in  the  Channel  ;  English  commanders,  Blahcj 
Monk  ;  Dutch,  Van  Tramp,  De  Ruyter.     English  victory  in  the 
Downs  before  the  declaration  of  war,  May.     Defeat  of  Van 
Tramp  and  De  Ruyter,  Sept.  28  ;  defeat  of  Blake,  Nov.  ;  de- 
feat of  Van  Tromp  off  Portland,  Feb.  18,  1653  ;  off  the  North 
Foreland,  June  2,  3.     Death  of  Ireton  (Nov.  1651). 
Between  the  army  and  the  Rump  there  had  been  growing  contention 
since  the  death  of  Charles  I.     A  new  parliament  was  desirable,  but 
the  members  of  the  Rump  wished  to  retain  their  seats  in  any  new 
parliament.      The  negotiations  for  ransom   of    confiscated  royalist 
estates  led  to  bribery  of  members. 

1652,  Feb.     Act  of  indemnity  and  oblivion. 
Aug.     First  act  of  settlement  for  Ireland. 

1653,  April  20.    Cromwell  turned  out  the  Rump  and  dissolved  the 

council  of  state.     Establishment  of  a  new  council  and  namr- 

ination  of 
July  4.     A  new  parliament  ("Barebone's  parliament,"  also  called 

the  "  Little  parliament "),  consisting  of  about  140  members. 
July  31.    Victory  of  Monk  off  the  Texel  ;  death  of  Van  Tromp. 
Sept.       Second  act  of  settlement  for  Ireland. 
Dec.  12.    The  Cromwellians  in  parliament  resigned  their  powers  to 

Cromwell ;  an  act  subsequently  approved  by  the  majority. 

1653,  Dec.-1659,  May.     Protectorate. 

1653,  Dec.  16-1658,  Sept.  3.     Cromwell  Lord  Protector  of  the 

commonwealth  of  England,  Scodand,  and  Ireland. 

"  The  instrument  of  government,"  a  written  constitution. 

The  executive  power  was  vested  in  the  lord  protector,  who  was  pro- 
vided with  a  council  of  twenty-one,  which  filled  its  own  vacancies. 
A  standing  army  of  30,000  men  established  ;  parliament  was  to  be 
triennial,  and  to  consist  of  460  members,  and  when  once  summoned 
could  not  be  dissolved  inside  of  five  months.     Between  sessions  the 

Erotector  and  councU  could  issue  ordinances  with  the  force  of  laws, 
ut  parliament  alone  could  grant  supplies  and  levy  taxes. 

1654,  April  5.    Peace  with  the  Dutch. 

Sept.  3.  New  parliament.  As  the  course  of  the  assembly  did  not 
suit  the  protector,  he  ordered  an  exclusion  of  members  (Sept. 
12).  After  voting  that  the  office  of  protector  should  be  elec- 
tive instead  of  hereditary  the 

1655,  Jan.  22.     Parliament  was  dissolved. 

April.    Blake  chastised  the  deys  of  Algiers,  Tunis,  Tripoli. 
March-May.    Rising  of  Penruddock  at  Salisbury  suppressed.    Execu- 
tion of  Penruddock. 
England  divided  into  twelve  military  districts,  each  under  a 


A.  D.  England,  377 

major-general,  with  a  force  supported  by  a  tax  of  ten  per 
cent,  on  royalist  estates. 
May.    Penn  and  Venables,  sent  to  make  reprisals  in  the  Spanish  West 
Indies,  captured  Jamaica. 

1655,  Oct.    Pacification   of   Pinerolo  concluded  with  France.     The 

duke  of  Savoy  to  stop  the  persecution  of  the  Vaudois.    Charles 

to  be  expelled  from  France. 
Nov.     Anglican  clergymen  forbidden  to  teach  or  preach.     Priests 

ordered  out  of  the  kingdom.     Censorship  of  the  press. 
1656-1659.     "War  with  Spain. 
Sept.  9.     Capture  of  Spanish  treasure  ships  off  Cadiz. 

1656,  Sept.  17-1658,  Feb.  4.     Cromwell's   third  parliament. 
Another  exclusion  of  members. 

Oct.    Reduction  of  the  power  of  the  major-generals. 

1657,  Jan.    Plot  against  the  protector  ("  Killing  no  Murder  ").    Pun- 

ishment of  Nayler. 

March-May.  Humble  petition  and  advice  altering  the  constitu- 
tion, adopted  by  parliament.  Establishment  of  a  second 
house  ;  the  council  of  state  reduced  in  power  ;  the  protector 
deprived  of  the  right  of  excluding  members  ;  fixed  supply 
for  the  army  and  navy  ;  toleration  of  all  Christians  except 
Episcopalians  and  Roman  Catholics.  The  title  of  king  was 
offered  to  Cromwell  but  rejected  by  him  (May  8). 

April  20.    Victory  of  Blake  off  Santa  Cruz.     Death  of  Blake,  Aug.  17. 

June  26.     Second  uiauguration  of  Cromwell. 

1658,  Jan.  20.    New   session   of   parliament,  including   "the  other 

house." 
Feb.  4.    Dissolution  of  Cromwell's  last  parliament. 
May.     Siege  of  Dunkirk   by  the  English   and   French.     A  Spanish 

force  advancing  to  the  relief  of  the  town  was  defeated  in  the 
June  4.    Battle  of  the  Dunes,  which  was  followed  by  the  surrender 

of  Dunkirk  (June  17).     In  the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees  (1659, 

p.  366),  England  received  this  town. 

Sept.  3.    Death  of  Oliver  Cromwell. 
1658»  Sept.  3-1659,  May  25.    Richard  Cromwell  lord  pro- 
tector. 

1659,  Jan.  27.     A  new  parliament  met,  and  was  soon  involved  in  a 

dispute  with  the  army,  which  induced  Richard  to 
April  22.     Dissolve  the  parliament  ("Humble  representation  and 

advice  of  the  officers  "). 
May  7.      The    Rump   parliament  reassembled    under    Lenthall   as 

speaker. 
May  25.  Richard  Cromwell  resigned  the  protectorate» 
Aug.     Insurrection  of  Booth  crushed  at  Winnington  Bridge  {Lam- 

bert). 
Oct.  13.  Expulsion  of  the  Rump  by  the  army  (Lambert).  Appoint- 
ment of  a  military  committee  of  safety.  This  assertion  of 
authority  did  not  meet  with  approval  even  within  the  army. 
Dec.  26.  Restoration  of  the  Rump.  Monk,  who  was  in  Scotland, 
led  his  army  to  London  and  assumed  control  of  affairs  (Feb. 
3,  1660).     Monk  captain-general. 


378  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

1660,  Feb.  21.  Restoration  of  members  excluded  iii  1648.  Re-estab- 
lishment of  the  Long  Parliament, 
March  16.  Final  dissolution  of  the  Long  Parliament.  ^ 
1660,  Apr.  14.  Declaration  of  Breda.  Charles  proclaimed  am- 
nesty to  all  not  especially  excepted  by  parliament,  promised 
liberty  of  religious  belief,  and  the  settlement  of  confiscated 
estates  in  the  hands  of  the  possessors. 

1660,  Apr.  25-Dec.  29.     Convention  Parliament ;  chosen  without 

restrictions  and  numbering  556  members.     The  parliament  re- 
ceived the  declaration  of  Breda  favorably  and  returned  a  loyal 
answer  to  the  king  (May  1). 
May  8.     Charles  proclaimed  king  ;  on  May  29  he  entered  London. 

1660-1685.     Charles  II., 

extravagant,  dissipated,  careless  of  the  duties  of  his  position. 
Charles's  restoration  was  hailed  by  an  outburst  of  loyalty  which  en- 
abled him  to  neglect  many  of  the  promises  of  the  declaration  of  Breda. 
The  king's  brother,  James,  duke  of  York,  appointed  lord  high  admiral 
and  warden  of  the  Cinque  ports  ;  Monk  captain-general  ;  Sir  Edward 
Hyde  (earl  of  Clarendon)  chancellor  and  prime  minister. 

Abolition  of  the  feudal  rights  of  knight  service,  worship,  and  purvey- 
ance in  consideration  of  a  yearly  income  for  the  king  of  £1,200,000. 
Restoration  of  the  bishops  to  their  sees  and  to  parliament.  Act  of  in- 
demnity for  all  political  offenses  committed  between  Jan.  1,  1637,  and 
June  24,  1660  ;  the  regicides  were  excepted  from  this  act.  All  acts 
of  the  long  parliament  to  which  Charles  I.  had  assented  were  declared 
in  force.  The  army  was  disbanded  (Oct.),  excepting  some  5,000 
men.     Declaration  for  the  settlement  of  Ireland. 

1C60,  Dec.  29.     Dissolution  of  the  Convention  parliament. 

1661,  Jan.     Rising  of  the  fifth  monarchy  men  in  London  (Venner). 
Bodies  of  Cromwell,  Ireton,  Bradshaw,  disinterred  and  treated 

with  indignity. 
Royalist  parliament  in  Scotland.     Abolition  of  the  Covenant. 

Repeal  of  all  enactments  of  preceding  parliaments  for  the  last 

twenty-eight  years. 
Apr.-July.     Savoy  Conference  of  Episcopalians  and  Presbyterians. 
Apr.  23.     Coronation  of  Charles  II. 

1661,  May  8-1679,  Jan.  24.   New  parliament.  "  Cavalier  "  or  "  pen- 
sion "  parliament. 
Solemn  league  and  covenant  burnt. 
1661,  May  27.     Execution  of  Argyle  in  Scotland. 

1  Recapitulation  of  the  history  of  the  Long  Parliament  :  — 
1640,  Nov.  3.     First  assembled. 
1648,  Dec.  6,  7.     Pride's  Purge.     The  Rump. 
1653,  April  20.     The  Rump  turned  out  by  Cromwell. 
1659,  May  7.     The  Rump  restored. 
1659,  Oct".  13.    The  Rump  expelled  by  the  army. 

1659,  Dec.  26.     The  Rump  restored. 

1660,  Feb.  21.     Members  excluded  by  Pride's  Purge,  restored. 
1660,  March  16.     The  parliament  dissolved. 


A.  D.  England.  879 

Nov.  20.  Corporation  act :  all  magistrates  and  municipal  officers 
obliged  to  take  the  sacrament  according  to  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, to  abjure  the  covenant,  and  to  take  an  oath  declaring  it 
illegal  to  bear  arms  against  the  king, 
James  Sharpe,  created  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews,  attempted  to 
introduce  episcopacy  in  Scotland. 

1662,  May  20.  Marriage  of  Charles  II.  with  Catherine  of  Braganza, 
daughter  of  John  IV.  of  Portugal. 

Aug.  24.  The  act  of  uniformity  (adopted  May  19),  went  into  oper- 
ation. All  clergymen,  fellows,  and  schoolmasters  were  required 
to  assent  to  everything  in  the  book  of  common  prayer.  Nearly 
2,000  (?)  non-conformists  lost  their  livings  (dissenters). 
Declaration  of  indulgence  promised. 

1602,  June  14.     Execution  of  Sir  Henry  Vane. 

Nov.  Sale  of  Dunkirk  to  France  for  £400,000.  Act  of  settlement 
for  Ireland. 

1633.  An  insurrection  of  fifth  monarchy  men  in  the  north  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  passage  of  the 

1664,  May.     Conventicle  act,  forbidding  the  meeting  of  more  than 

five  persons  for  religious  worsliip,  except  in  the  household,  or 
in  accordance  with  the  established  church. 
Repeal  of  the  triennial  act  (1641). 
Aug,     Capture  of  New  Amsterdam  in  America. 

1665,  Feb.  22-1667,  July  21.     War  with  Holland, 

1665,  April.     The  plague  in  London. 

June  3.     Naval  victory  of  Lowestoft  over  the  Dutch. 

Oct.  The  five  mile  act :  all  who  had  not  subscribed  to  the  act  of 
uniformity  were  ordered  to  take  the  oath  of  non-resistance,  to 
swear  never  to  undertake  any  alteration  in  church  or  state ; 
and  those  who  refused  were  prohibited  from  coming  within 
five  miles  of  any  incorporated  town,  or  of  any  place  where  they 
had  been  settled  as  ministers. 

1666,  Jan.  16-1667,  July  21.     War  with  France. 

June  1-4.     Naval  victory  of  Alhermarle  (Monk)  over  the  Dutch  (De 

Rmjter,  DeWitt)  ofP  the  North  Foreland. 
Sept.  2.     Great  Fire  of  London  ;  lasting  over  a  week  and  burning 

a  region  of  450  acres.     The  Monument.     St.  Paul's  rebuilt  by 

Sir  Christopher  Wren. 
Nov.  28.     Battle  of  Pentland  Hills  in  Scotland,     Defeat  of  the  Gov- 

enanters,  who  had  revolted  under  their  persecutions,  by  Dalziel. 

1667,  June.  The  Dutch  fleet  burnt  Sheerness,  entered  the  Medway, 
and  sailed  to  within  twenty  miles  of  London. 

July  21.  Treaties  of  Breda  between  England,  Holland,  France, 
Denmark.  England  received  from  France,  Antigua,  Mont- 
serrat,  English  St.  Christopher's ;  France  received  Acadia. 
England  and  Holland  adopted  the  status  quooi  May  20, 1667; 
England  retaining  New  Amsterdam,  and  Holland,  Surinam.  It 
was  agreed  that  goods  brought  down  the  Rhine  might  be  trans- 
ported to  England  in  Dutch  vessels. 

Aug.     Fall  of  Clarendon,  on  whom  the  most  unpopular  acts  of  the 


380  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

government  were  fathered  ;  he  was  deprived  of  the  great  seal, 
impeached,  and  banished  for  life  (died  at  Rouen,  1674). 
The  chief  officers  of  state,  whose  councils  determined  the  course  of 
government,  began  in  this  reign  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  distinct  (uncon- 
stitutional)  council,  although  they  did  not,  for  some  time  to  come, 
stand  and  fall  together. 

Accession  of  a  new  ministry  called  the  "Cabal " ^  (Clifford,  Arling- 
ton, Buckingham,  Ashley,  Lauderdale). 

166^  Jan.  13.    The  triple  alliance  between  England,  Holland, 
and  S-weden  negotiated  by  Sir  William  Temple  and  John  De 
Witt  as  a  check  upon  the  aggressions  of  Louis  XIV.  (p.  367). 
1670,  May  22.     Secret  treaty  of  Dover  between  Charles  II.  and 
Louis  XIV.  negotiated  by  Charles's  sister,  Henrietta,  duchess 
of  Orle'ans. 
Charles  agreed  that  he  and  the  duke  of  York  would  openly  join  the 
Church  of  Rome  as  soon  as  expedient,  that  he  would  support  Louis  in 
his  wars  with  Spain  and  Holland.     Louis  promised  Charles  £200,000 
a  year  while  the  war  lasted,  and  the  assistajuce  of  6,000  men  in  case  of 
an  insurrection.     Louise  la    Querouaille,  Charles's  mistress,   created 
duchess  of  Portsmouth.     The  duke  of  York  at  once  professed  his  be- 
lief in  Rome. 

1670.  Second  Conventicle  act,  more  stringent  than  the  first. 
1672.  Charles  bemg  in  want  of  money  closed  the  exchequer,  thus  seiz- 
ing £1,200,000  which  had  been  advanced  to  the  government  by 
bankers.  A  general  panic  followed. 
1672,  March.  Declaration  of  indulgence  ;  under  the  pretense  of 
lightening  the  burden  on  non-conformists,  the  proclamation 
really  aimed  at  securing  toleration  for  papists.  Parliament 
compelled  the  kmg  to  withdraw  the  indulgence  in  1673. 

1672,  March  17-1674,  Feb.  9.     War  with  Holland. 

Invasion  of  Holland  by  Louis  XIV.  Revolution  in  the  Nether- 
lands. Murder  of  John  and  Cornelius  De  Witt.  William  of 
Orange  stadtholder. 

May  28.     English  naval  victory  at  Southwold  Bay. 

Nov.      Shaftesbury  (Anthony  Ashley  Cooper),  lord  chancellor. 

1673,  March.     Test  act. 

All  persons  holding  office  under  government  were  compelled 
to  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance  and  of  supremacy,  to  abjure  tran- 
substantiation,  and  to  take  the  sacrament  according  to  the  estab- 
lished church. 
The  duke  of  York,  Shaftesbury,  lord  Clifford,  resigned  office,  being 
superseded  by  prince  Rupert,  Sir  Thomas  Osborne  (earl  of 
Danby,  viscount  Latimer,  marquis  of  Carmarthen,  duke  of 
Leeds),  and  Sir  Heneage  Finch  (earl  of  Nottingham).  Buck- 
ingham out  of  office. 
Nov.  21.  Marriage  of  the  duke  of  York  with  Mary  d'Este,  princess 
of  Modena. 

1674,  Feb.  9.     Treaty  of  Westminster.    End  of  the  Dutch-Eng- 
lish war. 

1  This  word  did  not  originate  from  the  initials  of  the  ministers,  although  the 
coincidence  of  their  happening  to  spell  the  word  gave  a  zest  to  its  application. 


A.  D.  England.  881 

1677,  Nov.  4.     Marriage  of  Mary,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  York, 

with  William  of  Orange  (afterwards  William  III.). 
Treaty  with  Holland  ;  secret  treaty  with  France.     Abolition 
of  the  writ  de  hceretico  comburendo. 
Aug.  10.     Peace  of  Nimeguen. 

1678,  Sept.     The  Popish  Plot.     This  famous  scare  began  with  the 

information  given  by  Titus  Oates,  concerning  an  alleged  plot 
for  the  murder  of  Charles  and  the  establishment  of  Roman 
Catholicism  in  England,  devised  by  Don  John  of  Austria,  and 
the  father  confessor  of  Louis  XIV.,  Pere  la  Chaise.  Death  of 
Sir  Edmondhury  Godfrey.  Upon  the  meeting  of  parliament 
five  Catholic  lords  (Powys,  Bellasis,  Stafford,  Petre,  Arundel) 
were  sent  to  the  Tower.  Conviction  and  execution  of  Coleman^ 
confessor  of  the  duchess  of  York.  Bedloe  swore  to  the  plot, 
moved  by  the  favors  showered  on  Oates.  Passage  of  the 
papists  disabling  act  (repealed  1828)  excluding  Roman 
Catholics  from  parliament. 
Dee.  Impeachment  of  Danby,  on  a  charge  of  criminal  correspond- 
ence with  France. 

1679,  Jan.  24.     Dissolution  of  the  "  Pensioned  "  Parliament. 

Danby  dismissed  from  the  office  of  lord  high  treasurer.  The 
duke  of  York  left  the  kingdom  after  procuring  from  Charles 
a  statement  that  he  had  never  had  any  other  than  his  present 
wife  (this  to  dispose  of  the  claims  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth, 
natural  son  of  Charles  and  Lucy  Walters). 
1679,  March  6-1679,  May  27.     Third  Parliament  of  Charles  II. 

The  impeachment  of  Danby  was  resumed  ;  and  he  was  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower,  where  he  lay  until  1685. 
Adoption  of  the  council  of  thirty,  in  accordance  with  the  scheme  of 
government  sketched  by  Sir  William  Temple.  Being  found  cumber- 
some in  practice  it  was  soon  superseded  by  a  new  cabinet  council,  com- 
posed of  Sir  William  Temple  ;  Savile,  viscount  Halifax  ;  Capel,  earl 
of  Essex  ;  Spencer,  earl  of  Sunderland  ;  Shaftesbury,  president, 
afterwards  in  opposition.  Introduction  of  a  bill  to  prevent  the  duke 
of  York  from  succeeding  to  the  crown,  he  being  a  Roman  Catholic. 
("  Exclusion  bill "  passed  to  a  second  reading  in  the  commons,  207  to 
128.) 

1679,  May.     The  habeas  corpus  act  signed  by  the  king  :  judges 
were  obliged,  on  application,  to  issue  to  any  prisoner  a  writ  of 
habeas  corpus,  directing  the  jailer  to  produce  the  body  of  the 
prisoner,  and  show  cause  for  his  imprisonment ;  prisoners  should 
be  indicted  in  the  first  term  of  their  commitment,  and  tried 
not  later  than  the  second  ;  no  person  once  set  free  by  order  of 
the  court  could  be  again  imprisoned  for  the  sam.e  offense. 
May  27.     Prorogation  of  parliament  (dissolved  in  July). 
May-June.     Covenanters  in  Scotland  cruelly  persecuted  by  Lauder- 
dale.    Murder  of  archbishop  Sharpe,  May  3,  1679.     Defeat  of 
Claverhouse  by  the  Covenanters,  under  Balfour,  at  Drumclog, 
June  1. 
June  22.     Battle  of  Bothwell-Brigg  •,  defeat  of  the  Covenanters  by 
the  duke  of  Monmouth.      Cruelties  of  the  duke  of  York  in 
Scotland. 


382  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

Oct.  7.  The  fourth  parliament  of  Charles  II.,  prorogued  immediately 
upon  its  meeting  without  the  advice  of  the  council :  Sir  W. 
Temple,  Essex,  and  Halifax  resigned,  and  were  succeeded  by 
Sidney  Godolphin,  earl  of  Godolphin,  and  Laurence  Hyde, 
earl  of  Rochester  (son  of  Clarendon). 

"  Meal  tub  plot,"  an  alleged  papist  conspiracy  against  the  king, 
disclosed  by  Dangerjield.     (Papers  in  a  tub  of  meal.)' 

Meeting  of  parliament  demanded  by  the  opposition  (^Shaftesbury'). 

Petitions  sent  up,  asking  that  parliament  be  called.  The  court 
party  retorted  by  sendmg  addresses  expressive  of  their  abhor- 
rence at  this  interference  with  the  king.  Hence  Petitioners 
(the  opposition)  and  Abhorrers  (the  government),  afterwards 
Whigs  and  Tories.  ( Whig,  name  of  a  Scotch,  Tory,  of  an 
Irish  faction.) 

1680,  Oct.  21-1681,  Jan.  18.     Fourth  parliament  of  Charles  II. 

The  exclusion  bill,  passed  by  the  commons,  was  thrown  out  in 
the  lords  by  the  influence  of  Halifax. 

1681,  March  21-28.     Fifth  parliament  of  Charles  II.,  at  Oxford. 

A  new  exclusion  bill  being  introduced,  parliament  was  dis- 
solved, March  28. 
July-Aug.     Execution  of  Plunkett,  archbishop  of  Armagh,  for  high 

treason  (July  1);  of  College  (Aug.  31). 
Nov.    Shaftesbury,  accused  of  high  treason,  committed  to  the  Tower. 
The  bill  being  ignored  by  the  grand  jury  he  escaped  to  Hol-» 
land  (died  1683). 
Continued  persecution  of  the  Covenanters,  Conventiclers,  and  Came- 
ronians  (so  called  after  a  popular  preacher,  f  July  20,  1680),  in  Scot- 
land.   Passage  of  a  test  act  against  the  Presbyterians,  which,  however, 
also  caused  the  resignation   of   some    eighty  Episcopal  clergymen. 
Trial  and  condemnation  of  the  earl  of  Argyle  (I^ec);  his  flight. 

1682,  William  of  Orange  in  England.  The  duke  of  York,  accom- 
panied by  John  Churchill  (b.  1650,  served  under  Turenne  in 
France  ;  general  under  James  II.  ;  married  Sarah  Jennings ; 
baron  ChurchiU,  1685 ;  earl  of  Marlborough,  1689  ;  duke  of 
Marlborough,  1702  ;  died,  June  16, 1722),  sliipwrecked  on  the 
voyage  to  Scotland.  Monmouth  made  a  progress  in  the  north- 
west counties,  and  was  arrested  and  held  to  bail. 

Dec.  Death  of  the  earl  of  Nottingham  (Finch) ;  Sir  Francis  North 
made  lord  keeper.    Sunderland,  secretary  of  state  (Jan.  1683). 

1683,  June.     Judgment  given  against  the  city  of  London  on  a  quo 

warranto;   forfeiture   of    the   charter,   which   was   ransomed. 

This  process  was  successfully  repeated  with  other  corporations. 

Confederacy  of  Monmouth,  Essex,  Russell,  Gray,  Howard,  Sidney f 
Hampden,  for  securing  a  change  in  the  proceedings  of  the  gov- 
ernment. This  was  supplemented  by  a  plot  of  a  different  set 
of  persons  for  the  assassination  of  the  king,  known  as  the 
Rye  House  plot,  from  the  place  where  the  king  was  to  be 
shot.  Both  plots  were  revealed.  Suicide  of  Essex,  execution 
of  Russell  and  Sidney  ;  Monmouth  was  pardoned,  and  retired  to 
Holland. 
Sept.     Jeffries,  lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench.     Tlie  duke  of 


K.  D.  England.  383 

York  was  reinstated  in  office.     Danby  liberated  ;  Oates  fined 
(1684). 
1685,  Feb.  6.     Death  of  Charles  II.,  who  accepted  Roman  Catholi- 
cism on  his  death-bed. 

1685-1688.    James  XL, 

a  cruel,  revengeful,  deceitful  despot.  He  was  twice  married  : 
1.  Anne  Hyde,  daughter  of  lord  Clarendon  (daughters,  Mary,  mar- 
ried William  of  Orange  ;  Anne,  married  George  of  Denmark).  2. 
Mary  cTEste  (son,  James  Edward).  Halifax,  president  of  the  council  ; 
Sunderland,  secretary  of  state  ;  Godolphin,  chamberlain  of  the  queen, 
Clarendon,  lord  privy  seal,  Rochester,  treasurer. 

1685,  May  19-1687,  July  2.  ParUament  of  James  II.     Trial  and 
'    condemnation  of  Richard  Baxter.    Danby  and  the  popish  lords 

discharged. 
May.     Trial  of  Oates  and  Dangerjield,  who   were  sentenced  to  be 

whipped.     {Dangerjield  died  from  the  punishment.) 

1685.  Expedition  of  Monmouth  and  Argyle. 

May.     Argyle  landed  in  Scotland,  where  he  was   coldly  received  ; 

June  17  he  was  captured,  and  executed  June  30. 
June  11.     Landing  of  Monmouth  in  Dorsetshire.     He  proclaimed 

himself   king,   as  James   II.      Gathering  a  force   of    some 

60,000  men  he  was  defeated  in  the 
July  6.  Battle  of  Sedgemoor  (the  last  battle  in  England). 
July  15.      Execution   of    Monmouth     on    Tower    Hill.      "  Kirke's 

Lambs"  quartered   on  the  people   in   the  western  counties. 

JefPries  sent  on  a  circuit  in  the  west  to  try  the  rebels  and 

those  who  had  aided  them.     "  The  Bloody  Assize  "  (Lady  Alice 

Lisle).     Jeffries  made  lord  chancellor. 
Halifax  dismissed  from  the  presidency  of  the  council  and  supers 
seded  by  the  earl  of  Sunderland  (who  became  a  Roman  Catholic). 
Parliament  met  Nov.  9,  but  as  they  would  not  repeal  the  last  act 
they  were  prorogued  Nov.  27. 

Arrival  of  many  refugees  from  France  after  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes. 

1686,  June.     Sir  Edward  Hales,  a   papist,  appointed    to   office   by 

James  under  a  dispensation.  In  a  suit  brought  to  test  the 
legality  of  the  act  judgment  was  procured  in  the  king's  favor, 
by  the  appointment  of  judges  favorable  to  the  court.  Catholic 
worship  allowed.  Protestant  clergymen  forbidden  to  preach 
doctrinal  sermons.  Compton,  bishop  of  London,  refused  to 
remove  the  rector  of  St.  Giles  who  had  disobeyed  this  order. 
He  was  therefore  tried  before  a 

1686,  July.     New  court  of  ecclesiastical  commission  and  sus- 

pended. 
Camp   of   13,000  men  at   Hounslow  Heath.     Rochester  dis- 
missed from  office. 

1687.  Clarendon  superseded  by  Tyrconnel  (Richard  Talbot)  as  lord 
lieutenant  of  Ireland.  The  fellows  of  Magdalen  College  having 
refused  to  accept  Farmer,  a  papist,  whom  the  king  had  ap- 


884  Modem  History.  a.  d. 

pointed  president,  were  expelled  from  their  college.  Tliis  was 
only  a  part  of  the  attempt  made  by  the  king  to  secure  the 
universities. 

April.  First  declaration  of  liberty  of  conscience  published  by 
the  king  in  England  and  Scotland,  granting  liberty  of  con- 
science to  all  denominations. 

July.  Parliament  dissolved.  Father  Petre,  the  king's  confessor  and 
chief  adviser,  admitted  to  the  privy  council. 

1688,  April  25.  Second  declaration  for  liberty  of  conscience 
ordered  to  be  read  in  all  churches. 
Sancroft,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  bishops  Ken,  Lake, 
Lloyd,  Turner,  Trelawney,  White,  were  committed  to  the 
Tower  for  having  petitioned  the  king  not  to  insist  on  their 
reading  an  illegal  order. 

June  10.     Birth  of  a  prince. 

June  29,  30.  Trial  of  the  bishops  for  having  published  a  false, 
malicious,  and  seditious  libel.  The  bishops  were  acquitted,  a 
verdict  which  was  received  with  wild  enthusiasm  throughout 
the  country.  On  the  same  day  an  invitation  was  dispatched 
to  William  of  Orange  to  save  England  from  a  Catholic 
tyranny  ;  it  was  signed  by  the 

*'  Seven  eminent  persons  "  or  "  seven  patriots,"  the  earl  of  Dev- 
onshire, earl  of  Shrewsbury,  earl  of  Danby,  Compton   (bishop  of 
London),  Henry  Sidney,  lord  Lurnley,  admiral  Russell. 
James  declared  his  intention  to  call  a  parliament.     Last  meet- 
mg  of  the  ecclesiastical  commission. 

Sept.  30.  Declaration  of  William  to  the  people  of  England,  ac- 
cepting the  invitation  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  religious 

and  civil  rights  of  Englishmen.     Doubts  thrown  on  the  birth  of  the 

prince. 

William's  army  was  under  Schomherg,  his  fleet  was  under  admiral 

Herbert.     James's  land  force  was  led  by  Feversham,  while  Dartmouth 

commanded  the  fleet. 

The  declaration  frightened  James  ;  he  endeavored  to  retrace  his 

steps  and  dismissed  Sunderland  from  the  council.     William  sailed 

from  Helvoetsluys  Oct.  19,  with  14,000  men,  but  was  driven  back  by 

a  gale!.     Starting  again  Nov.  1, 

1688,  Nov.  5.  "William  landed  at  Torbay.  Risings  occurred  in 
various  parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  William  was  joined  by  the 
duke  of  Grafton  and  lord  Churchill  (Nov.  22).  Princess  Anne 
fled  from  London  in  company  with  lady  Churchill.  James  is- 
sued writs  for  a  new  parliament  and  sent  commissioners  to 
treat  with  William. 

Dec.  10.     Queen  and  prince  sent  to  France. 

Dec.  11.  Flight  of  James,  who  tore  up  the  unissued  writs  for  par- 
liament and  took  with  him  the  great  seal,  which  he  threw  into 
the  Thames. 

1688,  Dec.  11-1689,  Feb.  13.   Interregnum. 

Riots  in  London.     Flight  of  Sunderland  and  Father  Petre ;  cap- 
ture of  Jeffries  (f  in  the  Tower  April  18,  1689). 


A.  D.  England.  885 

Dec.  12.     Provisional  government  under  the  presidency  of  HalifaXy 

established  by  the  peers  in  London. 
Dec.  17.     James,  who  had  been  stopped  at  Sheemess,  was  brought 

back  to  London. 
Dec.  18.     James  retired  to  Rochester. 
Dec.  19.     William  entered  London. 
Dec.  22.     James  escaped  to  France,  where  he  received  a  pension  from 

Louis  XIV. 
1689,  Jan.  22-1690,  Jan.  27.    Convention  parliament,  sununoned 

by  the  advice  of  the  peers. 
On  Jan.  28  the  commons  declared  :  "  That  king  James  II.  having 
endeavored  to  subvert  the  constitution  of  the  kingdom  by  breaking 
the  original  contract  between  king  and  people,  and  by  the  advice  of 
Jesuits  and  other  wicked  persons  having  violated  the  fundamental 
laws,  and  having  withdrawn  himself  out  of  the  kingdom,  has  abdi- 
cated the  government,  and  that  the  throne  is  vacant."  Also  :  "  That 
it  hath  been  found  by  experience  to  be  inconsistent  with  the  safety 
and  welfare  of  this  Protestant  kingdom  to  be  governed  by  a  popish 
prince."  The  lords  objected  to  the  use  of  the  word  "  abdicated," 
and  to  the  declaration  of  the  "  vacancy "  of  the  throne,  but  an 
agreement  being  reached  in  a  conference  of  the  two  houses,  the 
crown  was  offered  to  Mary  and  the  regency  to  William  ;  this  being 
refused, 
1689,  Feb.  13.     Parliament  offered  the  crown  to  "William  and  Mary 

jointly,  accompanying  the  offer  by  the  presentation  of  the 
Declaration  of  rights,  asserting  the  "  true,  ancient,  and  indubitable 
rights  of  the  people  of  this  realm."  1.  That  the  making  or  suspend- 
ing law  without  consent  of  parliament  is  illegal.  2.  That  the  exercise 
of  the  dispensing  power  is  illegal.  3.  That  the  ecclesiastical  commis- 
sion court  and  other  such  like  courts  are  illegal.  4.  That  levying 
money  without  consent  of  parliament  is  illegal.  5.  That  it  is  lawful 
to  petition  the  sovereign.  6.  That  the  maintenance  of  a  standing 
army  without  the  consent  of  parliament  is  illegal.  7.  That  it  is  law- 
ful to  keep  arms.  8.  That  elections  of  members  of  parliament  must 
be  free.  9.  That  there  must  be  freedom  of  debate  in  parliament. 
10.  That  excessive  bail  should  never  be  demanded.  11.  That  juries 
should  be  impaneled  and  returned  in  every  trial.  12.  That  grants  of 
estates  as  forfeited  before  conviction  of  the  offender  are  illegal.  13. 
That  parliament  should  be  held  frequently.  "  William  and  Mary 
were  declared  king  and  queen  of  England  for  life,  the  chief  adminis- 
tration resting  with  William  ;  the  crown  was  next  settled  on  William's 
children  by  Mary  ;  in  default  of  such  issue,  on  the  princess  Anne  of 
Denmark  and  her  cliildren  ;  and  in  default  of  these,  on  the  cliildren 
«f  William  by  any  other  wife."  The  crown  was  accepted  by  William 
and  Mary,  who  were  on  the  same  day  proclaimed  king  and  queen  of 
Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and  France. 

1689-1702.  William  III.  and  Mary  (until  1694). 

Privy  councillors  :  earl  of  JL^nby  (marquis  of  Carmarthen),  presi- 
dent ;  Nottingham,  Shrewsbury,  secretaries  of  state  ;  marquis  of 
Halifax,  privy  seal ;  Schomberg  (duke  of  Schomberg)  master-general 


386  Modem  History.  a.  d. 

of  ordnance  ;  Bentinck   (earl   of  Portland),  privy  purse  and   groom 

of  the  stole.     Burnet,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  author  of  "  History  of  my 

own  Times." 

Feb.  22.     Convention  parliament  transformed  by  act  into  a  regular 
parliament.     Settlement  of  the  coronation  oath. 

March  1.     Oaths  of  allegiance  and  supremacy  taken  by  the 
houses,  the  clergy,  etc.     A  few  peers,  some  members  of  the 
,     lower  house  refused  them.    Six  bishops  and  about  400  clergy- 
men were  finally  (1691)  deprived  of  their  holdings  for  refus- 
ing to  take  the  oaths,  and  became  known  as  non-jurors. 

March  14.     Lauding  of  James  at  Kinsale  in  Ireland  ;  joined  by  Tyr- 
connel ;  entered  Dublin  March  24.     Irish  parliament.  May  7. 
Meeting  of  the  estates  of  Scotland. 
Reversal  of  RusselVs  attainders  (later  of  Sidney's). 
First  mutiny  act  to  punish  defection  in  the  army ;  this  act, 
which  was  necessitated  by  the  declaration  of  rights,  was  made 
for  a  year  only,  and  was  henceforward  passed  annually. 

April  11.     Coronation  of  William  and  Mary.     William  and  Mary 
were  offered  and  accepted  the  crown  of  Scotland. 

April  20-July  30.     Siege  of  Londonderry  by  James  ( Walker)  ; 
raised  by  Kirke. 

1689,  May  7-1697,  Sept.  20.    "War  with  France  (p.  361). 
May  24.     Toleration  act  exempting  dissenters  (who  had  taken  th« 
oaths  of  allegiance  and  supremacy)  from  penalties  for  non-at- 
tendance on  the  services  of  the  established  church. 
Titus  Oates  pardoned  and  pensioned. 
July.     Episcopacy  abolished  in  Scotland. 

Graham  of  Claverhouse,  now  viscount  Dundee,  enlisted  High- 
landers and  raised  the  standard  for  James.     At  the 
July  17.     Battle  of  Killiecrankie 

he  defeated  general  Mackay,  but  fell  on  the  field. 
July  30.  Battle  of  Newtown  Butler  in  Ireland  ;  defeat  of  the  Catho- 
lics. Schomherg  in  Ireland. 
In  voting  supplies  parliament  assumed  as  a  right  the  practice 
which  had  grown  up  during  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  of  requiring 
estimates  and  accounts  of  supplies  needed  and  used,  and  intro- 
duced the  system  of  passing  appropriations  for  specified  objects 
from  which  they  could  not  be  diverted. 

1689.  Dec.  16.    Bill  of  Rights, 

a  parliamentary  enactment  of  the  declaration  of  rights,  repeat- 
ing the  provisions  of  that  paper,  settling  the  succession  as  de- 
tailed (p.  385),  and  enacting  thiat  no  papist  could  wear  the 
crown. 

1690,  Feb.  6.     Dissolution  of  parliament. 

1690,  March  20-1695,  May  3.  Second  parliament  of  William 
m.  Tories  in  the  majority. 
Act  of  recognition,  affirming  the  legality  of  the  acts  of  the  convention 
parliament.  Settlement  of  the  civil  list.  William  was  offended  at 
not  receiving  so  large  an  income  as  had  been  granted  either  to  Charlea 
II.  or  James  II. 


A.  D.  England.  387 

1690,  May  20.     Act  of  Grace,  giving  indemnity  to  all  supporters 

of  James  II.,  except  those  who  were  in  treasonable  corres- 
pondence with  him.     Resignation  of  Shrewsbury  and  Halifax. 

May  23.  Prorogation  of  parliament.  Appointment  of  a  council  of 
nine  to  advise  Mary  during  the  king's  absence  (four  Whigs^ 
five  Tories). 

June  14.  William  went  to  Ireland.  With  36,000  men  he  met  James 
at  the  head  of  27,000,  and  at  the 

July  1.     Battle  of  the  Boyne 

totally  defeated  him.  Death  of  Sckomberg.  James  fled  to 
France.     Capture  of  Dublin,  Waterford,  etc. 

June  30.  Battle  of  Beachy  Head  ;  defeat  of  the  English  fleet 
under  lord  Torrington  by  the  French.  Torrington  was  tried 
by  court   martial  and   acquitted,  but   dismissed  the  service. 

Aug.  First  siege  of  Limerick  by  William  repulsed  (Sarsjield), 
Marlborough  in  Ireland.     Capture  of  Cork  and  Kinsale. 

1691,  William  went  to  Holland.     Congress  at  the  Hague. 
Tillotson,  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

July  12.     Battle  of  Aughrim,  in  Ireland. 

Defeat  of  the  French  general  St.  Ruth  and  the  Irish  Sarsjield, 
by  Ginkell  (death  of  St.  Ruth).     Death  of  Tyrconnel. 

Aug.-Oct.  Second  siege  of  Limerick  ;  the  town  surrendered  Oct.  3, 
under  the  conditions  known  as  the 

Oct.  3.  Treaty,  or  pacification,  of  Limerick.  Free  transportation 
of  all  Irish  officers  and  soldiers  desiring  it  to  France.  {The 
Irish  Brigade.)  AU  Irish  Catholics  to  have  that  religious  lib- 
erty which  they  had  under  Charles  II.  ;  to  carry  arms,  exer- 
cise their  professions,  and  receive  full  amnesty. 
The  English  parliament  confirmed  the  treaty,  but  the  Irish  par- 
liament which  met  1695  (consisting  entirely  of  Protestants) 
refused  to  ratify  it.  Enactment  of  severe  laws  against  the 
Catholics. 

1692,  Jan.  10.  Marlborough  detected  in  correspondence  with 
James,  and  disgraced. 

1692,  Feb.  13.    Massacre  of  Glencoe. 

Indemnity  and  pardon  having  been  offered  to  all  Highland 
clans  who  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  before  Dec.  31,  1691, 
that  condition  was  fulfilled  by  all  except  the  MacDonalds  of 
Glencoe.  The  chief,  Mac  Ian,  however,  took  the  oath  on  Jan. 
6.  This  fact  was  suppressed  by  the  foe  of  the  MacDonalds, 
Dalrymple,  secretary  of  Scotland,  and  William  III.  signed  an 
order  for  the  extirpation  of  the  clan.  It  was  faithfully  exe- 
cuted by  captain  Campbell ;  Mac  Ian,  and  some  forty  others 
were  slain. 

May  19.     English  victory  of  La  Hogue  ;  Russell  and  Tourville. 

July  24.     Defeat  of  William  at  Steinkirk. 

The  "Junto"  ministry  of  Whigs  ;  Somers,  lord  keeper;  Russell, 

Shrewsbury,  Thomas  Wharton,  secretaries  of  state  ;  Montague,  chau- 

cellor  of  the  exchequer.     Sunderland  returned  to  parliament. 

X693,  Jan.  Beginning  of  the  national  debt.  £1,000,000  borrowed 
on  annuities  at  10  per  cent. 


388  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

1693,  July  19.     Defeat  of  William  at  Neerwinden  (Landen). 

1694,  July  27.     Charter  of  the  Governor  and  company  of  the 

Bank  of  England,  a  company  of  merchants  who  in  return  for 
certain  privileges  loaned  the  government  £1,200,000.  Bill  for 
preventing  officers  of  the  crown  from  sitting  in  the  commons 
(Place  Bill).  Unsuccessful  attack  on  Brest.  (Treachery  of 
Marlborough  f) 

Dec.  22.     The  triennial  bill  signed  by  the  king. 

Dec.  28.     Death  of  queen  Mary. 

Bribery  in  the  parliament ;  expulsion  of  the  speaker  of  the 
commons.  Sir  John  Trevor. 
Expiration  of  the  licensing  act,  which  was  not  renewed  ; 
hence  abolition  of  the  censorship  of  the  press. 

1695,  July  2-Sept.  2.     William  recaptured  Namur. 
Oct.  11.     Dissolution  of  parliament. 

1695,  Nov.  22-1698,  July  5.     Third  parliament  of  William  HI. 

(first  triennial  parliament). 
Whigs  in  majority.     Recoinage  act.     Isaac  Newton  master  of 
the  mint. 

1696,  Trials  for  treason  act;  two  witnesses  required  to  prove  an  overt 
act  of  treason. 

Plot  for  the  assassination  of  William,  execution  of  conspirators. 
One  of  these,  FenTvick,  was  condemned  by  bill  of  attainder, 
being  the  last  person  so  condemned.  Formation  of  a  loycd 
association.     Suspension  of  the  habeas  corpus  act. 

Sunderland,  lord  chamberlain  ;  Somers,  lord  chancellor. 

1697,  Sept.  20.     Peace  of  Ryswick  (p.  371). 
Dec.     Sunderland  retired. 

William  acknowledged  by  Louis  XIV. 

1698,  Jan.     Peter  the  Great  of  Russia  in  England. 
1698.     Spanish  succession,  see  p.  390. 

1698,  Dec.  6-1700,  Apr.  11.    Fourth  parUament  of  William  in. 

1699,  Feb.    Disbanding  act,  reducing  the  army  to  7,000  men,  exclusion 

of  the  foreign  (Dutch)  troops  ;  annoyance  of  William. 

Act  for  the  resumption  of  forfeited  Irish  estates,  aimed  at  Wil- 
liam's Dutch  favorites;  the  bill  was  fastened  to  a  bill  of  supply. 

Act  for  preventmg  the  growth  of  papacy  ;  all  persons  refusing  to 
take  the  oaths  of  allegiance  and  supremacy  forfeited  their 
estates  for  life.  Catholic  school-teachers  and  priests  were 
liable  to  imprisonment  for  life  (repealed  1778). 

1700,  March.     Miserable  end  of  Darien  settlement  (founded  1698). 

1700,  April.     Somers  dismissed   from  office.     Bombardment  of  Co- 

penhagen by  Rooke. 
July.     Death  of  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  the  last  of  Anne's  children. 

1701,  Feb.  6-June  24.     Fifth  parliament  of  William  III.     Tories 

in  the  majority.     Robert    Harley,   speaker.     Portland,  Somers, 
Oxford  (Russell),  Hali/aa:,  impeached  (April-June). 
Earl  of  Marlborough  commander-in-chief  of  the  English  forces. 
June  12,  1701.     Act  of  settlement. 

The  crown  was  settled  on  Sophia,  princess  of  Hanover,  grand- 
daughter of  James  I.,  and  her  issue. 


A..  D.  India.  389 

The  sovereigns  of  Great  Britain  should  be  Protestant  and  not  leave 
the  kingdom  without  consent  of  parliament  ;  the  country  should 
not  be  involved  in  war  for  the  defence  of  the  foreign  possessions  of 
tlie  sovereigns  ;  no  foreigner  should  receive  a  grant  from  the  crown, 
or  hold  office,  civil  or  military  ;  ministers  should  be  responsible  for 
the  acts  of  their  sovereigns  ;  judges  should  hold  office  for  life  imless 
guilty  of  misconduct. 

1701,  Sept.  7.     The  grand  alliance,  p.  391. 

Sept.  16.     Death  of  James  II.      James  Edward  proclaimed  king  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  by  Louis  XIV. 

1701,  Dec.  30-1702,  July  2.     Sixth  parliament  of  "William  HI. 

Attainder  of  the  pretended  prince  of  Wales.     Oath  of  abjura^ 
tion. 

1702,  March  8.    Death  of  "William  HI. 

Chief  authors  of  this  period  :  Sir  Thomas  Browne  (1605-1682)  ; 
John  Bunyan  (1628-1688);  Daniel  Defoe  (1661-1731);  John  Dry  den 
(1631-1700)  ;  Edward  Hyde,  earl  of  Clarendm  (1608-1674)  ;  John 
Locke  (1632-1704);  John  Milton  (1608-1674);  Isaac  Newton  (1643- 
1727).  (Seep.  433.) 

§  6.    INDIA.  {See  p.  S54.) 

1658-1707.     Aurangzeb,  Mughal  emperor. 

The  first  years  of  Aurangzeb's  reign  were  occupied  in  subdu- 
ing and  putting  to  death  his  brothers.  When  freed  from  their  ri- 
valry he  took  up  the  conquest  of  the  Deccan.  Bidar,  Ahmednagar^ 
Ellichpur,  he  had  conquered  while  his  father  reigned.  For  twenty- 
five  years  his  generals  warred  unsuccessfully  against  Bijapur  and  Gol- 
conda,  but  when  Aurangzeb  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  troops 
those  kingdoms  quickly  fell.  Bijapur  and  Golconda  were  annexed  to 
the  Mughal  empire  in  1688.  It  was  not  with  the  Muhammedan 
powers  alone  that  Aurangzeb  had  to  contend  ;  a  new  power,  the  Hin- 
du kingdom  of  the  Mahrattas,  had  arisen  in  the  Deccan.  It  was 
founded  by  a  union  of  Hindu  tribes  of  the  Deccan  under  Sivaj'i 
(1627-1680),  son  of  a  Mahratta  soldier  of  fortune  who  had  fought 
under  the  Deccan  kingdoms  against  the  Mughals.  Sivaji,  by  alter- 
nately levying  tribute  on  the  Deccan  kingdoms  and  assisting  them 
against  the  Mughals,  raised  the  Mahratta  confederacy  to  be  the 
ruling  power  in  the  Deccan.  In  1664  he  assumed  the  title  of  Raja. 
He  carried  on  a  war  with  Aurangzeb,  who  captured  and  killed  his 
son  Sambhaji  (1680-1689),  and  imprisoned  his  grandson  Sahu,  until 
his  own  death,  1707.  Aurangzeb,  however,  was  far  from  subduing 
the  confederacy,  which  had  driven  him  almost  to  despair  at  the  time  of 
his  death  ;  the  emperor  was  not  more  successful  in  Assam  (1662),  nor 
against  the  revolted  Rajput  states  in  the  west  (1677-1681)  where  he 
ravaged  Jaipur,  Jodhpur,  and  Uddipur  without  subduing  them. 

Aurangzeb's  total  revenue  amounted  to  eighty  million  pounds. 
1661.     Bombay  ceded  to  England  as  part  of  tlie  dowry  of  Catherine 

of  Braganza,  but  it  was  not  delivered  mitil  1665.     In  1668  it 

was  granted  to  the  East  India  Company. 
1670.     Foundation  of  the  Danish  East  India  Company. 
168L     Bengal  separated  from  Madras. 


390  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

1686.  Foundation  of  Calcutta. 

1687.  Seat  of  western  presidency  transferred  to  Bombay. 

{Seep.U^.) 
§7.     CHINA.  {See  p.  355.) 

1661-1721.     Kang-he 

conquered  Thibet  and  Formosa  and  carried  on  war  with  Russia 
(1684-1689).  His  reign  was  renowned  for  wise  administration  and 
for  the  cultivation  of  science  and  literature.  French  and  English  set- 
tled at  Canton,.  (5ee  p.  j^^^.) 


B.    The  eighteenth  century  to  the  French  Revolution. 
§  1.    WAR  OF  THE  SPANISH  SUCCESSION.i 

1701-1714.  ^^""  ^^'  ^^^'  ^'^'^ 

The  family  relations  which  led  to  the  war  will  be  made  clear 
by  the  following  genealogical  table. 

Philip  III.,  king  of  Spain,  f  1621. 

Anna,  m.  Philip  IV.  Maria  Anna. 

Louis  XIII.  I  m.  Ferdinand  III. 


IiOUis  XIV.  =  Maria  Theresa.  Charles  II.    Margaret  Theresa  =  Leopold  I. 

I  t  1700.                                        I 

Louis  the  dauphin.  Maria  Antoinette,  m. 

I  Max.  Emmanuel  of 

I  Bavaria. 

Philip  of  Anjou,  | 

as  king  of  Spain,  Philip  V.  Joseph  Ferdinand. 

electoral  prince  of  Bavaria. 

Leopold  I.  had,  besides  his  daughter  Maria  Antoinette,  two  sons:  by 
his  second  marriage,  Joseph  I.,  emperor  from  1705-1711;  by  his  third 
marriage,  Charles  VI.,  emperor  from  1711-1740. 

Charles  II.,  king  of  Spain,  was  childless  ;  the  extinction  of  the 
Spanish  house  of  Hapsburg  in  the  near  future  was  certain  ;  hence  the 
question  of  the  Spanish  succession  formed  the  chief  occupation  of  all 
the  European  cabinets  since  the  Peace  of  Ryswick.  The  question  had 
two  aspects:  a.  The  legal,  according  to  which  there  were  three  claim- 
ants: 1.  Louis  XIV.,  at  once  as  son  of  the  elder  daughter  of  Philip  III, 
and  husband  of  the  elder  daughter  of  Philip  IV.  The  solemn  renun- 
ciations of  both  princesses  were  declared  null  and  void  by  the  parlia- 
ment of  Paris.  2.  Leopold  I.,  the  representative  of  the  German  line 
of  Hapsburg,  as  son  of  the  yown^er  daughter  of  Philip  III.,  and  husband 
of  the  younger  daughter  of  Philip  IV.  Both  princesses  had  expressly 
reserved  their  right  of  inheritance.     3.  The  electoral  prince  of  Ba- 

1  Schlosser:  Geschichte  des  18  Jahrkunderts ;  V.  Noorden:  Europdischt 
Gesch.  im  18  Jahrhundert,  vols.  I.  and  II. 


A.  D.  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  391 

varia,  as  great-grandson  of  Philip  IV.,  and  grandson  of  the  younger 
sister  of  the  present  possessor,  Charles  II.  b.  The  political  aspect  with 
regard  to  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe  ;  in  consideration  of  which 
the  naval  powers,  England  and  Holland,  would  not  permit  the  crown 
of  the  great  Spanish  monarchy  to  be  united  with  the  French,  or  to 
be  worn  by  the  ruler  of  the  Austrian  lands.  On  this  account  Leopold 
I.  claimed  the  Spanish  inheritance  for  his  second  son  Charles  only, 
while  Louis  XIV. 's  claim  was  urged  in  the  name  of  his  second  grand- 
son, Philip  ofAnjou. 
1698.     First  treaty  of  partition. 

Oct.  11.     Spain,  Indies,  and  the  Netherlands  to  the  electoral  prince  of 
Bavaria;  Naples  and  Sicily,  seaports  in  Tuscany,  and  the  prov- 
ince of  Guipuzcoa,  to  the  dauphin  ;  the  duchy  of  Milan,  to  arch- 
duke Charles. 
The  negotiations  of  the  powers  in  regard  to  the  succession,  and  the 
conclusion  of  a  treaty  of  partition  without  the  participation  of  Charles 
II.,  provoked  that  monarch. 

In  order  to  preserve  the  unity  of  the  monarchy  he  made  the  prince 
elector  of  Bavaria,  then  seven  years  old,  sole  heir  of  the  whole  inheri- 
tance ;  a  settlement  to  which  the  naval  powers  agreed. 
1699  (Feb.  6).  Sudden  death  of  the  prince  elector.  New  intrigues 
of  France  (Harcourt  ambassador.  Cardinal  Portocarrero)  and 
Austria  at  Madrid,  while  both  parties  were  negotiating  a  new  treaty 
of  partition  with  the  naval  powers. 
1700.     Second  treaty  of  partition. 

Mar.  13.     Spain  and  the  Indies  to  archduke  Charles  ;  Naples  and  Sicily 
and  the  duchy  of  Lorraine  to  the  dauphin  ;  Milan  to  the  duke 
of  Lorraine  in  exchange. 
Finally  Charles  IL,  although  originally  more  inclined  to  the  Aus- 
trian succession,  signed  a  new  will,  making  Louis'  grandson,  Philip  of 
Anjou,  heir.     Immediately  afterwards 

1700.  Charles  IL  died. 

Nov.  1.  Louis  XIV.  soon  decided  to  follow  the  will  rather  than 
the  treaty  with  England.  The  duke  of  Anjou  was  proclaimed 
as  Philip  v.,  and  started  for  his  new  kingdom.  ("  II  n'y  a  plus  de 
Pyrenees")  Death  of  James  IL,  1701  ;  Louis  recognized  his  son  as 
king  of  England. 

1701.  Grand  Alliance  of  the  naval  powers  with  the  emperor 
Sept.  7.     Leopold  L,  for  the  purpose,  at  first,  of  securing  the  Spanish 

possessions  in  the  Netherlands  and  in  Italy  for  the  Austrian 
house,  while  France  allied  herself  with  the  dukes  of  Savoy  and  Man- 
tua, the  electors  of  Bavaria  and  Cologne.  The  other  estates  of  the 
empire,  especially  Prussia,  joined  the  emperor.  Portugal  afterwards 
joined  the  grand  alliance,  and  in  1703  Savoy  did  likewise,  deserting 
France. 

Three  men  were  at  the  head  of  the  grand  alliance  against  France  : 
Eugene,  prince  of  Savoy,  imperial  general ;  Marlborough,  English 
genera],  formerly  John  Churchill;  A.  Heinsius,  after  the  death  of 
William  III.,  1702,  pensionary  of  Holland. 

Spain,  the  real  object  of  the  war,  had  but  little  importance  in  the 


392  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

campaigns,  the  chief  seat  of  war  being  Italyj  the  Netherlands,  and 
Germany. 

Philip  of  Anjou  was  recognized  in  Spain  as  king  Philip  V.  His 
strongest  support  was  in  Castile. 

1701.  Commencement  of  the  war  by  Eugene's  invasion  of  Italy. 
Victory  over  Catinat  at  Carpi,  over  Villeroi  at  Chiari ;  the  lat- 
ter was  captured  at  Cremona  (1702). 

Eugene  and  Vendome  fought  a  drawn  battle  at  Luzzara  (1702)p 
after  which  the  French  had  the  advantage  in  Italy  until  1706. 

1702.  March  8.     Death  of  William  III.     Anne,  queen  of  England. 

1703.  The  Bavarians  invaded  Tyrol,  but  were  repulsed.  Eugene 
went  to  Germany,  along  the  Rhine.     Marlborough  invaded  the 

Spanish  Netherlands.     The  archduke  Charles  landed  in  Portugal,  and 
invaded  Catalonia.     The  English  captured  Gibraltar  (1704). 

1703.  Victory  of  the  French  under  Villars  at  Hbchstddt  over  the  Ba- 
varians. 

1704.  Battle  of  Hochstadt  and  Blindheim  (Blenheim), 
Aug.  13.     (between  Ulm  and  Donau worth),  Bavarians  and  French 

{Tallard)  defeated  by  Eugene  and  Marlborough. 

1705.  Leopold  I.  died.     His  son,  Joseph  I.,  emperor. 

1706.  Charles  conquered  Madrid  but  held  it  for  a  short  time  only. 

1706,  May  23.  Victory  of  Marlborough  at  Ramillies  over 
Villeroi.     Submission  of  Brussels,  Antwerp,  Ghent,  Ostend,  etc. 

Sept.  7.     Victory  of  Eugene  at  Turin, 

over  Marsin  and  the  duke  of  Orleans  with  help  of  the  Prus- 
sians under  Leopold  of  Dessau.  Submission  of  all  Lombardy. 
Charles  III.  proclaimed  at  Milan.  The  French  permanently 
excluded  from  Italy. 

1708,  July  11.  Victory  of  Marlborough  and  Eugene  at 
Gudenarde  over  Vendome  and  the  duke  of  Burgundy. 
Siege  and  surrender  of  Lille.     Severe  winter  in  France. 

Negotiations  for  peace.  Demands  of  the  allies  :  surrender  of  the 
Spanish  monarchy  to  Charles  of  Austria,  and  of  the  border  fortresses 
of  the  Netherlands  to  the  Hollanders  ;  restoration  of  all  matters  re- 
lating to  the  empire  and  the  emperor  to  the  state  prescribed  in  the 
peace  of  Westphalia,  i.  e.  the  cession  of  Strashurg,  Brisach,  etc.  Eng- 
land insisted  on  the  recognition  of  Anne  and  the  Protestant  succes- 
sion (p.  388)  and  the  banishment  of  the  Pretender.  These  terms  Louis 
was  willing  to  accept,  but  when  the  demand  was  added  that  he  should 
drive  his  grandson  from  Spain  with  French  weapons,  it  was  too  much. 
The  negotiations  were  broken  off,  Louis  made  a  successful  appeal  to 
the  people  of  France,  and  the  war  was  continued. 

1709.  The   French  were   again  humbled  by  the  victory  of 
Sept.  11.     Eugene  and  Marlborough  at  Malplaquet  over 

Villars.  The  bloodiest  battle  of  the  war.  The  allies  lost  20,000 
men.  New  approaches  on  the  part  of  Louis.  Capture  of  Douai, 
Morn,  etc.  (1710).  In  Spain  Philip,  by  the  aid  of  Vendome, 
had  the  advantage  of  Charles.     The  Spanish  people  favored 


A..  D.  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.  393 

Philip.  Renewal  of  the  negotiations  at  Gertruydenhurg.  Louis 
offered  to  pay  subsidized  troops  against  his  grandson.  The  al- 
lies demanded  that  he  should  send  his  armies  against  Philip. 
Renewal  of  the  war.  Victories  of  Vendome  over  the  English 
(Brihuega,  1710)  and  the  imperialists  (Valla-viciosa,  in  Spain). 

1710.  Aug.     Fall  of  the  Whig  ministry  in  England,  and  accession 

of  the  enemies  of  Marlborough. 

1711.  Death  of  the  Emperor  Joseph,    whereby    Charles  became 
heir  of  all  the  Austrian  possessions,  so  that  the  monarchy  of 

Charles  V.  would  have  been  restored  had  the  Spanish  inheritance 
also  devolved  upon  him.  These  events  completely  altered  all  the 
political  relations,  in  favor  of  Louis  XIV. 

Marlborough  removed  from  command,  the  Grand  Alliance  dis- 
solved, prelinunaries  of  peace  between  England  and  France.  Death 
of  the  dauphin,  of  Adelaide  of  Savoy,  her  husband  and  their  son, 
the  duke  of  Brittany. 

1712.  Victory  of  the  French  commander  Villars  at  Denain  over  lord 
Albermarle.     Recapture  of  Douai,  Le  Quesnoy,  and  Bouchain. 

Opening  of  the  congress  at  Utrecht.     Each  of  the  allies  pre- 
sented his  demands  separately.     Dissensions  between  the  allies 
caused  the  conclusion  of  separate  treaties  of  peace,  which  are  compre- 
hended under  the  name  of  the 

1713.  Peace  of  Utrecht. 
April  11. 

1.  England  :  Recognition  of  the  Protestant  succession  in  England; 
confirmation  of  the  permanent  separation  of  the  crowns  of  France 
and  Spain.  France  ceded  to  England  Newfoundland,  Nova  Scotia 
(Acadia),  and  Hudson  Bay  territory;  Spain  ceded  to  England 
Gibraltar,  the  island  of  Minorca,  and  the  Asiento,  or  contract  for  sup- 
plying the  Spanish  colonies  with  African  slaves. 

2.  Holland  :  Surrender  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands  to  the  republic 
of  Holland,  in  order  that  they  should  be  delivered  to  the  Austrians, 
after  the  conclusion  of  a  Barrier  Treaty,  in  regard  to  the  fortresses 
along  the  French  border  from  Fumes  to  Namur,  which  were  to  be 
garrisoned  by  the  Dutch.  Lille  restored  to  France.  Demolition  of 
the  fortifications  of  Dunkirk. 

3.  Savoy  received  the  island  of  Sicily  as  a  kingdom,  and  an  ad- 
vantageous change  of  boundary  in  Upper  Italy,  renounced  its  claims 
upon  Spain,  reserving,  however,  its  right  of  inheritance  in  case  the 
house  of  Bourbon  should  become  extinct  (p.  397). 

4.  Prussia  received  recognition  of  the  royal  title,  and  possession  of 
Neuchatel  and  the  upper  quarter  of  Gueldres.  Prussia's  claim  upon  the 
principality  of  Orange  on  the  Rhdne,  was  transferred  to  France. 

5.  Portugal  obtained  a  correction  of  boundaries  in  South  America, 
Philip  V.  (founder  of  the  Spanish  branch  of  the  Bourbons)  was 

recognized  as  king  of  Spain  and  the  colonies. 

Reservations  in  the  peace:  1.  for  the  emperor,  the  possession  of  the 
appanages  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  the  Netherlands,  Milan,  Naples, 
Sardinia,  but  not  Sicily  ;  2.  for  the  empire  the  status  quo  of  the  peace 
of  Ryswick,  only. 


394  Modem  History.  A.  d. 

The  emperor  and  the  empire  continued  the  war.  Unsuccessful 
campaign  of  Eugene,  who  was  wretchedly  supported  (1713).  Lan- 
dau and  Freiburg  taken  by  Villars.  After  these  losses  the  emperor 
concluded  peace  with  France,  in  his  own  name  at  Rastadt,  in  that  of 
the  empire  at  Baden  (in  Switzerland). 

1714.  Peace  of  Rastadt  and  Baden. 
March-Sept. 

Austria  took  possession  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  after  the 
Barriere  for  Holland  had  been  agreed  upon,  and  retained  Naples, 
Sardinia,  and  Milan,  which  she  had  already  occupied.  For  the  empire : 
ratification  of  the  peace  of  Ryswick  ;  the  electors  of  Bavaria  and 
Cologne  who  had  been  placed  under  the  ban  of  the  empire,  were  rein- 
stated in  their  lands  and  dignities.  Landau  was  left  in  the  hands  of 
France. 

No  peace  between  Spain  and  the  emperor,  who  did  not  recognize 
the  Bourbons  in  Spain.  {See  p.  414-) 

§  2.  THE  NORTHERN  WAR. 

1700-1721. 

1689-1725.  Peter  I.  the  Great,  Czar  of  Russia  (p.  374). 

1697-1718.  Charles  XII.,  king  of  Sweden. 

In  character  the  two  monarchs  formed  a  strong  contrast :  both  were 
of  unusual  ability  and  power,  but  Peter,  though  passionate  and  of 
irregular  life,  was,  in  his  political  actions,  governed  by  reason  and  calm 
reflection.  Charles,  in  his  private  life  passionless  and  of  rigid  mor- 
ality, was  under  the  control  of  passion  and  senseless  obstinacy  in  all 
public  relations.  The  steady  purpose  of  Peter,  who  civilized  his  sub- 
jects by  force,  made  Russia  one  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe, 
Charles'  blind  obstinacy  caused  the  decline  of  Sweden's  power. 

The  causes  of  the  northern  war  were  :  1,  the  firm  determination 
of  Peter  to  make  Russia  a  naval  power,  and  to  get  possession  of  the 
harbors  of  the  Baltic  ;  2,  the  attempt  of  Augustus  II.,  elector  of  Sax- 
ony and  king  of  Poland,  to  unite  Livonia  with  Poland  (Patkul)  ;  3,  the 
quarrel  between  Frederic  IV.,  king  of  Denmark,  and  the  duke  of  Hol- 
stein-Gottorp,  the  early  friend  and  brother-in-law  of  Charles  XII. 

The  youthfulness  of  Charles,  who  had  assumed  the  care  of  gov- 
ernment at  the  age  of  fifteen,  led  all  three  monarchs  to  think  it  an 
easy  task  to  regain  possession  of  those  lands  which  Sweden  had 
taken  from  them.  Secret  alliance  of  Russia,  Denmark,  and  Saxony 
against  Sweden. 

The  war  opened  with  an  invasion  of  Schleswig  by  the  Danes,  while 
the  Saxons  attacked  Livonia.  Unexpected  landing  of  Charles  XII. 
in  Zealand  ;  he  threatened  Copenliagen  and  extorted  from  the  Danes 
the 

1700  (Aug.).  Peace  of  Travendal. 

1.  Indemnification  of  the  duke  of  Holstein.  2.  Denmark  promised 
to  abstain  from  hostilities  against  Sweden  for  the  future. 

Meantime  the  Saxons  were  besiegmg  Riga  (in  Livonia)  in  vain, 


1 


A.  D.  The  Northern   War.  395 

while  Peter  was  besiegmg  Narva  (in  Ingermannland)  with  like  result. 
Landing  of  Charles  XII.  with  8,000  men  and  brilliant 

1700.  Victory  of  Naxva, 
Nov.  30. 

over  the  Russians.  Charles's  hatred  of  Augustus  led  him  to 
neglect  his  more  dangerous  opponent,  the  Czar,  and  to  seek  revenge 
upon  the  king  of  Poland.  Meeting  and  closer  alliance  of  Augustus 
and  Peter.     Charles  crossed  the  Duna  and 

1701.  defeated  the  Saxons  at  Riga.      Charles  invaded  Lithuania. 
The  republic  of  Poland  was  drawn  into  the  war  ;  alliance  of 

the  party  of  the  Sapiehas  with  the  Swedes.     The  city  of  Warsaw  sur- 
rendered at  the  first  summons. 

Victory  of  Charles   XII.  over  the  Poles  and   Saxons  at  Klissow 
(1702)  and   at   Pultusk   (1703).     Charles  rejected  all   overtures  of 
peace,  caused  Augustus  to  be  deposed  by  that  party  among  the  Poles 
which  had  joined  him  and  his  adherent,  the  Woiwod 
1704-1709.     Stanislaus  Lesczinski  to  be  elected  king. 

Meanwhile  Peter  had  founded  his  capital,  St.  Petersburg,  in  the 
marshes  of  the  Neva  (1703),  and  captured  Narva  (1704). 

Continuance   of  the   war   in   Poland  and   Lithuania.     Victory  of 
Charles  at  Punitz  (1704  Schulenburg's  masterly  retreat)  and  of  his 
general  Rhenskjold  at  Fraustadt  (1706).     Charles  invaded  Saxony 
and  compelled  Augustus  to  sign  the 
1706.    Peace  of  Altranstadt  (near  Leipzig). 

1.  Augustus  11.  abdicated  the  Polish  crown,  recognized  Stanislaus 
Lesczinski  as  king  of  Poland,  and  sent  him  a  written  expression  of 
good  will.  2.  Augustus  abjured  his  alliance  with  the  Czar,  and 
delivered  the  plenipotentiary  of  the  latter,  Patkul,  to  Charles  who 
had  him  executed  with  cruelty.  3.  Saxony  furnished  provisions  and 
pay  for  the  Swedish  army  during  the  winter. 

In  Sept.,  1707,  Charles  took  the  field  against  Peter,  who  had  well 
employed  the  interval  in  making  conquests  and  establishing  his  power 
on  the  Baltic,  and  in  forming  a  trained  and  veteran  army.  The  ap- 
proach to  Moscow  cut  off  by  devastation  of  the  country.  Charles 
allowed  himself  to  be  misled  by  the  Cossack  hetman  Mazeppa,  who 
had  deserted  Peter,  crossed  the  Dnieper  (1708)  into  the  Ukraine. 
Futile  siege  of  Pultowa.  Peter  hastened  to  raise  the  siege  and 
by  force  of  numbers  completely  defeated  the  Swedes,  who  were 
exhausted  by  long  marches  and  lack  of  food,  in  the 
1709,  July  8.     Battle  of  Pultowa, 

which  established  Peter's  new  creations  on  a  firm  basis,  and 
destroyed  at  one  blow  the  ascendency  of  Sweden.  The  Swedish 
army  was  completely  broken  up,  and  a  large  part  of  it  captured. 
Charles  took  refuge  with  the  Turks. 

1709-1714.  Charles  XII.  in  Turkey,  endeavoring  to  induce  the  Porte 
to  declare  war  against  Peter.  He  was  successful  in  1711. 
Peter,  allied  with  the  princes  of  the  Moldnu,  crossed  the  Dniester,  was 
surrounded  on  the  Pruth,  and  was  obliged  to  buy  the 
1711.  Peace  of  the  Pruth  from  the  Turks  by  bribery,  upon  the 
advice  of  his  wife  Catherine. 


396  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

1.  Azoj^  i^ven  back  to  the  Porte.  2.  The  kmg  of  Sweden  allowed 
to  return  to  his  realm  unmolested. 

Charles  XII.,  indignant  at  this  peace,  refused  to  depart,  and  for 
three  years  more  misused  the  patience  and  hospitality  of  the  Turks 
at  Bender,  Bessarabia,  now  belonging  to  Russia,  and  in  Demotika. 
Senseless  defense  of  his  camp  against  a  whole  army,  when  the  at- 
tempt was  made  to  force  his  departure  (1713).  Meantime  his  enemies 
were  making  good  use  of  the  time.  Augustus  II.  drove  king  Stanis- 
laus from  Poland  ;  the  Danes  tried  to  reconquer  tlie  southern  prov- 
inces of  Sweden,  but  were  repulsed.  Peter  the  Great  occupied  all  of 
Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingermannland,  Carelia,  Finland.  The  Convention 
of  the  Hague  (1710),  in  order  to  keep  the  war  away  from  the  German 
boundaries,  had  established  the  neutrality  of  all  the  German  provinces 
of  Sweden,  as  well  as  of  Schleswig  and  Jutland.  Charles  XII.,  how- 
ever, having  from  his  retreat  in  Turkey  protested  against  this  treaty, 
the  Danes  took  Schleswig  away  from  the  duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp, 
and  conquered  the  Swedish  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Verden  (1712), 
which  they  afterwards  (1715)  sold  to  Hanover  upon  condition  that 
that  state  should  take  part  in  the  war  against  Sweden.  The  Swedish 
general  Stenbock  defeated  the  Danes  and  burnt  Altona,  but  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Russians  at  Tonningen  (1713).  The  Danes  and  Poles 
invaded  Pommerania,  the  Prussians  occupied  Stettin. 
1714.  Charles  XII.  at  last  returned  to  his  kingdom.  Adventurous 
journey  through  Hungary  and  Germany.  The  king  reached 
Stralsund.  Alliance  between  Prussia,  Saxony,  Denmark,  Hanover^ 
Russia,  against  Sweden.  Stralsund  and  with  it  all  Pomerania  lost 
(1715),  Wismar  soon  captured  also  (1716). 
1716.     Peter  I.  made  a  journey  to  Denmark,  Holland,  France. 

Charles  XII.  negotiated  with  Peter  I.  through  Baron  von 
Gorz,  who,  in  spite  of  the  hatred  borne  him  by  the  Swedish  nobles, 
was  placed  in  control  of  the  mternal  administration  of  Sweden. 
Three  expeditions  of  the  Swedes  to  Norway  ;  on  the  third, 

1718.  Charles  XII.  was  shot  in  front  of  Friedrichshall,  prob- 
Dec.  11.    ably  by  an  assassin. 

After  limits  had  been  set  on  the  royal  power  in  the  interests  of  the 
royal  council,  Charles's  nephew  was  passed  over,  and  his  youngest 
sister, 

1719.  Ulrica   Eleanora,    raised   to  the   throne.     She   soon 
placed   the   control   of  the   govermnent  in  the  hands  of  her 

husband, 

1720-1751.     Frederic  of  Hesse-Cassel. 

Execution  of  the  Baron  von  Gorz,  Charles's  intimate.  The  north- 
ern war  was  ended  by  a  series  of  treaties  concluded  at  Stockholm  and 
Friedrichshurg. 

1.  With  Hanover  (1719),  which  retained  Bremen  and  Verden,  and 
paid  Sweden  one  million  thalers.  2.  With  Prussia  (1720),  which 
received  Stettin,  western  Pomerania  as  far  as  the  Peene,  the  islands 
of  Wollin  and  Usedom,  and  paid  two  million  thalers.     3.  With  Den- 


A.  D.  Germany.  897 

mark,  which  restored  all  its  conquests.  In  return  Sweden  paid 
600,000  rix  dollars,  gave  up  its  freedom  from  custom  duties  in  the 
Soimd  and  abandoned  the  duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  whom  Penmark 
deprived  of  his  share  of  Schleswig.  4.  With  Poland  the  truce  of 
1719  was  continued. 

1721.     Aug.  30.     Peace  of  Nystadt  between  Sweden  and 
Hussia. 

1.  S"v«reden  ceded  to  Russia,  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingermannland,  part 
of  Carelia,  and  a  number  of  islands,  among  others  Oesel,  Dago.  2, 
Russia  restored  Finland  and  paid  two  million  rix  dollars. 

(Seep.  409.) 
§  3.    GERMANY.  (Seep.  872.) 

1705-1711*    Joseph  I.,  son  of  Leopold.     He  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother 

1711-1740.  Charles  VI., 

War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  p.  390. 
1713-1740.  Frederic  "William  I.,  son  of  Frederic  I.,  king  of  Prus- 
sia, by  wise  economy,  a  military  severity,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  a  formidable  army,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  future  power  of 
Prussia.  Maintenance  of  a  standing  army  of  83,000  men,  with  p. 
population  of  two  and  a  half  million  inhabitants.  Prince  Leopold  of 
Anhalt-Dessau  ("  the  old  Dessauan  "). 

1714-1718.  "War  of  Turks  with  Venice,  and  after  1716  with  the 
emperor.  Easy  conquest  of  Morea  by  the  Turks  ;  the  Vene- 
tians, however,  kept  Corfu.  In  Hungary  the  war  was  brilliantly  con- 
ducted by  prince  Eugene.  Victory  of  Petenvardein  (1716). 
Victory,  siege,  and  capture  of  Belgrade  (1717). 
1718.     July  21.     Peace  of  Passarowitz  (Posharewatz). 

1.  Austria  received  the  Banat  of  Temesvar,  a  part  of  Servia, 
with  Belgrade  and  Little  WaUachia.  2.  "Venice  retained  her  con- 
quests in  Dalmatia,  but  ceded  Morea  to  the  Porte. 

The  seizure  of  Sardinia  (1717)  and  Sicily  (1718)  by  Spain,  where 
Elizabeth  of  Parma,  the  second  wife  of  Philip  V.,  and  her  favorite 
the  minister  and  cardinal  Alberoni,  were  planning  to  regam  the 
Spanish  appanages  lost  by  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  brought  about  the 
1718.  Quadruple  alliance  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Peace  of 
Aug.  2.  Utrecht,  between  France,  England,  the  emperor,  and  (since 
1719)  the  Republic  of  Holland. 

After  a  short  war  and  the  fall  of  Alberoni,  who  went  to  Rome 
(f  1752),  the  agreements  of  the  quadruple  alliance  were  executed  in 
1720.  1.  Spain  evacuated  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  and  made  a  renuncia- 
tion of  the  appanages  forever,  in  return  for  which  the  em- 
peror recognized  the  Spanish  Bourbons.  2.  Savoy  was  obliged  to 
exchange  Sicily  (p.  393)  for  Sardinia.  After  this  time  the  dukes  of 
Savoy  called  themselves  kings  of  Sardinia. 

The  emperor  Charles  VI.  was  without  male  offspring.  His  prin- 
cipal endeavor  throughout  his  whole  reign  was  to  secure  the  various 


398  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

lands  which  were  united  under  the  sceptre  of  Austria  against  division 
after  his  death.  Hence  he  established  an  order  of  succession  under 
the  name  of  the 

Pragmatic  Sanction, 

which  decreed  that:  1.  The  lands  belonging  to  the  Austrian  empire 
should  be  indivisible  ;  2.  That  in  case  male  heirs  should  fail,  they 
should  devolve  upon  Charles's  daughters,  the  eldest  of  whom  was 
Maria  Theresa,  and  their  heirs  according  to  the  law  of  primogeni- 
ture ;  3.  In  case  of  the  extinction  of  this  line  the  daughters  of  Joseph 

1.  and  their  descendants  were  to  inherit. 

To  secure  the  assent  of  the  various  powers  to  this  pragmatic  sanc- 
tion was  the  object  of  numerous  diplomatic  negotiations.  A  special 
alliance  between  Austria  and  Spain  (1725),  in  regard  to  this  measure, 
produced  the  alliance  of  Herrenhausen,  in  the  same  year,  between 
England,  France,  and  Prussia  in  opposition.  Prussia  soon  withdrew 
from  the  alliance  and  joined  Austria  by  the  Treaty  of  Wusterhau^en. 
The  alliance  between  Austria  and  Spain  was  also  of  short  duration. 

1733-1735.      War  of   the  Polish  Succession,  after   the 
death  of  Augustus  II. 

Cause  :  The  majority  of  the  Polish  nobles,  under  the  influence  of 
France,  elected  Stanislaus  Lesczinski,  who  had  become  the  father- 
in-law  of  Louis  XV.,  king,  a  second  time.  Russia  sind  Austria  in- 
duced a  minority  to  choose  Augustus  III.,  elector  of  Saxony  (son  of 
Augustus  II.),  and  supported  the  election  by  the  presence  of  troops 
in  Poland.     France,  Spain,  and  Sardinia  took  up  arms  for  Stanislaus. 

The  seat  of  war  was  at  first  in  Italy,  where  Milan,  Naples,  and 
Sicily  were  conquered,  and  the  Austrians  lost  everything  except  Milan, 
and  afterwards  on  the  upper  Rhine,  where  the  old  prince  Eugene 
fought  unsuccessfully,  and  Francis  Stephen,  duke  of  Lorraine,  the 
future  husband  of  Maria  Theresa,  alone  upheld  the  honor  of  the 
imperial  arms.  Lorraine  occupied  by  the  French.  Kehl  captured 
Preliminaries  of  peace  (1735),  and,  after  long  negotiations, 

1738.    Nov.  18.    Peace  of  Vienna. 

1.  Stanislaus  Lesczinski  made  a  renunciation  of  the  Polish  throne, 
receiving  as  compensation  the  duchies  of  Lorraine  and  Bar,  which 
at  his  death  should  devolve  upon  France.     Stanislaus  died  1766. 

2.  The  duke  of  Lorraine,  Francis  Stephen,  received  an  indemnifica- 
tion in  Tuscany,  whose  ducal  throne  had  become  vacant  by  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  family  of  Medici,  1737  (p.  416).  3.  Austria  ceded 
Naples  and  Sicily,  the  island  of  Elba  and  the  Stati  degli  Presidi  to 
Spain  as  a  secundogeniture  for  Don  Carlos,  so  that  these  lands  could 
never  be  united  with  the  crown  of  Spain,  receiving  m  exchange 
Parma  and  Piacenza,  which  Don  Carlos  had  inherited  in  1731  upon 
the  death  of  the  last  Farnese,  his  great-uncle.  4.  France  guaranteed 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction. 

1736-1739.  Unsuccessful  war  with  the  Turks  in  alliance  with  Russia 
(p.  411).     By  the   Peace   of  Belgrade   Orsowa,  Belgrade, 
Servia,  and  Little  Wallachia    were  restored  to  the  Turks. 
1740,  May.     Death  of  Frederic  William  I.  of  Prussia. 


A.  D. 


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400  Modern  History.  A.  D, 

1740-1786.    Frederic  II.  the  Great   (twenty-eight  years 
old). 

Born  in  1712,  received  a  French  education  under  Madame  de 
Rocoulles  and  Duhan  de  Jandun  ;  musical  {Quanz).  After  the  frus- 
tration of  the  projected  marriage  with  a  daughter  of  George  II. 
of  England,  estrangement  between  the  king  and  the  crown  prince. 
Frederic  attempted  flight,  was  captured,  and  sentenced  to  Kustrin  as 
a  deserter  (execution  of  Katte)  where  he  found  employment  in  the 
Chamber  of  War  and  of  Domain.  Marriage  with  a  princess  of  Bruns- 
wick-Be vern  (1733).  Correspondence  with  Voltaire.  Residence  at 
Rheinsberg  and  Ruppin  until  1740.  From  his  accession  to  his  death 
he  was  himself  the  ruler. 

1740,  Oct.     With  the  death  of  Charles  VI.  the  male  line 
of  the  Hapsburgs  was  extinct.^ 

1740-1780.     Maria  Theresa, 

queen  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  archduchess  of  Austria, 
etc.,  married  Francis  Stephen  of  the  house  of  Lorraine,  grand 
duke  of  Tuscany  (co-regent). 

1740-1748.    War  of  the  Austrian  Succession. 

Cause  :  The  following  claimants  for  the  Austrian  inheritance 
appeared:  1.  Charles  Albert,  elector  of  Bavaria,  who  had  never  rec- 
ognized the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  a  descendant  of  Anna^  the  eldest 
daughter  of  Ferdinand  I.  He  based  his  claim  upon  the  marriage  con- 
tract of  Anna,  and  will  of  Ferdinand  I.,  whereby  the  Austrian  inheri- 
tance was  (he  claimed)  secured  to  the  descendants  of  Anna,  in  case 
the  male  descendants  of  her  brother  should  become  extinct.  (The 
original  will,  however,  read,  in  case  the  legitimate  descendants  of  her 
brother  became  extinct.)  2.  Philip  V.,  king  of  Spain,  relying  on  a 
treaty  between  Charles  V.  and  his  brother  Ferdinand  on  occasion  of 
the  cession  of  the  German  lands,  and  upon  a  reservation  made  by 
Philip  III.  in  his  renunciation  of  the  German  lands.  3.  Augustus  III. 
of  Saxony,  the  husband  of  the  eldest  daughter  of  Joseph  I. 

The  claims  advanced  by  Frederic  II.  to  a  part  of  Silesia,  and  his  de- 
sire to  annex  the  whole  of  Silesia  to  his  kingdom,  the  rejection  of  the 
offer  which  he  made  at  Vienna  to  take  the  field  in  favor  of  Austria  if 
his  claims  were  recognized,  brought  about,  before  the  commencement 
of  hostilities  by  the  other  claimants,  the 

1740-1742.     First  Silesian  War.^ 

Legal  claims  of  Prussia  to  a  portion  q/*  Silesia  :  ^  1.  The  princi- 
pality of  Jcigemdorf  was  purchased  in  1623  by  a  younger  branch  of  the 
electoral  Une  of  Hohenzollern,  and  the  future  acquisition  of  Ratihor  and 

1  See  the  genealogical  table,  p.  399. 

2  A  supplement  to  the  Prussian  view  of  the  relations  of  Frederic  and  the  courts 
of  Vienna  and  Paris  will  be  found  in  the  papers  by  the  Due  de  Broglie  in 
the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  published  separately  as  Frederic  II.  and  Maria 
1  fieresa. 

2  Eichhorn,  Deutsche  Staats-und  Eechtsgeschichte,  iv.  §  583. 


A.  D. 


Germany.  401 


Oppeln  secured  at  the  same  time,  by  an  hereditary  alliance.  In  1623 
duke  John  George  was  placed  under  the  ban  by  the  emperor  Ferdi- 
nand II.  (p.  309),  as  an  adherent  of  Frederic  V.,  the  elector  palatine, 
and  in  spite  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  (p.  316,  B.)  neither  he  nor 
his  heirs  had  been  remstated.  2.  The  elector  Joachim  II.  had  made 
an  hereditary  alliance  in  1537  with  the  duke  of  Liegnitz,  Brieg  and 
Wohlau,  which  Ferdinand  I.  had  forbidden  as  king  of  Bohemia  and  feu- 
dal superior  of  the  duke.  After  the  extinction  of  the  ducal  house  (1675) 
Austria  took  possession  of  the  inheritance.  In  1686  Frederic  William, 
the  Great  Elector,  renoiuiced  the  Silesian  duchies,  in  return  for  the 
cession  of  the  circle  of  Schwiebus.  The  latter,  however,  was  secured 
to  Austria  by  a  secret  agreement  vnth  the  prince  elector ^  and  was  restored 
by  him,  as  elector  Frederic  III.,  in  1695. 

1740.  Occupation  of  Silesia  by  Frederic's  troops.     Capture  of  Glo^ 
gau. 

1741.  April  10.     Victory  of  Mollwitz  (Schwerin). 

J  741.  Secret  alliance  of  Nymphenburg  ^  against  Austria  concluded 
May.  by  France,  Bavaria,  and  Spain,  afterwards  joined  by  Saxony, 
and  lastly  by  Prussia. 
The  allied  French  (Belle-Isle)  and  Bavarian  army  invaded  Austria 
and  Bohemia.  Prague  taken  in  alliance  with  the  Saxons.  Charles 
Albert  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  archduke  in  Linz,  while 
Frederic  II.  received  homage  m  Silesia.  Charles  Albert  was  elected 
emperor  in  Frankfort  as 

1742-1745.     Charles  VII. 

Meantime  Maria  Theresa  had  gone  to  Hungary.  Diet  at 
Presburg  ;  enthusiasm  of  the  Hungarian  nobility  ;  ^  two  armies  raised ; 
alliance  concluded  with  England.  An  Austrian  army  conquered  Ba- 
varia where  Maria  Theresa  received  the  homage  of  Munich;  a  second 
besieged  the  French  in  Prague. 

1742.  The  victory  of  Frederic  at  Czaslau  and  Chotusitz,  and  Maria 
May  17.     Theresa's  desire  to  rid  herself  of  a  dangerous  enemy  led  to 

the  separate 
1742,  June  and  July.  Peace  of  Breslau  and  Beidin  between  Aus- 
tria and  Prussia  :  1.  Frederic  withdrew  from  the  alliance 
against  Maria  Theresa.  2.  Austria  ceded  to  Prussia  upper  and  lower 
Silesia  and  the  county  of  Glatz,  retaining  only  the  principality  of  Teschen 
and  the  southwestern  part  of  the  principalities  of  Neisse,  Troppau, 
and  Jdgemdorf,  the  Oppa  forming  the  boundary.  3.  Prussia  assumed 
the  debt  upon  Silesia  held  by  English  and  Dutch  creditors,  to  the 
amount  of  1,700,000  rix  dollars. 

Austria  prosecuted  the  war  against  the  allies  with  success,  driving 

1  J.  G.  Droysen,  Abhandlungen  (zur  neueren  Geschichte)  1876,  claimed  that 
the  document  which  was  published  as  the  Traite  de  Nymphenbourg  was  a 
forgery;  Schlosser  and  L.  v.  Ranke  consider  it  genuine.  Be  that  as  it  may 
it  is  certain  that  new  engagements  (according  to  Flassan,  Hist,  de  la  dipt.,  a. 
formal  Traite  d^alliance  offensive)  were  entered  into  at  Nymphenburg  by  Ba- 
varia and  France,  and  also  that  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  France  and 
Spain. 

2  The  truth  of  the  well-known  tale  of  the  exclamation  Moriamur pro  rege  nos- 
tra Mana  Theresa  is,  however,  disputed,  on  good  grounds. 

26 


402  Modern  History,  a.  d. 

them  entirely  out  of  Bohemia,  in  1742,  and  Bavaria  (1743) ;  the  prag- 
matic army  (English,  Hanoverians,  Hessians),  under  king  George  11^ 
defeated  the  French  in  the 

1743.  Battle  of  Dettingen.  The  emperor  Charles  VII.  was  a  ref- 
June  27.     ugee  in  Frankfort. 

These  Austrian  successes  and  the  treaties  with  Sardinia  and 
Saxony  in  1743  made  the  king  of  Prussia  anxious  about  his  new  ac- 
quisitions. He  concluded  a  second  aUianee  with  Charles  VII.  and 
France,  and  began  the 

1744-1745.     Second  Silesian  War, 

by  forcing  his  way  through  Saxony  with  80,000  men  ("  impe- 
rial reinforcements  "),  and  invading  Bohemia.  He  took  Prague,  but, 
deserted  by  the  French,  was  soon  driven  back  into  Saxony,  1744. 

1744.  East  Friesland,  upon  the  extinction  of  the  reigning  house,  fell 
to  Prussia  (p.  368). 

1745.  Alliance  between  Austria,  Saxony,  England,  and  Holland 
Jan.     against   Prussia,     The  French  and  Bavarians  took  Munich, 

Charles  VII.  died  (1745,  Jan.). 

His  son  Maximilian  Joseph  concluded  the 
1745,  April.  Separate  Peace  of  Fiissen,  with  Austria.  1.  Aus- 
tria restored  all  conquests  to  Bavaria.  2,  The  elector  of 
Bavaria  surrendered  his  pretensions  to  Austria  and  promised  Francis 
Stephen,  the  husband  of  Maria  Theresa,  his  vote  at  the  imperial  elec- 
tion. 

The  French  under  marshal  Maurice  of  Saxony,  son  of  Augustus  II. 
and  the  countess  Aurora  of  Konigsmark,  defeated  the  pragmatic 
army  in  the 

1745,  May  11.     Battle  of  Fontenoy  (Irish  Brigade), 
and  began  the  conquest  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands. 
Frederic  the   Great  defeated  the    Austrians  and   Saxons  imder 
Charles  of  Lorraine  in  the 
1745,  June  4.     Battle   of  Hohenfriedberg,  in  Silesia,  and  the 

Austrians  alone  m  the 
Sept.  30.     Battle  of  Soor,  in  northeastern  Bohemia. 

By  the  election  of  the  husband  of  Maria  Theresa  as  emperor,  the 

1745-1806.     House  of  Lorraine-Tuscany   (p.  399)  ac- 
ceded to  the  imperial  throne  in  the  person  of  the  emperor, 
1745-1765-  Francis  I. 

After  a  victory  of  the  Prussian  general,  Leopold  of  Dessau,  over 
the  Saxons  at  Kesseldorf,  Dec.  15,  the 

1745i  Dec.  25.  Peace  of  Dresden  was  concluded  between 
Prussia  and  Austria  (Saxony). 

1.  Ratification  of  the  Peace  of  Breslau  and  Berlin  in  regard  to  the 
possession  of  Silesia.  2.  Frederic  II.  recognized  Francis  I.  as  em- 
peror.    3.  Saxony  paid  Prussia  one  million  rix  dollars. 

After  the  flower  of  the  English  army  had  been  recalled  to  England, 
where  they  were  needed  in  the  contest  with  the  pretenders  (p.  438), 
Marshal  Saxe    obtained    at    Raucous   (1746)    a    second    victory 


A.  D.  Germany.  403 

over  the  allies  of  Austria  and  completed  the  conquest  of  the  Austrian 
Netherlands. 

At  the  same  time,  the  naval  war  between  France  and  England,  and 
the  war  in  Italy  between  Spain,  France,  and  Austria,  were  carried  on 
with  varying  fortune.  Sardinia  had  concluded  peace  with  Austria 
as  early  as  1743.  At  last  the  empress  of  Russia,  Elizabeth  (p.  411), 
joined  the  oombatants  as  the  ally  of  Austria  and  sent  an  army  to  the 
Rhine.     Congress,  and  finally, 

1748,  Oct.     Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1.  Reciprocal  restoration  of  all  conquests.  2.  Cession  of  Parma, 
Piacenza,  and  Guastalla  to  the  Spanish  Infant,  Don  Philip,  making 
the  second  secundogeniture  of  the  Spanish  Bourbons  in  Italy. 

The  following  guaranties  were  given  :  that  Silesia  should  belong 
to  Prussia  ;  that  the  pragmatic  sanction  should  be  sustained  in  Austria; 
that  the  house  of  Hanover  should  retain  the  succession  in  its  German 
states  and  in  Great  Britain. 

Change  in  the  relations  of  European  states  induced  by  the  rise  of 
Prussia  to  the  rank  of  a  great  power.  Envy  between  Prussia  and 
Austria  ;  the  latter  seeing  a  disgrace  in  the  loss  of  Silesia  to  a  smaller 
power,  and  intriguing  for  the  recovery  of  the  lost  province.  Tims 
began  the 

1756-1763.    Third  Silesian,  or  Seven  Years'  War. 

Cause  :  Before  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  Maria  Theresa  had 
concluded  a  defensive  alliance  with  Frederic's  personal  enemy, 
Elizabeth,  empress  of  Russia  (May,  1746).  Secret  articles  of  this 
treaty  provided  for  the  reunion  of  Silesia  with  Austria  under  certain 
specified  conditions.  In  Sept.  1750,  George  II.  of  England,  moved 
by  anxiety  for  his  principality  of  Hanover,  signed  the  main  treaty, 
the  secret  articles  being  excepted.  Saxony  (minister,  count  Briihl) 
signed  the  treaty  unconditionally.  Prince  Kaunitz  (until  1753  Aus- 
trian ambassador  in  France,  then  chancellor  of  the  empire  in  Vienna) 
succeeded  in  promoting  a  reconciliation  between  the  cabinets  of  Ver- 
sailles and  Vienna,  and  securing  the  Marquise  de  Pompadour  in  favor 
of  an  Austrian  alliance.  Formation  of  a  party  inimical  to  the  Prus- 
sian alliance  at  the  French  court. 

Maria  Theresa  and  Kaunitz  induced  England  to  conclude  a  new 
subsidy  treaty  with  Russia  in  1755.  In  June  of  the  same  year,  how- 
ever, hostilities  broke  out  between  England  and  France  in  North 
America  without  any  declaration  of  war.  Conflict  at  Newfoundland. 
Dreading  a  French  attack  upon  Hanover,  George  II.  concluded,  in 
January,  1756,  a  treaty  of  neutrality  with  Frederic  at  Westminster, 
which  caused  a  rupture  between  England  and  Russia.  Kaunitz  made 
skillful  use  of  the  indignation  at  Versailles  over  the  treaty  of  West- 
minster. In  May,  1756,  conclusion  of  a  defensive  alliance  between 
France  and  Austria.  In  June,  1756,  war  broke  out  between  France 
and  England,  in  Europe. 

Frederic,  well  informed  concerning  the  alliances  of  the  powers,  and 
knowing  that  Russia  and  France  were  not  in  condition  to  take  the  of- 


404  Modem  History.  A.  d. 

fensive  against  him  in  1756,  decided  to  take  his  enemies  by  surprise.^ 

1756.  Frederic  invaded  Saxony  with  67,000  men.  Capture  of 
Dresden  (Aug.). 

Oct.  1.     Victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Lobositz. 

Surrender  of  18,000  Saxons,  who  were  compelled  to  serve  in 
the  Prussian  army  (Oct.  16). 

1757.  War  declared  upon  Frederic  in  the  name  of  the  empire.  He 
was  threatened  with  the  ban.     Hanover^  Hesse,  Brunswick,  and 

Gotha,  however,  continued  in  alliance  with  Prussia.  Treaty  between 
Austria  and  Russia  (Jan.)  concerning  the  partition  of  the  Prussian 
monarchy.  Offensive  treaty  between  Austria  and  France  (May), 
also  looking  to  the  division  of  Prussia.  Sweden  joined  the  alliance 
against  Frederic  upon  receiving  the  province  of  Pommerania,  but  her 
part  in  the  war  was  unimportant.  Alliance  between  Prussia  and 
England  (Jan.  1757)  extended  into  a  subsidy  treaty  (April,  1758). 

1757.  The  Prussians  invaded  Bohemia  in  four  columns. 

May  6.     Victory    of  Frederic  at  Prague  over  the  Austrians. 
Death  of  Sch-werin.     Frederic  besieged  Prague  and  attacked 
Daun,  who  was  coming  to  the  relief. 
June  18.     Defeat  of  Frederic  at  KoUin.    Evacuation  of  Bohemia. 

The  French  reached  the  Weser. 
June  26.     Victory  of  the  French  at  Hastenbeck  over  Frederic's 

allies  (duke  of  Cumberland,  second  son  of  George  II.). 
Aug.  30.     Victory   of  the   Russians    (Apraxin)   over  the  Prussians 
(Lehwald),  whom  they  outnumbered,  in  the  battle  of  Gross- 
jagemdorf.    The  Russians  withdrew  from  Prussia  and  did  not 
utilize  their  victory. 
Sept.  8.     Treaty  of  the  Monastery  of  Zeven  (duke  of  Cumberland 
and  Richelieu),  according  to  which  the  French  occupied  Han- 
over.    The  treaty  was,  however,  rejected  by  the  English  gov- 
ernment. 
Ferdinand,  duke  of  Bruns-wick,  brother  of  the  ruling  duke,  re- 
ceived  the  command   against  the  French.     A  second  French  army 
under  Soubise  joined  the  imperial  army  with  the  purpose  of  liberating 
Saxony. 

Nov.  5.     Victory  of  Frederic  at  Rossbach  over  the  French  and 

the  imperial  army  (Seydlitz). 
Frederic  led  his  victorious  army  to  SUesia,  where  the  Austrians 

had  defeated  and  captured  the  duke  of  Brunswick-Bevern  in 

the 
Nov.  22.     Battle  of  Breslau. 
Dec.  5.     Victory   of    Frederic   at  Leuthen   over  the   Austrians 

(^Charles  of  Lorraine  and  Daun). 

1758.  Frederic  in  Moravia  ;  unsuccessful  siege  of  Olmutz.  Advance 
of  the  Russians  under  Fermor,  to  join  the  Austrians.  In  the 
west,  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  drove  the  French  back  across  the 
Rhine,  and  defeated  them  in  the 

1  Cf .  A.  Schafer,  Gesch.  des  SiebenjdhHgen  KHeges,  2  vols.  1867-1874 
Dunckerj  in  v.  Sybels,  IHst.-Zeits.  18G8,  aud  I*,  v.  Banks,  Der  Urspruni^ 
dts  siebenjdfirigen  Krieges,  1871. 


A.  D.  Germany,  405 

1758.  June  23.  Battle  of  Crefeld.  After  the  conquest  of  Prus- 
sia as  far  as  the  Mark  the  Russians  advanced.     Bloody 

Aug.  25.  Victory  of  Frederic  (Seydlitz)  at  Zorndorf  (not  far 
from  Kiistrin)  over  the  Russians. 

Austrians  advanced  upon  Lusatia.    The  king  hastened  to  the  aid 
of  his  brother  Henry  and  was  defeated  in  the 

Oct.  14.  Battle  of  Hochkirch  (near  Bautzen)  by  Daun.  Never- 
theless he  maintained  himself  in  Saxony  and  Silesia. 

1759.  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  defeated  by  the  French  (duke  of 
Broglie) 

April  13.    In  the  skirmish  of  Bergen  near  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 

Broglie  was  joined  by  a  second  French  army  under  Contades, 

but  they  were  both  defeated  by  Ferdinand  in  the 
Aug.  1.     Battle  of  Minden. 

The  Russians  advanced  anew  and  defeated  general    Wedell 
July  23.     (appointed  dictator  by  the  king)  at  Kay.     The  king  was 

unable  to  prevent  their  union  with  the  Austrians  under  Laudon. 

Severe 
Aug.  12.     Defeat  of  Frederic  at  Kunersdorf  (Frankfort- 

on-the-Oder)  by  the  Austrians  and  Russians,  who  were  at  first 

defeated,     Dresden  captured  by  the  imperial  army. 
Nov.  20.    The  Prussian  general  Fink  surrounded  by  Daun  at  Maxen 

and  captured  with  13,000  men. 

1760.  Fouque  defeated  and  captured  in  the 

June  23.  Battle  of  Landshut,  by  the  Austrians.  Futile  siege  of 
Dresden. 

Aug.  15.     Victory  of  Frederic  at  Pfaffendorf  (Liegnitz)  over  the 
Austrians  under  Laudon. 
The  king  prevented  the  union  of  the  Austrians  and  Russians. 

Oct.  Berhn  surprised  and  burnt  by  the  Russians  {Tottleben),  who 
retreated  upon  the  approach  of  the  king.     Bloody 

Nov.  3.  Victory  of  Frederic  at  Torgau  (Ziethen)  over  the  Aus- 
trians under  Daun. 

1761.  Frederic  encamped  at  Bunzelwitz  (near  Schweidnitz),  op- 
posite the  imited  Austrians  (Laudon)  and  Russians  (Buturlin), 
who  did  not  venture  on  a  decisive  battle. 

Separation  of  the  united  armies.  Schweidnitz  captured  by  the  Aus- 
trians, Kolherg  by  the  Russians.  Frederic,  who  was  deprived  of  the 
English  subsidies  by  the  accession  of  George  III.  (1760),  was  in  great 
distress.     The 

1762.  Jan.  5.  Death  of  Elizabeth  of  Russia  was  the  salvation  of 
Prussia.  Her  successor  Peter  III.,  an  admirer  of  Frederic, 
concluded 

March  16.     The  truce  of  Stargard  with  Prussia,  and  soon  after  the 
May  5.    Peace  of  St.  Petersburg  :  Russia  restored  her  conquests  ; 

both  parties  renounced  all  hostile  alliances.    This  peace  caused 

the 
May  22.     Peace  of  Hamburg  with  Sweden  :  status  quo  ante  helium. 

The  alliance  between  Russia  and  Prussia  was  soon  broken  off 


406  Modem  History.  a.  d. 

by  the  deposition  of  Peter  III.  (July  9).  His  snecessor,  Catharine  H., 
recalled  her  troops  from  Frederic's  army  ;  nevertheless  their  inactiv- 
ity upon  the  field  contributed  to  the 

1762.  Victory  of  Frederic  at  Burkersdorf  (Reichenbach)  over 
July  21.    the  Austrians  (Daun).     After  Pi*mce  Henry  in  the 

Oct.  29.  Battle  of  Freiberg  had  defeated  the  Austrians  and  the 
imperial  forces,  and  the  preliminaries  of  the  peace  at  Fontaine- 
hleau  (p.  439)  between  England  and  France  had  made  it  certain  that 
the  French  armies  would  be  withdrawn  from  Germany,  Austria  and 
Prussia  concluded  the 

1763.  Peace  of  Hubert (u)sburg. 

Feb.  15.  1.  Ratification  of  the  peace  of  Breslau  and  Berlin,  and  that 
of  Dresden,  i.  e.  Prussia  retained  Silesia.  2.  Prussia  promised 
her  vote  for  the  archduke  Joseph  at  the  election  of  the  king  of  Rome. 
Saxony  (restoration  to  the  status  quo)  and  the  empire  were  included 
in  the  peace. 

Frederic's  endeavors  to  heal  the  wounds  inflicted  by  the  war  upon 
his  kingdom.  Distribution  of  the  magazine  stores.  Remission  of 
taxes  for  several  provinces.  Establishment  of  district  banks,  of  the 
Bank  (1765)  and  the  Maritime  Company  (1772)  at  Berlin.  Afterwards, 
however,  introduction  of  an  oppressive  financial  administration;  tobacco 
and  coffee  were  made  government  monopolies. 

Drainage  of  the  marshes  along  the  Oder,  Werthe,  and  Netze. 
Canal  of  Plauen,  Finow,  and  Bromberg. 

Reform  of  the  jurisdiction.  Codification  of  the  common  law  by 
grand  chancellor  von  Carmer,  a  part  of  which  was  published  in  1782. 

1765-1790.     Joseph  II.,  emperor, 

for  the  Austrian  lands  co-regent  only,  with  his  mother  Maria 
Theresa,  until  1780,  and  without  much  iofluence. 

1778-1779.     War  of  the  Bavarian  Succession.^ 

Cause:  Extinction  of  the  electoral  house  of  Bavaria  with 
Maximilian  Joseph  (1777).  Charles  Theodore,  elector  palatine,  the 
legal  heir  of  the  Bavarian  lands,  as  head  of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach, 
and  in  consequence  of  various  treaties,  was  persuaded  by  Joseph  II. 
to  recognize  certain  old  claims  of  Austria  to  loioer  Bavaria,  and  a  part 
of  the  upper  Palatinate.  Treaty  of  Vienna  (1778,  Jan.).  Occupation 
of  lower  Bavaria  by  Austrian  troops.  Charles  Theodore  was  childless ; 
his  heir  presumptive  was  Charles  Augustus  Christian,  duke  of  the  pala- 
tinate of  Zweibriicken  (Deux-ponts).  Frederic  II.  opened  secret  ne- 
gotiations with  this  wavering  and  irresolute  prince  through  count 
Eustachius  von  Gorz  and  encouraged  him,  under  promise  of  assistance, 
to  make  a  formal  declaration  of  his  rights  against  the  Austrian  claims. 
Saxony  and  Mecklenburg,  also  incited  by  Frederic,  protested  as  heirs 
presumptive  of  a  part  of  the  Bavarian  inheritance.  As  direct  nego- 
tiations between  Austria  and  Prussia  were  without  result,  Joseph  and 
Frederic  joined  their  armies,  which  were  already  drawn  up  face  to 
face  on  the  boundary  of  Bohemia  and  Silesia. 

Saxony  allied  with  Prussia.     No  battle  in  this  short  war.     Frederic 
1  Cf.  Manso,  Gesch.  d.  preuss.  Staats  seit  dem  Hubertsb.  Fricdeu. 


A.  D.  Germany.  407 

and  prince  Henry  invaded  Bohemia  (July,  1778).  Impossibility  of 
forcing  Joseph  from  his  strong  position  along  the  upper  Elbe,  or  of 
getting  around  it.  The  armies  maintained  their  positions  of  obser- 
vation so  long  that  want  began  to  make  itself  felt.  In  the  autumn 
prince  Henry  retired  to  Saxony,  Frederic  to  Silesia.  Unimportant 
skirmishes  along  the  frontier.  A  personal  correspondence  between 
Maria  Theresa  and  Frederic,  commenced  by  the  former,  led  in  the 
following  spring,  with  the  help  of  Russian  and  French  mediation,  to  a 
truce  and  a  congress,  and  soon  after  to  the 

1779,  May.     Peace  of  Teschen. 

1.  The  treaty  of  Vienna  with  Charles  Theodore  was  abro- 
gated. Austria  retained  only  the  district  of  the  Inn,  in  Bavaria,  i.  e. 
the  part  of  lower  Bavaria  between  the  Inn,  Salza,  and  Danube.  2. 
Austria  agreed  to  the  future  imion  of  the  margravates  of  Ansbach 
and  Baireuth,  with  the  Prussian  monarchy.  3.  Saxony  obtained  some 
hitherto  disputed  rights  of  sovereignty  and  nine  million  rix  dollars; 
Mecklenburg  the  privilegium  de  non  appellando. 

1780-1790.  Joseph  II.  Period  of  his  reign  alone 
and  of  his  attempts  at  reform.^ 

The  peaceable  and  prudent  government  of  Maria  Theresa  (f  1780), 
with  its  carefully  matured  scheme  of  reform,  was  succeeded  by  the 
essentially  revolutionary  reign  of  Joseph  II.,  whereby  the  ancient 
forms  were  shaken  to  their  foundations,  and  their  substance,  reluctant 
and  stiff  from  lack  of  change,  forcibly  subjected  to  experiments  made  in 
sympathy  with  the  enlightenment  of  the  century.  Joseph  II.  is  the  best 
representative  of  the  contradictions  of  the  eighteenth  century,  of  its 
philantliropy  and  its  devotion  to  right,  and  again  of  its  severity  and 
lack  of  consideration,  where  there  was  question  of  executing  some 
favorite  theory.  Filled  with  dislike  of  the  clergy  and  the  nobility, 
and  entertaining  the  ideal  of  a  strong,  centralized,  united  state,  Joseph 
pursued  his  reforms  with  the  purpose  of  breaking  the  power  of  the 
privileged  classes  mentioned  above,  of  destroying  all  provincial  inde- 
pendence, and  of  establishing  unity  in  the  administration  (central- 
ization). Despite  of  all  his  failures,  despite  of  the  fact  that,  with 
the  exception  of  the  abolition  of  serfdom  and  the  edict  of  tolerance, 
not  one  of  his  reforms  outlived  him,  Joseph's  reign  regenerated  the 
Austrian  monarchy,  lending  it  mobility  and  vitality. 

Edict  of  tolerance  (1781).  Within  eight  years  700  monasteries 
were  closed  and  36,000  members  of  orders  released.  There  still  re- 
mained, however,  1,324  monasteries  with  27,000  monks  and  nuns. 
For  those  which  remained  a  new  organization  was  prescribed.  The 
connection  of  the  ecclesiastical  order  with  Rome  was  weakened, 
schools  were  established  with  the  property  of  the  churches,  innova- 
tions in  the  form  of  worship  were  introduced,  nor  did  the  interior 
organization  of  the  church  escape  alteration.  Futile  journey  of  Pope 
Pius  VI.  to  Vienna  (1782)  undertaken  to  prevent  these  changes. 
Reform  of  the  jurisdiction.  The  feudal  burdens  were  reduced  to 
fixed  norms,  and  attempts  were  made  to  completely  abolish  personal 
servitude  among  the  peasants. 

1  Haasser  ,  Deutsche  Gtschichte  vom  Tode  Friedviclis  d.  Grossen. 


408  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

Disputes  between  Joseph  and  the  Dutch  ;  the  emperor  arbitrarily 
annulled  the  barrier  treaties  (p.  393)  (1781).  He  demanded  that 
the  Schelde,  which  had  been  closed  by  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  to 
the  Spanish  Netherlands,  in  favor  of  the  Dutch,  should  be  opened. 
Finally,  after  four  years  of  quarreling,  French  mediation  brought 
about  the  Peace  of  Versailles  (1785).  Joseph  withdrew  his  demands 
in  consideration  of  ten  million  florins. 

Joseph  attempted  to  improve  the  legal  system  of  the  empire.  His 
encroachments  in  the  empire.  Violent  proceedings  in  the  case  of  the 
bishop  of  Passau  (1783). 

The  endeavors  of  Frederic  the  Great  to  conclude  a  union  of  German 
princes  (1783),  which  should  resist  the  encroachments  of  the  emperor, 
and  to  strengthen  Prussia  in  her  political  isolation  by  a  "  combination 
within  the  empire,"  were  at  first  but  coldly  supported  by  his  own  min- 
isters and  the  German  princes.  Frederic's  plan  was  not  taken  into 
favor  until  news  was  received  of 

1785-     Joseph  II.'s  plan  of  an  exchange  of  territory, 

according  to  which  Charles  Theodore  was  to  cede  the  whole  of 
Bavaria  to  Austria,  and  accept  in  exchange  the  Austrian  Netherlands 
(Belgium),  excepting  Luxemburg  and  Namur,  as  the  kingdom  of 
Burgundy.  France  maintained  an  attitude  of  indifference,  Russia 
supported  the  project  and  endeavored  by  persuasion  and  threats  to 
induce  the  heir  of  Bavaria,  the  count  palatine  of  Zweibriicken  (Deux- 
ponts)  to  consent  to  the  scheme.  The  latter  sought  help  from  Fred-- 
eric  the  Great,  who,  a  year  before  his  death  (f  1786,  Aug.  17),  suc- 
ceeded in  forming  the 
1785,  July.    League  of  the  German  Princes 

between  Prussia,  the  electorate  of  Saxony,  and  Hanover,  which 
was  afterward  joined  by  Brunswick,  Mainz,  Hesse-Cassel,  Baden,  Meck- 
lenburg, Anhalt,  and  the  Thuringian  lands. 

Opposition  to  Joseph's  reforms  in  the  Austrian  Netherlands  and  in 
Hungary.  The  removal  of  the  crown  of  Hungary  to  Vienna  pro- 
duced so  great  a  disturbance  that  the  emperor  yielded  and  permitted 
its  return.  The  revocation  of  the  constitution  of  Brabant  caused  a 
revolt  in  the  Belgian  provinces  (1789).  War  with  the  Turks  (p.  414). 
Death  of  Joseph  II.  (1790). 

1790-1792.     Leopold  II.,  emperor. 

Joseph's  brother  and  successor.  He  suppressed  the  Belgian  insur- 
rection, but  restored  the  old  constitution  and  the  old  privileges.  A 
conference  at  Reichenbach  prevented  a  war  with  Prussia,  which  (Jan. 
31,  1790)  had  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Turks,  in  order  to  procure 
more  favorable  conditions  for  the  latter  from  Austria  and  Russia 
(p.  414).  ^See  pp.  U7,  4S7.) 


A..  D.  Denmark,  Sweden,  Russia,  Poland.  '  409 


§  4.    DENMARK,  SWEDEN,  RUSSIA,  POLAND. 

(See  pp.  375,  397.) 
Denmark  (and  Norway). 

Since  the  close  of  the  northern  war,  Denmark  held  complete  posses- 
sion of  Schleswig  and  enjoyed  imder  Frederic  IV.,  Christian  VI., 
Frederic  V.,  Christian  VI I.  {count  Bemstorff,  minister),  a  long  interval 
of  peace  at  home  and  abroad.  Under  the  weak  Christian  VII.  revo- 
lutionary attempts  at  reform  after  the  manner  of  Joseph  II.  by  the 
German  Struensee  (born  in  Halle,  physician  in  Altona,  traveling 
companion  of  the  king,  instructor  of  the  crown  prince,  favorite  of  the 
queen,  Caroline  Matilda,  first  minister,  count,  who  was  overthrown 
in  1772  by  a  conspiracy  (queen  dowager  Juliana  Maria)  and  be- 
headed along  with  his  friend  Brandt.  The  disputes  with  the  line  of 
Holstein-Gottorp  were  brought  to  an  end  in  1773  by  the  cession  of 
Oldenburg  to  the  younger  line  in  exchange  for  their  share  of  Holstein, 
which  was  in  consequence  entirely  incorporated  with  the  Danish 
monarchy. 

Sweden. 

Until  1751  Sweden  was  under  the  rule  of  Frederic  of  Hesse-Cassel 
(p.  397).  Decline  of  the  royal  power  in  the  midst  of  the  dissensions 
of  two  parties  of  the  nobility,  Hiite,  "  hats  ; "  (French)  and  Mutzen 
*'  caps  ; "  (Russian).  Unsuccessful  war  with  Russia  (1741-1743), 
ended  by  the  disgraceful 
1743.    Peace  of  Abo. 

1.  The  Cymen  made  the  boundary  between  Sweden  and  Russia, 
whereby  the  position  of  St.  Petersburg  was  made  more  secure.  2. 
The  succession  to  the  crown  of  Sweden  was  guaranteed  to  Adolf 
Frederic  of  Holstein-Gottorp. 

1751-1818-     The  house  of  Holstein-Gottorp  in  Sweden. 

Under  Adolf  Frederic  (1751-1771)  the  royal  power  underwent 
such  reductions  at  the  hands  of  the  royal  council  that  Sweden  was 
rather  an  aristocracy  than  a  monarchy.  Inglorious  participation  in 
the  Seven  Years'  War.  Adolf  Frederic's  son,  Gustavus  III.  (1771- 
1792),  crushed  the  power  of  the  royal  council  of  nobles  by  a  blood- 
less revolution  (1772),  and  reduced  it  in  the  new  constitution  from  a 
co-regent  to  a  simple  council ;  the  estates,  however,  retained  the  right 
of  veto  against  an  offensive  war. 

1788-1790.  War  with  Russia.  Drawn  battle  at  the  island  of 
Hogland  (1788).  Gustavus  invaded  Russian  Finland,  where 
the  officers  of  his  army  refused  him  further  obedience.  He  found 
support  among  the  people  (Stockholm  and  Dalecarlia).  The  estates 
granted  him  (against  the  will  of  the  nobles)  the  right  to  declare  even 
an  offensive  war.  In  spite  of  brilliant  deeds  of  arms  Gustavus  con- 
cluded the  war  by  a  peace  (at  Werelce)  which  was  without  advantage 
to  Sweden. 
1792,  March.     Gustavus  III.  murdered  by  James  of  Ankarstrom. 

(See  pp.  44^,487.) 


410 


Modem  History, 


A.  D. 


RUSSIA  AND  POLAND..  {See  pp.  375,  397.) 
Alexis,  t  1676. 


Peodor  ILL 

t  1682. 


Ivan  till  1689. 


Sophia. 


I 
Catharine, 

duchess  of 
Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin. 


Anna, 
•  duchess  of 
Brunswick. 


Ivan  IV. 

till  1741, 
t  1764. 


Peter  the  Great. 

t  1725,  m. 

Catharine  I, 

t  1727. 


Anna, 
t  1740. 


Alexis, 
t  1718. 


Peter  II., 

t  1730. 


Anna, 

duchess  of 

Holstein- 

Gottorp. 


Peter  III., 

t  1762. 
m.  Catharine  II., 

t  1796. 


Elizabeth, 
t  1762. 


The  son  of  Peter  the  Great  (p.  374  and  394),  Alexis,  who  favored 
the  Russian  reaction,  was  condemned  to  execution  by  his  father,  and 
died  in  prison  (?)  1718.  Peter  was  succeeded,  in  consequence  of  a 
law  which  he  had  issued  in  1722  (afterwards  repealed  by  Paul  I.) 
which  allowed  the  reigning  sovereign  to  appoint  his  own  successor, 
by  his  wife 

1725-1727.      Catharine    I.,  who    was    governed   by  prince 
Menschikoff,  the  favorite  of  Peter  I.,  who  had  risen  from 
the  lowest  rank  to  be  the  first  minister  of  state.     After  the  sudden 
death  of  the  empress  there  followed,  under  her  will, 

1727-1730.  Peter  II.,  twelve  years  old,  grandson  of  Peter  I. 
He  was  for  four  months  under  the  influence  of  Menschikoff^ 
who  at  the  end  of  that  time  was  overthrown  by  the  family  of  Dol- 
goruky  and  sent  to  Siberia,  where  he  died  two  years  later.  Upon 
Peter  II.'s  early  death, 

1730-1740.  Anna  Ivanovna,  younger  daughter  of  the  elder 
brother  of  Peter  the  Great,  was  proclaimed  empress.  She  was 
ruled  by  Munnich,  Ostermann,  and  her  favorite  Biron  (properly 
Biihren),  The  latter  soon  obtained  complete  control,  and  took  un- 
bridled vengeance  on  his  enemies,  particularly  the  Dolgoruky,  In 
1737  he  was  appointed  duke  of  Curland,  at  the  desire  of  the  em- 
press, by  Augustus  III.,  king  of  Poland  (1733-1763).  Russia's  in- 
fluence in  Poland  established  by  the  war  of  the  Polish  succession 
(p.  398).  In  the  war  against  the  Turks,  brilliantly  conducted,  in 
combination  with  Austria  (p.  398),  by  the  general  Munnich  (1736- 
1739),  .42:0^  was  the  only  acquisition.  The  empress  Anna  was  suc- 
ceeded by  her  grand-nephew,  the  minor 


A.  D.  Denmark,  Sweden^  Russia,  Poland.  411 

1740-1741.  Ivan  IV.  (or  VI.) ,  whose  mother,  A  una  of  Bruns- 
wick, conducted  the  government  for  a  short  time  after  Miin- 
nich  had  accompUshed  the  fall  of  Biron,  who  was  sent  to 
Siberia.     A  mihtary  revolution  placed  upon  the  throne 

1741-1762.  Elizabeth,  the  youngest  daughter  of  Peter  the 
Great.  Ivan  was  imprisoned,  the  leaders  of  the  preceding 
government,  including  Munnich,  were  sent  to  Siberia,  Biron  returned. 
Capricious  rule  of  women  and  favorites  ;  Lestocq,  a  friend  of  Prussia, 
to  whom  the  empress  was  chiefly  indebted  for  her  throne,  was  over- 
thrown by  Bestushef,  friendly  to  Austria,  and  sent  to  Siberia.  War 
with  Sweden,  see  p.  410.  Participation  of  Russia  in  the  Seven  Years' 
War,  p.  404.  According  to  Elizabeth's  direction  she  was  succeeded 
by  the  son  of  her  sister,  Peter,  duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp. 

1762 — X.     House  of  Holstein-Gottorp  in  Russia. 

1762.     Peter  HI.,  after  a  six  months'  reign,  which  he  began 
with   the   imprudent  introduction   of    reforms,  was   deposed 
(July  9)  and  imprisoned  by  his  wife  (princess  of  Anhalt-Zerbst),  the 
energetic  and  immoral 

1762-1796.     Catharine  II. 

The  two  brothers  Orloff  caused  the  emperor  to  be  strangled, 
whether  with  the  knowledge  of  Catharine  or  not,  cannot  be  stated. 
The  fact  that  she  overwhelmed  the  murderers  with  rewards  tells 
against  the  empress. 

Catharine  asked  and  received  from  Augustus  III.,  king  of  Poland, 
the  restoration  of  Curland,  for  Biron,  who  administered  the  duchy 
under  Russian  influence,  until  1772,  and  bequeathed  it  to  his  son. 

After  the  death  of  Augustus  III.  (1763),  Catharine,  in  alliance 
with  Frederic  II.,  procured  the  election  of  her  prot^gd 
1764-1795.  Stanislaus  Poniatowski  (f  1797),  as  king  of  Poland. 
At  the  request  of  Russia  and  Prussia  the  dissenters,  adherents 
of  the  Greek  church,  and  protestants  received  equal  rights  with  catho- 
lics. In  opposition  to  this  change,  formation  of  the  Confederacy  of 
Bar  (1768),  which  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  abduct  the  king. 
In  the  civil  war  that  followed  the  king  was  successfully  supported  by 
a  Russian  army  against  the  confederacy.  The  Turks,  allies  of  the 
confederacy,  declared  war  upon  Russia.  Russia's  success  in  this  war 
aroused  the  envy  of  Prussia  and  Austria,  which  led  to  an  attempt  to 
secure  an  equal  aggrandizement  of  the  three  powers  by  the 

1772.     First  division  of  Poland. 

1.  Russia  received  the  region  between  the  Duna,  Dnieper,  and 
Drutsch,  i.  e.  the  eastern  part  of  Lithuania.  2.  Austria  :  East 
Gallicia  and  Lodomeria.  3.  Prussia  :  Polish  Prussia  (  West  Prussia, 
with  the  exception  of  Danzig,  Thorn,  and  Ermeland),  which. the  Teu- 
tonic order  had  ceded  to  Poland  in  1466  (p.  277),  and  the  Netze  dis- 
trict. 

The  assent  of  the  Polish  nation  to  this  high-handed  proceeding  was 
extorted  by  force.     Exertions  of  the  powers  who  had  shared  in  the 


412  Modern  History,  A.  d. 

division  to  preserve  the  Polish  constitution,  which  was  another  name 

for  anarchy. 

1768-1774.  Catharine's  first  war  against  the  Turks 
was  successfully  conducted.  The  Turkish  fleet  was  defeated 
and  burned  by  the  Russians  off  the  island  of  Chios  {Tschesme,  1770). 
During  the  war  revolt  of  the  Cossack  Pugacheff,  who  gave  himself  out 
as  Peter  III.  The  success  of  Romanzoff,  who  surrounded  the  Grand 
Vizier  at  Shumla,  brought  about  the 

1774.    July  12.     Peace  of  Kutschouc  Kainardji. 

1.  Russia  received  Kinhurn ;  Yenikale,  and  Kertch  in  the  Crimea, 
and  their  districts;  and  obtained  the  right  of  free  navigation  in  all 
Turkish  waters  for  trading  vessels.  2.  The  Tatars  in  the  Crimea, 
and  along  the  Kuban,  became  "  independent."  3.  Restoration  of  con- 
quests in  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  to  their  princes,  whose  interests,  as 
opposed  to  the  Porte,  were  henceforward  represented  at  Constantinople 
hy  Russia. 

["Permanently  important  provisions  of  the  treaty  of  Kutschouc 
Kainardji :  I.  The  Tatars  were  released  from  allegiance  to  Turkey 
and  brought  under  Russian  influence.  II.  Russia  obtained  a  firm 
footing  on  the  north  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea  ;  pushing  back  the 
Turkish  frontier  to  the  river  Bong.  III.  The  frontier  line  between 
the  two  powers  in  Asia  was  left  much  as  it  was  before  the  war.  IV. 
Russia  stipulated  for  an  embassy  at  Constantinople  and  for  certain 
privileges  for  Christians  in  Turkey.  V.  Russia  exacted  promises  for 
the  better  government  of  the  principalities,  reserving  a  right  of  re- 
monstrance if  these  were  not  kept.  VI.  Russia  obtained  a  declara- 
tion of  her  right  of  free  commercial  navigation  in  Turkish  waters. 
All  subsequent  controversies  between  the  Porte  and  Russia  may  be 
referred  to  one  of  these  six  heads."  —  T.  E.  Holland  :  Treaty  rela- 
tions of  Russia  and  Turkey  from  1774-1853.] 

Prince  Potemkin,  Catharine's  favorite,  soon  became  all-powerful 
and  conducted  all  state  afPairs  according  to  his  humor  and  his  arbi- 
trary will. 

1780.     Armed  neutrality  at  sea, 

at  first  introduced  for  the  protection  of  commerce  during  the 
North  American  war  (p.  428).  The  subject  was  broached  by  Rus- 
sia, and  the  idea  gradually  found  support  from  Denmark,  Sweden 
(1780),  Prussia,  Austria  (1782),  Portugal  (1783);  Spain,  and  France 
recognized  the  principle.  England  prevented  the  addition  of  Holland 
to  the  league  by  a  declaration  of  war. 

Demands  of  the  Armed  Neutrality.  1.  Free  passage  of  neutral 
ships  from  port  to  port  and  along  the  coasts  of  combatants.  2.  Free- 
dom of  an  enemy's  goods  in  neutral  ships  Qe  pavilion  couvre  la 
marchandise),  with  the  exception  of  such  goods  as.  were  contraband  of 
war.  3.  Exact  definition  of  a  blockaded  port  ;  a  merely  nominal 
("  paper  ")  blockade,  that  is,  one  not  enforced  by  a  sufficient  number 
of  ships  of  war  in  the  vicinity  of  the  specified  harbor,  was  declared 
to  be  inadmissible. 

Plan  of  Catharine  and  Potemkin  to  drive  the  Turks  out  of  Europe, 


A.  D.  Denmark,  Sweden,  Russia,  Poland,  413 

and  to  restore  the  Greek  empire,  as  a  secondogeniture  of  the 
1783.  imperial  house  of  Russia,  under  grand-duke  Constantine.  The 
1787.  Crimea  (Tauria)  incorporated  with  Russia.  Catharine's  jour- 
ney through  southern  Russia  to  Kherson.  Shameless  represen- 
tation of  a  flourishing  condition  of  the  country  by  Potemkin 
the  Taurian  !    Meeting  with  Joseph  II. 

1787-1792.     Catharine's  second  war  with  the  Turks 

(^Potemkin  and  Suvaroff), 
in  alliance  with  Austria  (Laudon  and  the  prince  of  Cohurg).  Potem- 
kin stormed  Otchakoff  (1788),  victory,  in  union  with  the  Austrians  at 
Fokchany  and  on  the  Rimnik,  Potemkin  conquered  Bender  (1789),  Su- 
varofP  stormed  Ismail  (1790).  Victory  at  Matchin.  Peace  between 
Austria  and  Turkey  at  Sistova  (1791).  Austria  received  Old- 
Orsova  only.     PotemJcin  died  1791.     Between  Russia  and  the  Porte 

1792.  Jan.  9.     Peace  of  Jassy. 

Russia  received    Otchakoff  and  the  land  between  the    lower 
Dnieper,  Bug,  and  Dniester,  the  latter  river  becoming  the  boundary. 

1793-     Second  division  of  Poland. 

The  Poles  had  attempted  to  improve  the  war  of  Russia  and 
Austria  with  the  Turks,  and  the  seemingly  friendly  aspect  of  Prussia, 
by  putting  an  end  to  their  dependence  upon  the  neighboring  states, 
and  to  the  anarchical  condition  of  affairs  at  home.  Alliance  with 
Prussia  (1790),  which  promised  to  help  the  Poles  if  foreign  nations 
should  attempt  to  interfere  in  their  internal  affairs.  The  new  con- 
stitution of  1791,  drawn  up  by  Ignaz  Potocki  and  his  friends,  1. 
converted  the  elective  monarchy  into  an  hereditary  monarchy,  appoint- 
ing the  elector  of  Saxony  successor  of  the  king  Stanislaus  Poniatowski 
and  making  the  throne  hereditary  in  the  house  of  Saxony  ;  2.  con- 
ferred the  executive  power  upon  the  king  and  a  council  of  state,  the 
legislative  power  upon  a  diet  of  the  kingdom  in  two  houses,  with 
abolition  of  the  liberum  veto,  and  3.  made  some  concessions  to  the  mid- 
dle classes  and  the  peasants,  permitting,  for  example,  admission  to 
the  rank  of  the  nobility,  all  of  whose  privileges,  however,  were  con- 
firmed. 

In  opposition  to  this  constitution  there  was  formed  the  Confederacy 
of  Targowitz  {Felix  Potocki),  under  the  protection  of  Russia,  which 
had  guaranteed  the  old  constitution.  A  Russian  army  invaded  Poland. 
Brave,  but  futile  resistance  under  prince  Poniatoivski  and  Kosciuszko, 
who  were  defeated  at  Duhienka.  The  king  joined  the  confederacy  of 
Targowitz  ;  the  new  constitution  was  repealed.  Under  pretense  of 
suppressing  Jacobinism,  Prussian  troops  entered  Poland.  Annexa- 
tion of  Danzig  (1793).  Russia  and  Prussia  issued  a  common  procla- 
mation which  announced  to  the  Poles  that  Russia  and  her  former 
allies  had  already  come  to  an  understanding.  At  the  diet  of  Grodno, 
the  consent  of  the  nation  to  the  new  cessions,  was  extorted. 

Russia  took  the  larger  part  of  Lithuania,  being  all  that  remained, 
and  Volhynia  and  Podolia  ;  Prussia  took  Danzig  and  Thorn,  and  the 
whole  of  Great  Poland  (now  called  South  Prussia).     Besides  all  this, 


414  Modem  History.  A.  D. 

Russia  enforced  a  treaty  of  union,  whereby  she  received  :  1.  free 
entrance  for  her  troops  into  Poland  ;  2.  the  conduct  of  all  future 
wars  ;  3.  the  right  of  confirming  all  treaties  made  by  Poland  with 
foreign  powers. 

1794.  Revolution  in  Poland,  under  the  lead  of  Kosciuszko.     The 
Russians  in  Warsaw,  under  Igelstrom,  were  in  part  massacred, 

in  part  driven  from  the  city.  The  Prussians  entered  Poland,  defeated 
Kosciuszko  at  Szczekoziny  (pr.  Shtchekoziny),  took  Cracow,  but  be- 
sieged Warsaw  in  vain.  The  Russians  were  victorious  at  Brzesc  and 
at  Maciejowice  (pr.  Matchevitz).  Kosciuszko  captured.^  Storm  of 
Prague  by  Suvaroff;  massacre  in  the  city. 

1795.  Third  and  last  partition  of  Poland. 

At  this  partition,  the  three  powers  took  possession  of  the  fol- 
lowing parts  of  Poland  : 

Prussia  :  Masovia  with  Warsaw,  the  region  between  the  Vistula, 
Bug,  and  Niemen  (New  East  Prussia),  part  of  Cracow  (New  Silesia) ; 
2.  Austria:  West  Galicia  as  far  as  the  Bug.  3.  Russia  :  all  that 
remained  towards  the  east.  The  powers  obtained,  by  the  three  parti- 
tions, about  the  following  increase  of  territory  : 

Russia,    181,000  square  miles,  with  6,000,000  inhabitants. 
Austria,    45,000       «  "  "     3,700,000 

Prussia,    57,000       «  «  "     2,500,000  « 

1795.  The  annihilation  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland  led  to  the  incor- 
poration of  Curland  with  Russia.  Curland,  legally  under  the 
overlordship  of  Poland,  had  been  practically  under  Russian  supremacy 
since  1737,  when  the  empress  Anna  (411)  had  obtained  the  duchy 
for  Biron  against  the  claims  of  the  Marshal  Saxe.  (See  pp.  I^Iff,  4^7.) 

§5.    SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL.  {See  p.  394.) 

1701-1808  (1814-x).    The  House  of  Bourbon  in  Spain. 

Philip  V.  (1701-1746).  Bloody  punishment  of  the  adherents  of 
the  archduke  Charles  of  Austria  ;  particularly  in  Aragon  and  Cata- 
lonia. Suppression  of  all  old  constitutions  and  rights  (Fueros)  which 
remained.  The  quadruple  alliance  against  Spain,  see  p.  397,  the  par- 
ticipation of  Spain  in  the  war  of  the  Polish  Succession  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  secundogeniture  in  Naples,  see  p.  398. 

Under  Philip  and  his  successor  Ferdinand  VI.,  1746-1759,  par- 
ticipation in  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession,  see  p.  401.  Ferdi- 
nand was  succeeded  by  his  half-brother 

Charles  III.,  1759-1788,  previously  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  p.  417. 
Participation  of  Spain  in  the  Seven  Years'  War  between  Eng- 
land and  France  (Peace  of  Paris),  see  p.  441,  and  in  the  war  of 
American  Independence  (Peace  of  Versailles),  see  p.  433.  A  popu- 
lar revolt  against  Italian  favorites  of  the  king,  was  made  the  pretext 

1  Kosciuszko  never  made  use  of  the  well-known  expression  ^' Finis  Po- 
lonicB,^^  as  he  himself  openly  and  with  indignation  declared. 


A.  D.  Portugal.  —  Italy.  415 

for  the  banishment  of  the  Jesuits  from  Spain  (1767),  which  was  exe- 
cuted by  the  minister  Aranda. 

Portugal. 

Since  1640  Portugal  was  again  independent  of  Spain,  had  again 
reached  a  certain  degree  of  power  under  the  first  kings  of  the  house 
of  Braganza,  but  was  then  impoverished  by  a  miserable  administra- 
tion, and  brought  into  complete  dependence  upon  England  by  a  com- 
mercial treaty  with  that  power.  In  the  reign  of  Joseph  I.  Emmanuel 
(1750-1777),  his  minister  Carvalho,  marquis  of  Pombal,  endeav- 
ored to  introduce  revolutionary  reforms,  in  the  spirit  of  the  century, 
in  the  same  direction  as  the  later  attempts  of  Joseph  II.  (p.  408). 
After  the  terrible 

1755.     Nov.  1.     Earthquake  of  Lisbon, 

in  which  30,000  people  lost  their  lives,  Pombal  caused  the 
ruined  portion  of  the  capital  to  be  splendidly  rebuilt.  An  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  to  assassinate  the  king  (1758)  formed  a  pretext  for  ban- 
ishing the  Jesuits  from  Portugal  (1759),  and  a  welcome  chance  for  the 
minister  to  rid  himself  of  his  enemies.  The  death  of  the  king  was 
followed  by  the  fall  of  Pombal  and  the  undoing  of  his  reforms.  The 
order  of  the  Jesuits  was  dissolved  in  1773,  see  p.  416.  Pombal  sen- 
tenced to  death,  but  pardoned.  i^See  pp.  ^^7,  ^57.) 

§  6.    ITALY.  {Seep.  328.) 

Savoy. 

The  dukes  of  Savoy  and  Piedmont,  kings  since  the  peace  of 
Utrecht,  since  1718  kings  of  Sardinia  (p.  397),  understood  how  to 
increase  their  territory,  in  the  eighteenth  century  as  well  as  before, 
by  skillful  use  of  political  relations.  During  the  war  of  the  Austrian 
succession  they  acquired  a  considerable  extent  of  land  from  Milan 
(p.  400). 

Genoa. 

The  republic  of  Genoa  was  constantly  obliged  to  defend  her  free- 
dom and  independence  against  powerful  neighbors,  who  coveted  her 
territory  (Savoy,  France,  Austria).  In  1730  the  inhabitants  of  the 
\sland  of  Corsica,  which  had  been  under  the  supremacy  of  Genoa, 
revolted.  After  a  long  and  fluctuating  contest,  during  which  a  Ger- 
man adventurer,  Baron  JVeuhof  of  Westphalia,  appeared  for  a  time 
as  King  Theodore  I.  of  Corsica  (1736),  the  Genoese  called  in  the 
assistance  of  the  French,  who  after  great  exertions  and  bloody  bat- 
tles (particularly  against  Paoli),  succeeded  in  subjugating  the  island, 
which  the  Genoese  ceded  to  them  in  1768. 

Venice. 

The  republic  of  Venice,  by  consequence  of  its  obstinate  persis= 
tence  in  the  old  aristocratic  forms,  politically  immired,  sank  into  an 
irremediable  decline.     Its  last  laurels  were  gained  in  the  seventeenth 


416  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

century  in  the  glorious  wars  against  the  Turks.  The  latter  surprised 
Candia  and  conquered  a  part  of  the  island  (1645-1647).  The  Vene- 
tian fleet  under  Grimani  and  Riva  repeatedly  defeated  the  much 
stronger  Turkish  fleet.  Brilliant  victory  of  the  admiral  Mocenigo, 
1651,  and  Morosini,  1655.  Marcello  annihilated  the  Turkish  fleet 
by  the  Dardanelles  (1656),  Mocenigo  defeated  the  Turks  at  Chios, 
but  was  liimself  defeated  in  a  second  combat.  New  naval  victories 
over  the  Turks  in  1661  and  1662.  The  Venetians  received  aid  from 
Germany  and  France,  but  were  obliged,  after  courageous  fighting,  to 
leave  the  island  of  Candia  under  Turkish  supremacy.  After  an  alli- 
ance between  the  republic  of  Venice,  the  emperor  and  John  Sobieski 
of  Poland  (1684),  renewal  of  the  war  against  the  Turks.  The  Vene- 
tians under  Morosini,  supported  by  German  mercenaries,  began  the 
conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus  {Morea)  in  1685.  Count  Konigsmark 
landed  at  Patras  (1687)  and  completed  the  subjugation  of  the  penin- 
sula. Morosini  captured  Athens ;  a  Venetian  bomb  blcTv  up  the  Par- 
thenon on  the  Acropolis.  Morosini,  who  had  been  elected  doge, 
landed  in  Negroponte  (EubcBa),  but  the  plague  in  the  army  (Konigs- 
mark f )  frustrated  the  expedition.  In  the  peace  of  Carloioitz,  1699 
(see  p.  372),  Morea  was  given  to  the  Venetians,  who  repopulated 
the  peninsula  with  Greek  colonists,  but  soon  earned  the  hatred  of 
their  new  subjects  by  the  rigor  of  their  administration. 

Tuscany. 

Tuscany  declined  in  power  after  the  seventeenth  century,  as  the 
influence  of  the  clergy  steadily  increased.  In  1737  the  family  of  the 
Medici  became  extinct ;  the  later  members  of  this  house,  sunken  in 
dissipation,  were  sadly  unworthy  of  their  great  ancestors.  After  1737, 
the  rulers  of  Lorraine  were  dukes  of  Tuscany  (see  p.  398)  ;  Leopold 
II.,  upon  his  accession  in  Austria  (1790)  gave  Tuscany  to  his  second 
son  Ferdinand  Joseph.  Tuscany  was  an  Austrian  secundogeniture  from 
1765-1859. 

Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Guastalla  were  secundogenitures  for  the 
Spanish  Bourbons  from  1731-1735,  and  again  1748-1859. 

Modena,  since  1597,  was  ruled  by  an  illegitimate  branch  of  the 
house  of  Este. 

Papal  States. 

In  the  Papal  States,  prosperity,  industry,  and  intellectual  life  stead- 
ily declined.  After  the  sixteenth  century  the  papal  chair  was  occu- 
pied by  Italians  only,  who  were  for  the  most  part  members  of  the 
great  families  of  the  nobility.  Among  the  Popes  of  the  eighteenth 
century  Clemens  XIV.  (Ganganelli)  must  be  mentioned,  who  in  1773 
yielded  to  the  demands  of  the  Catholic  courts  and  dissolved  the  order 
of  the  Jesuits,  whose  general,  Ricci,  would  not  entertain  the  idea  of 
reform  (sint  ut  sunt,  aut  non  sint),  by  the  bull  Dominus  ac  redemptor 
noster. 

The  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

After  1738  this  kingdom  was  a  secundogeniture  of  the  Spanish  Bour- 
bons, and  was  given  to  Ferdinand,  third  son  of  Charles  III.,  when  the 


A.  D.  America:  British  Colonies.  417 

latter  ascended  the  Spanish  throne  in  1759.  Naples  and  Sicily  were 
governed  by  this  branch  of  the  Bourbon  family  solely  m  the  interest 
of  their  house,  and  not  in  that  of  the  people,  for  whose  intellectual 
and  material  welfare  little  or  nothing  was  done.      {See  pp.  44'^,  4^7.} 

§  7.    AMERICA:  BRITISH  COLONIES.         {See  p.  365.) 

1713.  Treaty  with  the  eastern  Indians  at  Portsmouth.  Rectification 
of  the  boundary  between  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut 
by  the  cession  of  over  100,000  acres  of  land  by  the  former  to 
the  latter. 

1715.  An  Indian  war  in  Carolina  undertaken  by  the  Yamassees  and 
allied  tribes.  The  Indians  were  defeated  and  driven  across  the 
Spanish  border  by  governor  Craven. 

1718.  Captain  Woods  Rogers,  appointed  governor  of  New  Providence, 
suppressed  the  buccaneers  Ln  the  West  Indies  ;  extirpation 
of  the  pirates  on  the  coast  of  Carolina  by  the  governor  of 
that  colony. 

1719-1729.  Overthrow  of  proprietary  government  in  Carolina. 
In  1719  the  people  of  Carolina,  having  for  some  time  chafed  under 
the  arbitrary  government  of  the  proprietors,  formed  an  association  for 
the  overthrow  of  the  proprietary  government.  The  assembly  prov- 
ing unruly  was  dissolved  by  governor  Johnson,  but  refused  to  obey 
the  proclamation  ;  they  elected  a  new  governor  and  council,  and  op- 
posed the  armed  demonstration  of  governor  Johnson  with  an  armed 
defiance.  A  threatened  attack  by  the  Spaniards  only  served  to  show 
more  clearly  the  determined  spirit  of  the  colonists.  (The  Spanish 
expedition  never  reached  Carolina,  being  repulsed  from  New  Provi- 
dence, and  overwhelmed  by  a  storm).  The  late  events  being  reported 
by  the  agent  for  the  colony  in  England,  the  royal  council  declared  the 
charter  of  the  proprietors  forfeited,  and  forthwith  established  a  pro- 
visional royal  government ;  governor  Nicholson  (1721).  In  1729  an 
agreement  witli  the  proprietors  was  reached  and  confirmed  by  act  of 
parliament.  Seven  of  the  proprietors  sold  their  titles  and  interest  in 
the  colony  ;  the  eighth  retained  his  property  but  not  his  proprietary 
power.  The  crown  assumed  the  right  of  nominating  governors  and 
councils.  The  province  was  divided  into  North  and  South  Carolina. 
1720.      William  Burnet,  governor  of  Ne"w  York.    Prohibition  of  trade 

between  the  Indians  and  the  French. 
1722.  In  New  York,  governor  Burnet  continued  his  efforts  to  ob- 
struct the  French  in  their  policy  of  hemming  in  the  English 
sea-coast  colonies  on  the  west.  Erection  of  a  trading-house  at 
Oswego  ;  negotiations  with  the  Six  Nations  at  Albany.  (The 
Tuscaroras  had  been  admitted  to  the  Iroquois  confederacy  as 
a  sixth  nation). 
1724.  Indian  hostilities  in  New  England.  War  with  the  Abinakis, 
who  were  incensed  by  the  rapid  extension  of  the  English  settle- 
ments, and  further  provoked  by  the  advice  of  Rasles,  a  French 
Jesuit  at  Norridgewock.  Futile  attempt  of  the  English  to  seize 
Rasles  was  answered  by  the  destruction  of  Berwick,  whereup'on 
war  was  declared,  Norridgewock  burnt  and  Rasles  killed. 


418  Modem  History.  A.  D. 

1725.  The  Yamassees,  though  living  under  the  protection  of  the  Span- 
iards in  Florida,  continued  their  assaults  on  the  English  colony 
in  Carolina.  Expedition  of  Palmer  to  St.  Augustine,  upon 
which  he  chastised  the  Indians. 

1726.  The  general  court  of  Massachusetts  having  become  involved 
in  a  controversy  with  governor  Shute,  the  latter  obtained  from 
the  crown  an  explanatory  charter  which  gave  him  power  to 
suppress  debate,  and  limited  the  time  for  which  the  house  of 
representatives  might  adjourn,  to  two  days. 

Treaty  of  peace  between  Massachusetts  and  the  eastern  In^- 
dians,  which  was  long  kept. 

In  New  York,  a  treaty  with  the  Senecas,  Cayugas,  and  Onon- 
dagas  added  their  lands  to  those  of  the  Mohawks  and  Oneidas, 
which  were  already  under  English  protection. 

1728.  Burnet  governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  at  once  involved 
in  a  wrangle  with  the  legislature  over  the  question  of  a  fixed 
salary  for  the  governor,  which  the  court  refused  to  grant,  "  be- 
cause it  is  the  undoubted  right  of  all  Englishmen,  by  Magna 
Charta,  to  raise  and  dispose  of  money  for  the  public  service, 
of  their  own  free  accord,  without  compulsion." 

The  boundary  between  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  was  sur- 
veyed and  settled,  running  through  the  Dismal  Swamp. 

1729.  Division  of  Carolina  into  North  and  South  Carolina 
(p.  417). 

1731.  Settlement  of  the  disputed  boundary  between  New  York  and 
Connecticut. 

1733.  Settlement  of  Georgia,  the  last  of  the  old  thir- 
teen colonies  (New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylva- 
nia, Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  Georgia). 
It  being  thought  desirable  that  the  government  should  secure  for 
England  the  western  part  of  Carolina  in  order  to  prevent  the  French 
or  the  Spaniards  from  Louisiana  or  Florida  from  laying  hold  of  it,  a 
charter  for  the  lands  between  the  Savannah  and  Altamaha  rivers  ex- 
tending to  the  Pacific,  under  the  name  of  Georgia,  was  granted  to 
James  Oglethorpe  and  associates,  not  as  proprietors  but  as  trustees 
(twenty-one  in  number),  for  twenty-one  years  for  the  crown,  at  the 
expiration  of  which  time  the  colony  was  to  revert  to  the  crown,  which 
should  then  determine  on  the  manner  of  its  future  goverment.  Lib- 
erty of  conscience  and  freedom  of  worship  were  secured  to  all  inhab- 
itants of  the  colony  except  papists.  James  Oglethorpe,  the  moving 
spirit  in  this  projected  colony,  desired  to  establish  within  its  limits  a 
chance  for  reformation  for  English  prisoners,  and  a  home  for  poor 
and  oppressed  Protestants  of  all  nations.  Oglethorpe  brought  the 
first  colonists  in  1733,  and  settled  at  Savannah  ;  conciliation  of  the 
Indians  by  just  purchase  of  lands  and  by  kindness.  Oglethorpe  re- 
fused to  allow  the  importation  either  of  rum  or  of  slaves  into  Georgia. 
Many  Scotch  Presbyterians  as  well  as  Moravians  from  Austria  came 
to  the  new  colony.  One  of  the  first  enactments  of  the  trustees  de- 
clared that  male  issue  only  could  inherit  land  in  the  colony. 


A.  D.  America:  British  Colonies,  419 

1734.  In  New  York  arrest  of  Zenger,  printer  of  the  Weekly  Jour- 
nal, for  libel  on  the  governor  (Cosby).  Trial  and  acquittal 
1735. 

1738.  Foundation  of  a  college  at  Princeton,  in  New  Jersey. 

1739-1748.     Great  Britain  at  war  with  Spain. 

1740.  Unsuccessful  expedition  of  Oglethorpe  to  Florida  at  the  head 
of  1,200  men  from  Georgia,  Carolina,  and  Virginia.  Siege  of 
St.  Augustine. 

Settlement  of  the  boundary  dispute  between  Massachusetts 
and  New  Hampshire  in  favor  of  the  latter  colony. 

Expedition  of  Vernon  with  27,000  men  against  Carthagena, 
broken  up  by  disease. 

1741.  The  colonies  participated  in  an  attack  on  Cuba. 

1742.  Expedition  of  3,000  Spaniards  to  Georgia  repulsed  by  Ogle- 
thorpe by  stratagem.  In  this  year  Oglethorpe  went  to  England 
and  never  returned  to  America. 

1744-1748.  War  between  Great  Britain  and  France, 
known  in  the  American  colonies  as  King  George's  War, 
in  reality  a  part  of  the  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession 
(P-400). 

The  strongest  French  fortification  in  America  outside  of  Quebec 
jsvas  Louisburg  on  Cape  Breton  Island,  a  part,  as  the  English  claimed, 
of  Acadia  ;  the  French,  however,  had  refused  to  surrender  it  with 
that  province,  asserting  that  only  Nova  Scotia  was  comprised  under 
that  name. 

1745.  Apr.  30-June  16.  Siege  and  capture  of  Louisburg  by 
4,000  colonial  troops  under  William  Pepperell,  aided  by  a  few 
English  vessels. 

1746.  Projected  conquest  of  Canada,  by  a  united  effort  of  all  the 
colonies  prevented  by  the  arrival  of  a  large  French  fleet  at 
Nova  Scotia  under  DAnville,  which  spread  consternation 
throughout  the  English  colonies,  but  which,  by  the  death  of 
DAnville,  the  suffering  of  the  troops  through  pestilence  and 
the  loss  of  vessels  by  storm,  was  prevented  from  accomplishing 
anything. 

1747.  Nov.  17.     An  attempt  of  the  English  commander,  Knowles,  to 

press  men  for  his  vessels  in  Boston,  caused  an  uprising  of  the 
people;  the  governor  withdrew  to  Castle  William,  and  the  dis- 
turbance was  only  quieted  by  the  release  of  most  of  the  men 
seized. 

1748.  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  between  England,  France,  and 
Spain.  In  the  reciprocal  surrender  of  conquests.  Cape  Breton 
was  restored  to  the  French  (p.  404). 

Formation  of  the  Ohio  Company  under  a  charter  from  the 
English  crown,  which  gave  great  offense  to  the  French. 
1750.  In  spite  of  the  confirmation  of  the  cession  of  Acadia  to  Eng- 
land by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  hostilities  sprang  up  be- 
tween the  French  and  English  there,  owing  to  disputes  over 
the  boundaries. 


420  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

1751.  Governor  Clinton,  of  New  York,  in  association  with  South 
Carolina,  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  concluded  a  peace 
with  the  Six  Nations. 

1752.  The  trustees  of  Georgia  finding  that  the  colony  did  not  flourish 
under  their  care,  gave  up  their  charter,  and  the  crown  assumed 
control,  and  placed  Georgia  on  the  same  footing  with  other 
royal  colonies. 

The  English  parliament  adopted  the  reformed  or  Gregorian 
calendar  for  England  and  the  colonies  (p.  438). 

1753.  The  growth  of  the  British  colonies  extending  more  and  more 
westward  caused  the  disputes  between  England  and  France  to 

grow  to  a  head.  The  French  claimed  the  Mississippi  and  the  St. 
Lawrence^  and  all  the  region  between  from  the  Appalachians  to  the 
Spanish  settlements  in  the  west,  and  were  intent  on  securing  this  re- 
gion by  a  line  of  forts  directly  back  of  the  English  colonies.  Accord- 
ing to  the  English  all  French  settlements  within  the  territory  of  the 
colony  of  Plymouth  (p.  293)  were  illegal  ;  they  also  claimed  the 
whole  region  occupied  by  the  Iroquois.  The  settlement  of  Georgia 
and  the  foundation  of  the  Ohio  Company  were  attempts  to  coimter- 
act  the  progress  of  the  French,  and  these  moves  in  their  turn  were  a 
cause  of  uneasiness  to  the  French,  who  seized  traders  within  the  limits 
of  the  Ohio  Company.  As  the  lands  of  the  company  were  within  the 
territory  of  Virginia,  Robert  Dinwiddie,  governor  of  that  colony,  dis- 
patched George  Washington  to  the  forts  on  the  Alleghany  and  the 
Ohio  to  remonstrate  with  the  French  (Oct.  31-Dec.  12).  The  com- 
mander of  the  Ohio  forts  promised  to  lay  the  remonstrance  before 
the  governor  of  Canada. 

1754.  Virginia  immediately  sent  a  force  to  the  Ohio,  two  companies 
of  which  were  under  Washington.     In  the  advance  upon  Fort 

Du  Quesne,  at  the  juncture  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela,  he 
captured  a  small  French  party,  but  was  besieged  in  Fort  Necessity, 
which  he  had  erected,  and  forced  to  capitulate  under  condition  of  free 
withdrawal  (July  4). 

June  19.  Conference  of  colonial  delegates  at  Albany  with  the  Six 
Nations.  By  the  advice  of  Benjamin  Franklin  the  conference 
also  drew  up  a  plan  of  a  union  of  all  the  colonies  under  a  president 
appointed  by  the  crown,  with  a  grand  council  of  delegates  elected  by 
the  colonial  assemblies,  with  a  right  of  legislation  subject  to  the  veto 
of  the  president  and  the  approval  of  the  crown.  Connecticut,  object- . 
ing  to  the  veto  power,  refused  to  sign  the  proposal,  which  was  after- 
wards rejected  both  by  the  colonies  and  the  crown. 

1755-1763.  War  between  England  and  France,  called 
in  the  American  colonies  "  The  Old  French  and  In- 
dian War ;  "  being  a  part  of  the  Seven  Years'  War, 
in  Europe,  which  was  fought  in  Asia  and  Africa  as  well. 
War  was  not  declared  until  the  following  year,  but  it  is 
reckoned  from  1755  (p.  404  and  438). 

1755.  While  a  conference  of  the  colonial  governors  with  general 
Eraddock,  who  was  sent  from  En£:land  to  take  chief  command, 


A.  D.  America :  British   Colonies,  421 

decided  on  three  expeditions:  1.  against  Fort  DuQuesne;  2.  against 
the  fort  at  Niagara  ;  3.  against  the  French  fort  at  Crovra  Point  in 
!New  York;  a  band  of  3,000  Massachusetts  troops  under  Winslow  and 
Monckton  captured  forts  Beausejour  and  Gaspereaux  in  the  disputed  dis- 
trict in  Nova  Scotia  (June  16-17),  and  dispersed  among  the  British 
colonies  about  7,000  of  the  inhabitants  who  refused  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  England  ("  Evangeline  "). 

Meantime  general  Braddock  took  the  offensive  at  the  head  of  the 
British  regulars  against  Fort  du  Quesne,  and  fell  into  an  ambuscade, 
in  consequence  of  neglecting  the  advice  of  the  provincial  officers 
("Washington),  and  suffered  a  complete  defeat  and  great  loss  in  the 

1755,  July  9.    Battle  of  Fort  du  Quesne  or  "  Braddock's  defeat." 

Death  of  Braddock. 
Attack  on  Crown  Point :  Construction  of  Fort  Edward  on  the 

east  of  the  Hudson  (Aug.). 

Sept.  8.  Battle  of  Lake  George;  defeat  of  the  French  under  Dies- 
kau  (f ),  by  the  provincial  troops  imder  Johnson.  Construction 
of  Fort  William  Henry  at  the  south  end  of  Lake  George  by  the 
English.  Fortification  of  Ticonderoga,  between  Lake  George 
and  Lake  Champlain,  by  the  French. 
The  expedition  to  Niagara  was  subjected  to  so  many  delays  that 

it  was  for  the  time  abandoned. 

1756,  Great  Britain  declared  war  on  France.  Earl  of  Loudoun  com- 
mander-in-chief of  forces  in  America. 

Aug.     Forts  Oswego  and  George  captured  by  the  marquis  of  Mont- 
calm, commander-in-chief  of  the  French  armies  in  Canada, 
and  destroyed. 
This  disaster  occasioned  the  abandonment  of  the  projected  enter- 
prises against  Niagara,  Crown  Point,  Fort  du  Quesne  and  Eastern 
Canada.     Fortifications  of  Georgia  and  Carolina  (Fort  Loudoun  on  the 
Tennessee  river).     The  French  constructed  a  system  of  forts  in  the 
region  of  the  Illinois. 

1757,  August  9.     Capture  of  Fort  "William  Henry  by  Montcalm, 

massacre  of  the  garrison,  whose  retreat  to  Fort  Edward  was 
guaranteed,  by  the  Indians  in  Montcalm's  army. 
In  Massachusetts,  controversy  between  the  governor.  Lord  Lou- 
doun and  the  general  court  over  the  quartering  of  troops. 

In  Pennsylvania,  controversy  between  the  governor  and  the  as- 
sembly over  a  scheme  of  taxation  ;  the  governor  refusing  his  assent  to 
the  bill,  the  assembly  demanded  the  assent  as  their  right. 

1758,  July  8.     Repulse  of  Abercrombie  before  Ticonderoga. 

Expedition  against  Louisburg  (May  28-July  26).  Cap- 
ture of  the  fortress  (Amherst  and  Wolfe,  July  26). 

Aug.  27.     Capture  of  Fort  Frontenac  by  Bradstreet. 

Nov.  25.  Capture  of  Fort  du  Quesne  by  General  Forbes.  The 
fort  was  named  Ft.  Pitt  (Pittsburg). 

1759,  July  25.     Capture  of  Fort  Niagara  by  Sir  William  Johnson. 
July  26.     Capture  of  Ticonderoga  by  Major-General  Amherst. 

Expedition  of  Major-General  Wolfe  from  Louisburg  against  Que- 
bec.    Repulsed  at  the  Montmorency ;  Wolfe  conducted  his  force  by 


422  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

night  to  the  elevated  plateau  behind  Quebec  called  the  Plains  of 
Abraham,  where  in  the 

1759,  Sept.  13.     Battle  of  the  Plains  of  Abraham  the  French 

under  Montcalm  were  completely  defeated.     Death  of  Wolfe 
and  Montcalm.     Surrender  of  Quebec  (Sept.  18). 

1760,  Sept.  8.     Montreal  and  all  Canada  surrendered  to  the  Eng- 

lish. 

1761,  The  writs  of  assistance  in  Massachusetts.  The  English 
government  (Board  of  Trade  reestablished  1695)  having  for 

some  time  adhered  to  a  course  of  commercial  restrictions  and  duties 
upon  the  colonies  (all  molasses  charged  with  duty  except  that  imported 
from  the  British  West  Indies,  1733  ;  erection  of  roUing  mills  prohib- 
ited, 1750  ;  the  slave  trade  favored  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the 
colonial  legislatures  of  Virginia  and  Carolina,  etc.)  had  roused  a  spirit 
of  resistance  throughout  the  colonies  based  on  the  perception  that 
such  duties  were  a  form  of  taxation  without  representation.  Hence 
so  much  evasion  was  practised  that  finally  the  custom  house  officials 
in  Boston  applied  to  the  superior  court  of  judicature  ( Thomas  Hutch- 
inson, chief  justice)  for  the  issue  of  lorits  of  assistance  such  as  were 
granted  by  the  exchequer  in  England.  The  case  was  argued  for  the 
colonists  by  Thacher,  and  especially  by  James  Otis,  (1725-1783), 
who  urged  the  dangerous  character  of  the  writ  as  being  servable  by 
any  officer  against  any  person  for  any  length  of  time,  and  accused  the 
acts  of  trade  as  infringements  of  the  charter.  The  court  deferred  its 
decision  ;  it  would  seem  that  the  writs  were  ultimately  granted,  but 
that  the  officers  did  not  venture  to  use  them. 

1762,  Expedition  against  Martinique,  by  the  royal  and  provincial 
troops  ;  surrender  of  this  island,  of  Grenada,  St.  Lucia,  St. 
Vincent,  and  of  all  the  other  French  West  Indies. 

War  between  England  and  Spain  (p.  439). 
July.     Storm  of  Havana,  wliich  was  surrendered  to  the  English. 

1763,  Pet).  10.  Peace  of  Paris,  between  Great  Britain, 
France,  Spain,  Portugal.  (Preliminary  articles  1762, 
Nov.  3,  at  Fontainebleau,  p.  439). 

1.  France  ceded  to  England,  Nova  Scotia,  or  Acadia,  Canada, 
Cape  Breton,  and  all  other  islands  in  the  gulf  and  river  of  St.  Law- 
rence, reserving  the  right  to  fish  and  dry  fish  on  a  part  of  Newfound- 
land, and  of  fishing  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  three  leagues  from 
the  shore,  and  at  a  distance  of  fifteen  leagues  from  Cape  Breton  ;  also 
the  river  and  harbor  of  Mobile  and  everything  on  the  left  of  the  mid- 
dle of  the  Mississippi,  the  Iberville,  and  lakes  Maurepas  and  Ponchar- 
train,  except  Neio  Orleans,  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  to  be 
free  for  both  England  and  France  ;  also  Grenada,  St.  Vindeni,  Do- 
minique, Tobago.  In  all  ceded  districts  certain  civil  and  religious 
rights  were  secured  to  the  French  inhabitants.  England  ceded  to 
France  the  islands  of  St.  Peter  and  Miquelon  in  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  for  fishing  stations,  not  to  be  fortified,  and  Guadaloupe, 
Marigalante,  Desirade,  Martinique,  Belleisle,  St.  Lucia,  in  the  West 
Indies. 


A.  D.  America  :  British   Colonies.  423 

2.  Spain  ceded  to  England  Florida,  and  all  other  possessions  east 
of  the  Mississippi ;  Spain  also  gave  up  her  claims  to  the  Newfound- 
land fisheries  ;  England  restored  Havana  to  Spain  and  destroyed  all 
English  fortresses  in  Spanish  America  ;  right  to  cut  and  transport 
dye  wood  reserved. 

3.  France  ceded  to  Spain  the  whole  of  Louisiana  and  New  Or- 
leans by  a  previous  treaty  of  Nov.  3,  1762. 

The  English  acquisitions  were  divided  into  the  four  governments 
of  Quebec,  East  Florida,  West  Florida  and  Grenada. 

The  number  of  inhabitants  in  the  old  thirteen  colonies  at  this  time 
was  about  two  millions. 

1763.    The  conspiracy  of  Pontiac. 

Pontiac  was  the  chief  of  the  Ottawas,  a  firm  friend  of  the 
French  ;  relying  on  the  vain  hope  of  assistance  jfrom  whom,  he  resolved 
to  wrest  from  the  English  the  border  fortresses.  To  this  end  he 
formed  an  alliance  of  almost  all  the  tribes  of  the  Algonquin  race, 
with  the  Wyandots  and  Senecas.  The  other  nations  of  the  Iroquois 
were  with  great  difficulty  kept  quiet  by  the  influence  of  Sir  William 
Johnson.  Pontiac  had  planned  to  open  the  attack  by  the  treacher- 
ous seizure  of  the  fort  at  Detroit  on  May  7.  Foiled  in  this  by  the 
coolness  of  Gladwyn,  the  Englislj  commander,  who  had  been  previ- 
ously informed  of  the  plot,  the  enraged  chief  opened  the  siege  of 
the  fort  (May  9)  and  war  broke  out  along  the  whole  line  from  the 
Mississippi  to  Canada.  In  a  short  time  Fort  Pitt,  Niagara,  and  De- 
troit, of  all  the  border  fortresses,  alone  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
English.  In  July  Boquet  forced  his  way,  under  severe  fighting,  to 
Fort  Pitt,  which  he  relieved.  Pontiac  maintained  before  Detroit  the 
longest  siege  which  the  Indians  ever  executed,  but  on  September  3, 
the  garrison  was  relieved  by  a  schooner  from  Niagara,  and  with  the 
approach  of  winter  the  Indians  withdrew.  The  western  tribes  were 
not  subdued  before  1765,  but  the  danger  was  over.  Pontiac  did  not 
long  outlive  his  failure. 

1763,  Paxton  boys  in  Pennsylvania  ;  massacre  of  converted  Indians. 
The  peace  gave  to  Great  Britain  time  to  enforce  more  vigorously 

that  system  of  repression  and  taxation  which  the  ministers  thought 
the  fitting  method  of  dealing  with  the  too  independent  colonists,  while 
it  gave  the  colonists  time  to  reflect  upon  and  to  resent  such  a  pro- 
cedure. 
1763-1765.     George  Grenville,  prime  minister. 

1764,  March.     Parliament  voted  that  they  had  a  right  to  tax  the 

American  colonies,  though  the  colonies  were  not  represented. 
Passage  of  the  sugar  act  ("  it  is  just  and  necessary  that  a  reve- 
nue be  raised  in  America  ")  and  of  an  act  for  increasing  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  revenue  service. 
Publication  at  Boston  of  "  The  Rights  of  the  British  Colonies  as- 
serted and  proved,"  by  James  Otis.  Adoption  of  a  resolution 
not  to  use  British  manufactures. 

1765,  March.  Passage  of  the  Stamp  Act;  prescribing  the  use 
of  stamped  paper  for  legal  documents,  pamphlets,  and  news- 
papers throughout  the  colonies.     (Speech  of  Colonel  Barre.) 


424  Modem  History,  A.  d. 

The  news  was  received  in  America  with  the  greatest  indigna- 
tion.    Resolutions  of  the  house  of  burgesses  in  Virginia  de- 

1765.  May  30.     nying  the  right  of  taxation,  introduced  by  Patrick 

Hienry  (1736-1797). 
Oct.  7.  Meeting  of  a  congress  of  twenty  eight  delegates  from  Mas- 
sachusetts, Rhode  Island,  Comiecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  South  Carolina  (Virginia,  North 
Caroliiia,  Georgia  were  not  represented,  but  were  in  sympathy  with  the 
colonies)  at  New  York  in  accordance  with  the  proposition  of  Massa- 
chusetts. The  assembly  drew  up  petitions  and  memorials  to  the 
king  and  parliament,  and  adopted  a  "Declaration  of  rights  and 
liberties  "  (Oct.  19). 

The  arrival  of  stamp  officers  led  to  riots  in  various  cities,  as  in  Bos- 
ton, where  the  officer  (Andrew  Oliver)  was  burnt  in  effigy,  his  house 
and  that  of  lieutenant-governor  Hutchinson  sacked,  in  New  York, 
etc.     Non-importation  and  non-consumption  agreements. 
1765-1766.     Rockingham  prime  minister. 

1766.  March.     Repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act,  which  had  brought  in  no 

revenue  (JPitt,  Burke)  ;  examinajbion  of  Benjamin  Franklin 
(b.  Jan.  17,  1706  ;  d.  Apr.  17,  1790)  ;  agent  of  Pennsylvania, 
before  the  commons.  The  repeal  was  accompanied  by  a  de- 
claratory act,  asserting  that  *^  parliament  has  power  to  hind  the 
colonies  in  all  cases  whatsoever  "  (March,  1766). 
1766-1770.  Duke  of  Grafton  prime  minister  {Earl  of  Chatham 
privy  seal). 

1767.  Duty  imposed  on  glass^  paper,  painters'  colors^  and  tea  introduced 
into  the  colonies  (this  measure  followed  the  defeat  of  the  min- 
istry on  the  land  tax  in  England,  which  cost  the  revenue  a 
large  sum).  Out  of  the  revenue  thus  collected  fixed  salaries 
were  to  be  paid  royal  officials. 

New  York  having  refused  to  make  provision  for  troops  quar- 
tered upon  the  colony,  the  legislative  power  of  the  assembly 
was  suspended  by  parliament  until  compliance. 

Creation  of  a  custom  house  and  board  of  commissioners  for 
America. 

1768.  Petition  of  Massachusetts  to  the  king  ;  circular  letter  to  the 
other  colonies.  The  British  ministry  demanded  that  the  court 
rescind  the  circular  letter  ;  the  court  refused  to  do  so  (92  to  17), 
whereupon  governor  Bernard  dissolved  the  assembly.  Similar 
proceedings  occurred  in  other  colonies. 

June.  The  seizure  of  John  Hancock^s  sloop  Liberty,  for  a  false  en- 
try by  the  custom  house  officials  in  Boston,  caused  a  riot,  and 
the  officials  fled  to  Castle  William. 

Oct.      Arrival  of  British  troops  at  Boston.     The  selectmen  refused 
to  provide  quarters  for  the  men. 
First  settlement  made  in  Tennessee. 

1769.  Parliament  adopted  a  resolution  looking  to  the  trial  of  acts  of 
treason  committed  in  the  colonies  in  England.  Resolutions  of 
the  house  of  burgesses  in  Virginia  denouncing  this  position. 
The  governor  dissolved  the  assembly.  Similar  resolutions 
were  adopted  in  other  colonies. 


A.  D.  America :  British   Colonies.  425 

The  general  court  of  Massachusetts,  refusing  to  do  business 
while  a  guard  was  stationed  at  the  state-house,  was  adjourned 
to  Cambridge.     Refusal  to  provide  for  the  troops.     Submission 
of  the  assembly  in  New  York. 
1770-1782.     Lord  North  prime  minister. 

1770.  The  Boston  massacre.     In  a  broil  between  the  populace 
March  5.     and  the  British  soldiers  in  King  (State)  street,  three  men 

were   killed   and   eight  woimded.     The  officer  in   command 
{Preston)   was  brought  to  trial,  but  acquitted  (defended  by 
John  Adams  and  Josiah  Quincy). 
March.     Act  repealing  the  duty  on  paper,  glass,  and  painters'  colors, 
but  retaining  that  on  tea. 

1771.  Insurrection  of  the  "  regulators  "  in  North  Carolina   sup- 
pressed by  governor  Tryon. 

Thomas  Hutchinson  (formerly  lieutenant-governor)  governor 
of  Massachusetts  (went  to  England,  1774). 

1772.  Destruction  of  the  British  revenue  schooner  Gaspee,  which 
June  10.  had  made  itself  very  obnoxious  to  the  people  of  Rhode  Island, 

and  now  ran  aground  in  pursuit  of  a  packet.  In  spite  of  a 
large  reward  offered,  no  information  concerning  the  offenders 
was  ever  given. 

Settlement  of  the  boundary  between  North  and  South  Caro- 
lina. 
i773.     The  Virginia  assembly  appointed  a  committee  of  correspond- 
ence for  intercourse  with  the  other  colonies. 

The  resolution  of  the  colonies  having  caused  a  diminution  both 
in  the  revenue  and  in  the  sale  of  tea,  the  British  government 
agreed  to  relieve  the  East  India  Company  of  exportation  duty 
if  the  company  would  transport  its  teas  to  the  American  col- 
onies. Cargoes  were  therefore  sent  to  New  York,  Philadel- 
phia, Charleston,  Boston.  New  York  and  Philadelphia  sent 
back  the  ships  ;  at  Charleston  the  tea  was  stored  in  damp  cel- 
lars, where,  as  there  was  no  demand  for  it,  it  soon  spoiled.  At 
Boston,  as  the  return  of  the  ships  could  not  be  obtained, 

1773.  Dec.  16.   They  were  boarded  by  citizens  disguised  as  Indians, 

and  342  chests  of  tea  were  emptied  in  the  water  (Boston  Tea 
Party). 
Daniel  Boon  settled  in  Kentucky.     English  settlement  near  the 
Natchez. 

1774.  Mar.     Passage  of  the  Boston  Port  Bill,  closing  Boston  to  the 

importation  and  exportation  of  all  goods  except  food  or  fuel ; 
and  of  "  an  act  for  the  better  regulating  the  government  of  Mas- 
sachusetts," which  was  a  virtual  revocation  of  the  charter, 
giving  the  governor  great  increase  of  power.  Another  act  de- 
creed that  persons  accused  of  murder  or  any  capital  crime 
in  aiding  government  should  be  tried  in  England,  or  in 
some  other  colony  than  that  wherein  the  crime  was  committed. 
General  Gage,  commander-in-chief  of  the  royal  forces  in  North 
America,  was  appointed  governor  of  Massachusetts. 
June  1.     The  port  act  went  into  operation  in  Boston. 

County  conventions  throughout  Massachusetts  protested 
against  the  acts  (Aug.-Sept.). 


426  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

Sept.  The  Suffolk  convention  resolved  :  "That  no  obedience  is  due 
from  the  province  to  either  or  any  part  of  the  said  acts,  but 
that  they  should  be  rejected  as  the  attempts  of  a  wicked  ad- 
ministration to  enslave  America." 
The  project  of  a  congress  of  the  colonies,  moved  in  1773  by 
Franklin^  was  taken  up  by  Rhode  Island,  Virginia,  Mas- 
sachusetts, and  the  other  colonies  (except  Georgia). 

1774,  Sept.  6.     Continental  Congress 

at  Philadelphia.  Peyton  Randolph,  president.  Among  the 
members  were  :  Samuel  and  John  Adams  (Massachusetts),  John 
Jay  (New  York),  George  "Washington,  Patrick  Henry  (Virginia). 
An  address  was  prepared  to  the  king,  memorials  to  the  people  of 
British  America,  and  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain,  to  Canada, 
Florida,  Georgia,  etc.  A  declaration  of  rights  was  drawn  up.  The 
congress  also  concluded 
Oct.  20.     The  American  Association  ;  an  agreement  to  prevent 

all  importation  and  exportation  from  and  to  Great  Britam  until 
the  acts  were  repealed.  On  Oct.  26,  the  congress  separated  with  a 
resolve  to  meet  the  next  year  if  justice  had  not  by  that  time  been 
done. 

In  the  meantime  more  British  troops  had  been  concentrated  at 
Boston,  and  the  town  had  been  fortified.  The  town  was  the  recipient 
of  much  sympathy  and  many  generous  gifts  from  the  other  colonies. 
Oct.     The  house  of  representatives  in  Massachusetts  having  been 

dissolved  by  the  governor  Sept.  28,  met,  and  voting  them- 
Oct.  26.     selves  a  provincial  congress,  proceeded  to  organize  the 

militia  (minute-men)  and  collect  stores  and  ammunition. 

1775.  Fruitless  attempt  of  the  opposition  in  parliament  under  lord 
Chatham  to  procure  the  repeal  of  harsh  measures  toward  the 
colonies. 

Acts  for  restraining  the  trade  of  New  England  and  the  southern 
colonies.  A  "^conciliatory  "  measure  introduced  by  lord  North 
exempting  from  taxation  any  colony  which  would  undertake 
to  raise  the  quota  assessed  upon  it.  The  act  met  with  no  re- 
sponse. 
Feb.  26.  A  British  expedition  to  Salem,  to  seize  some  cannon  stored 
there,  was  opposed  by  a  few  miUtia  under  colonel  Pickering, 
but  finally  withdrew  without  bloodshed. 

1775-1783.     War  of  Independence. 

April  19.     Skirmishes  at  Lexington  and  Concord. 

A  body  of  800  British  soldiers,  detailed  to  destroy  stores  at 
Concord,  fired  upon  a  number  of  provincials  assembled  on  the  green 
at  Lexington,  killing  eight  men  ;  an  ineffectual  fire  was  returned. 
Proceeding  to  Concord,  the  British  destroyed  the  stores,  but  were 
obliged  to  retreat  {fight  at  the  bridge)  ;  the  retreat  became  a  rout 
before  they  reached  Lexington,  where  lord  Percy  with  fresh  troops 
met  them. "  The  further  retreat  to  Boston  was  much  embarrassed  by 
the  constantly  increasing  niunber  of  provincials.  The  British  lost 
273  men  ;  the  Americans  103. 


A..  D.  America:  British  Colonies.  427 

In  Massachusetts  a  large  army  was  raised  and  encamped  near 

Boston. 

May  10.  Capture  of  Ticonderoga  by  the  provincials  under  Ethan 
Allen. 

May  12.     Capture  of  Crown  Point  by  Seth  Warner. 

May  10.     Meeting  of  the  Continental  Congress  at  Philadelphia. 

May  31.    The  county  convention  of  Mecklenburg  Co.y  North  Carolina, 
declared  the  colonial  charter  suspended,  and  the  government 
vested  in  the  provincial  and  continental  congresses. 
The  troops  before  Boston  were  adopted  as  the  American  continental 

army  ;  and  Greorge  "Washington  (born  Feb.  22,  1732  ;  died  Dec. 

14,  1799)  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  provincial  forces 

(June  15). 

Jime  17.  Battle  of  Bunker's  (more  properly  Breed's)  Hill,  opposite 
Boston,  where  the  Americans  had  thrown  up  intrenchments. 
The  provincials  were  finally  driven  from  their  intrenchment, 
after  their  ammimition  gave  out,  but  not  before  they  had  in- 
flicted a  loss  of  1054  men  on  the  British,  themselves  losing 
about  450  men  (Warren  f). 

July  3.  Washhigton  took  command  of  the  American  army  at  Cam- 
bridge. 

1775,  July-March  17,  1776.     Siege  of  Boston. 

1775,  Aug.  Georgia  joined  the  other  colonies.  An  expedition 
against  Canada  being  resolved  upon,  general  Montgomery  took 
Montreal  (Nov.  12),  but  was  defeated  and  killed  before  Quebec 
(Dec.  31),  where  Benedict  Arnold. hsi^  joined  him  after  an  ar- 
duous march.     Fruitless  siege  of  Quebec  by  Arnold. 

1776,  March  4.     Occupation  of  Dorchester  Heights  by  Washington. 
March  17.     Evacuation  of  Boston. 

1776,  April  23.     North  Carolina  authorized  its  delegates  to  join 

in  a  declaration  of  independence. 
May  15.     Congress  voted  "  that  the  exercise  of  every  kind  of  authority 
under  the  crown  should  be  totally  suppressed,"  and  extended 
to  all  the  colonies  its  advice  that  they  should  set  up  govern- 
ments for  themselves. 
Virginia  directed  its  delegates  to  introduce  a  resolution  an- 
nouncing the  independence  of  the  colonies. 
June  7.     In  congress  it  was  moved  by  Richard  Henry  Lee  of  Vir- 
ginia, and  seconded  by  John  Adams  of  Massachusetts,  "  That 
these  united  colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  indepen- 
dent states  ;  that  they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance  to  the  British 
crown,  and  that  all  political  comiection  between  them  and  the  state  of 
Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved."     The  resolution 
was  referred  and  a  committee  appointed  to  draft  a  declaration,  which 
accepted  one  prepared  by  Thomas  Jefferson,  of  Virginia.     Reported 
June  28.     Debate  July  1.     The  resolution  "was  adopted  by  all 
the  colonies  except  Neio  York,  whose  delegates  were  not  instructed 
on  so  grave  a  matter,  July  2. 

June  18.     Evacuation  of  Canada  by  the  Americans. 
June  28.     Repulse  of  the  British  before  fort  Sullivan  (Moultrie) 
off  Charleston,  S.  C. 


428  Modem  History.  a.  d. 

1776,  July  4.  Adoption  of  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence.    (Signed  Aug.  2  and  later.) 

To  have  taken  up  a  position   of  independence  was  a  moral 
gain  for  the  colonies,  but  the  act  was  followed  by  a  period  of 
military  disaster. 
After  the  surrender  of  Boston,  Washington  went  to  New  York, 

which  was  soon  attacked  by  the  two  Howes  with  some  30,000  men. 

The  British  commanders  brought  offers  of  peace,  but  they  were  not 

acceptable. 

Aug.  27.  Battle  of  Long  Island  ;  defeat  of  general  Putnam.  Re- 
treat of  the  Americans  to  New  York. 

Sept.  15.  Occupation  of  New  York  by  the  British.  Washington 
retreated  to  the  Harlem  heights. 

Sept.  22.  Captain  Nathan  Hale,  sent  to  reconnoitre  the  British 
force  on  Long  Island,  was  captured  and  immediately  executed 
by  order  of  Sir  William  Howe  ;  the  attendance  of  a  clergy- 
man was  denied  him,  and  his  last  letters  to  his  mother  and 
friends  were  destroyed. 
Disaster  also  overtook  the  colonists  in  the  North. 

Oct.  11-13.  Defeat  of  Arnold  in  two  naval  engagements  on  Lake 
Champlain.     Occupation  of  Croion  Point  by  the  British. 

Oct.  28.  Battle  of  White  Plains,  near  New  York.  Defeat  of 
Washington. 

Nov.  16.     Capture  of  Fort  Washington  by  the  British. 

Nov.  20.     Evacuation  of  Fort  Lee  by  the  Americans. 

Nov.  28.  Washington  retreated  across  New  Jersey,  and  passed 
into  Pennsylvania. 

Deo.  26.  Battle  of  Trenton  ;  Washington  having  crossed  the  Dela- 
ware by  night,  surprised  and  captured  about  1,000  Hessians  at 
Trenton  ;  two  days  afterward  he  occupied  the  town  in  force, 
and  defeated  the  British  in 

1777,  Jan.  3.  The  Battle  of  Princeton.  The  Americans  overran 
New  Jersey,  and  several  skirmishes  occurred  with  the  enemy 

during  the  spring.  The  army  was  in  a  very  bad  condition,  owing 
largely  to  lack  of  money,  which  congress  could  supply  only  by  the 
issue  of  paper  money  which  soon  depreciated  largely.  Even  the  ar- 
rival of  the  marquis  of  Lafayette,  who  was  appointed  major-general 
(July  31,  1777)  brought  only  temporary  encouragement. 
Burgoyne's  and  St.  Leger's  campaign  from  Canada. 

The  summer  of  1777  saw  a  change  of  fortune.  The  British  had 
planned  to  cut  the  colonies  in  two  by  an  expedition  under  general 
Burgoyne  from  Canada,  which  should  be  met  by  a  northward  move- 
ment of  the  army  in  New  York.  (Capture  of  forts  Clinton  and 
Montgomery,  Oct.  6.)  Burgoyne  took  Ticonderoga  July  6,  and  de- 
feated the  Americans  at  Huhhardton  July  7. 

As  Burgoyne  reached  Fort  Edward,  Schuyler,  who  had  but  half  his 
force,  retired  to  Sai'atoga.  Meantime  St.  Leger,  who  was  to  cooper- 
ate with  Burgoyne  from  Lake  Ontario,  besieged  Fort  Schuyler  and  de- 
feated Herkimer  (Aug.  6),  but  returned  to  Montreal  on  the  approach 
of  Arnold  with  reinforcements. 


A..  D.  America:  British  Colonies,  429 

Hearing  of  provisions  and  stores  at  Bennington  in  Vermont  (then 
called  New  Hampshire  Grants)  Burgoyne  sent  colonel  Baum  to  seize 
them,  who  was  defeated  by  general  Stark  in  the 

1777,  Aug.  16.     Battle  of  Bennington. 
Schuyler  succeeded  by  Gates. 

Sept.  19.     Burgoyne     fought  the  battle  of  Stillwater  (first  battle 

of  Bemis's  Heights,  or  battle  of  Freeman's  Farm),  retaining  the 
field,  although  he  suffered  a  heavier  loss  than  the  Americans.  On 
Oct.  7,  a  second  battle  was  fought  at  Still-water  (second  battle  of 
Bamis's  Heights  or  Saratoga),  in  which  the  British  were  defeated. 
Being  now  surrounded  and  finding  retreat  impracticable, 
3.777,  Oct.  17.    Burgoyne  surrendered  his  entire  force  (about  6,000 

men)  to  Gates. 
Howe's  Campaign. 

In  the  south  events  were  less  fortunate.      On  Aug.  25  general 
Howe  disclosed  his  purpose  of  attacking  Philadelphia.     Washington 
immediately  offered  battle,  but  in  the 
Sept.  11.    Battle  of  the  Brandywine 

the  Americans  were  defeated,  although  they  retired  in  good 

order  (general  Greene). 
Sept.  27.     Howe  occupied  Philadelphia. 

Washington  attempted  to  surprise  the  camp  at  Germantown, 

but  was  defeated  in  the 
Oct.  4.     Battle  of  Germantown. 

Capture  of  Fort  Mifflin  (Nov.  16) ;  evacuation  of  Fort  Mercer 

(Nov.  20) ;  loss  of  the  Delaware. 
Winter.     Washington  at  Valley  Forge.     Sufferings  of  the  army. 
Nov.  15.    Articles  of  confederation  and  perpetual  union  agreed 

upon  in  congress  between  the  states  of  New  Hampshire,  Mas- 
sachusetts Bay,  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations,  Connecticut, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia.  The  confederacy  was  to  be 
called  "The  United  States  of  America."  These  articles  were 
laid  before  the  legislature  of  the  separate  states  for  ratification.  This 
process  proved  a  long  one. 
June  14.      Congress  voted  "  that  the  flag  of  the   thirteen  United 

States  be  thirteen  stripes,  alternate  red  and  white  ;  that  the 

union  be  thirteen  stars,  white  in  a  blue  field,  representing  a 

new  constellation. 
The  people  of  New  Hampshire  Grants  declared  themselves  an 

independent  state  under  the  name  of  Vermont  (Jan.) 

1778.  Treaties  with  France  ;  recognition  of  the  independence  of 
Jan.  30-Feb.  6.    the  United  States.  These  treaties  were  negotiated  by 

John  Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin  and  Arthur  Lee. 

Feb.  Parliament  renounced  the  right  of  taxing  the  colonies  except 
for  the  regulation  of  trade,  and  appointed  a  commission  to  ne- 
gotiate for  the  submission  of  the  colonies.  The  proposals  of 
the  commissioners  were  rejected  by  congress  (June  17)  and  by 
the  separate  states. 

June  18.    Evacuation  of  Philadelphia  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton. 
Washington  intercepted  Clinton's  march,  and  in  the 


430  Modem  History.  A.  D. 

1778,  June  28.  Battle  of  Monmouth  turned  a  retreat  begun  by 
general  (^Charles)  Lee  into  a  victory.  The  British  decamped 
by  night. 

Arrival  of  Count  d^Estaing  with  eighteen  vessels  and  4,000  troops 
ofiP  Virginia.  An  attack  on  Newport  having  been  resolved  on, 
the  French  fleet  sailed  to  that  port.  Instead  of  cooperating 
in  the  attack  D'Estaing  sailed  to  Boston  Aug.  22,  to  refit  (in 
accordance  with  his  strict  orders),  and  in  spite  of  a  victory  at 
Quaker  Hill  on  Rhode  Island  (Aug.  29)  the  Americans  under 
Sullivan  were  obliged  to  give  up  the  siege  and  retire  from  the 
island  before  Sir  Henry  Clinton  who  brought  reinforcements. 

July  4.  Massacre  at  Wyoming  in  Pennsylvania  by  colonel  Butler, 
a  Tory,  and  Brandt. 

Sept.  14.     Benjamin  Franklin  minister  plenipotentiary  to  France. 

Nov.  11.     Massacre  of  Cherry  Valley.  ' 

Dec.  29.  Savannah  captured  by  the  British  under  colonel  Camjh- 
bell. 

1779,  March  3.  Defeat  of  general  Ashe  at  Briar  Creek  by  the  British. 
Loss  of  Georgia,  where  the  provincial  government  was  re- 
stored. 

General  Lincoln,  being  placed  in  command  of  the  southern  army, 
marched  upon  Augusta,  while  the  British  leader,  Provost,  threatened 
Charleston  but  retired  before  determined  resistance.  D'Estaing 
reaching  Savannah  with  the  French  fleet,  an  assault  was  made  on  the 
town  (Oct.  9),  but  repulsed;  after  which  D'Estaing  left  the  dangerous 
coast  (death  of  Pulaski). 

May.  Coasts  of  Virginia  plundered  by  an  expedition  from  New  York. 
July  5.     Plunder  of  New  Haven  in  Comiecticut  by  Tryon  ;  followed 

by  the  sack  of  other  towns. 
July  16.     Storm  of  Stony  Point  on  the  Hudson  by  the  Americans 

under  Anthony  Wayne  ;  destruction   of  the   fortifications. 
July  19.     The  Americans  fortified  West  Point. 

John  Paul  Jones,  who  had  in  1778  surprised  White  Haven,  sailed 

this  year  from  a  French  port,  and  after  a  successful  cruise  in 

the  English  seas,  fought  a  most  desperate 
Sept.  23.     Naval  battle  -with   the  Serapis  and  the  Countess  of 

Scarborough  (Bonhomme  Richard,  Jones's  vessel),  in  which 

he  was  victorious. 

1780,  May  12.  Capture  of  Charleston  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  Sub- 
jugation of  South  Carolina  by  Clinton  and  lord  Corn"wallis. 
The  brave  resistance  of  Thomas  Sumter  and  Francis  Marion 
was  seconded  by  the  approach  of  the  American  army  under 
De  Kalb  and  Gates.     But  in  the 

Aug.  16.     Battle  of  Camden, 

Gates,  though  superior  in  numbers,  was  totally  defeated  by 
Comwallis  (DeKalb  f). 

Aug.  18.  Sumter's  force  dispersed  by  colonel  Tarleton.  Marion  re- 
treated to  North  Carolina. 

July.     Arrival  of  Rochambeau  at  Neioport  with  6,000  men. 

Benedict  Arnold  having  been  placed  in  command  of  West  Point, 

negotiated  with  Sir  Henry  Clinton  for  its  surrender  ;  his  treachery 


A..  D.  America:   British   Colonies.  431 

was  exposed  by  the  capture  (Sept.  23)  of  the  agent,  major  Andre, 
by  three  privates  of  the  New  York  militia,  John  Paulding,  David 
Williams,  Isaac  Wirt,  who,  refusing  his  bribes,  detained  him  and 
seized  his  papers.  Arnold  escaped  to  the  British  lines.  Andre  was 
declared  a  spy  by  a  board  of  *  14  officers,  on  his  confession,  and  by 
order  of  Washington 

1780,  Oct.  2.     Andr^  was  hung  as  a  spy. 

Oct.  7.     Battle  of  King's  Mountain  in  North  Carolina.     Defeat  of 

the  British  under  major  Fergusson. 
General  Greene  appointed  commander  of  the  southern  army. 
Adoption  of  a  constitution  by  Massachusetts,  with  a  bill  of 

rights,  which  was  held  by  the  supreme  court  to  have  abolished 

slavery. 
Abolition  of  slavery  in  Pennsylvania. 

1781,  Jan.  17.     Battle  of  the  Cowpens;  defeat  of  the  British  cav- 
alry under  Tarleton  by  Morgan. 

Comwallis  in  pursuit  of  Greene,  was  twice  prevented  from  over- 
taking him  by  the  unexpected  rising  of  the  rivers  {Catawba^ 
Yadkin). 
March  15.     Battle  of  Guilford  •   bloody  victory  of  the  British. 
April  25.     Battle  of  Hobkirk^s  Hill  neair  Camden  ;  Greene  defeated 

by  lord  Rawdon. 
June  5.     Capture  of  Augusta  by  the  Americans. 
June  19.     Greene   forced  to  raise   the   siege  of  fort   Ninety-six  in 

North  Carolina. 
Sept.  8.     Battle   of  Eutav7  ;  defeat  of  Greene  followed  by  the  re- 
treat of  the  British  to  Charleston. 
Meantime  British  forces  under  lord  Comwallis,  were  concentrated 
in  Virginia,  where  they   fortified   themselves   at    Yorkto"wn   and 
Gloucester  (Aug.).     In  Sept.  Lafayette,  Washington,  and  Rochambeau 
met  at  Williamsburg,  while  a  French  fleet  under  count  de   Grasse  en- 
tered the  Chesapeake. 
Sept.  30-Oct.  19.     Siege  of  Yorktown. 

Expedition  of  Arnold  against  Connecticut ;  burning  of  New 
London. 
Oct.  19.     Surrender  of  lord  Comwallis  with  7,000  men 
at  YorktoTwn  in  Virginia. 

1782,  Feb.  27.    The  commons  resolved,  on  motion  of  general  Conway, 

that  **  the  house  would  consider  as  enemies  to  his  majesty  and 
the  country  all  those  who  should  advise  or  attempt  the  further 
prosecution  of  offensive  war  on  the  continent  of  North 
America." 

1782,  March  20.     Resignation  of  lord  North.     Ministry  of  the  mar- 

quis of  Rockingham  (f  July  1  ;  succeeded  by  lord  Shel- 

burne,  1782-1783). 
July  11.     Evacuation  of  Savannah. 
Nov.  30.    Preliminary  articles  signed  at  Paris  between  Great  Britain 

and  the  United  States. 
Dec.  14.     Evacuation  of  Charleston. 

1783,  Jan.  20.     Cessation  of  hostilities  between  Great  Britain  and 


^32  Modern  History,  a.  d. 

the  United  States.  Signature  of  preliminaries  of  peace  be- 
tween Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain  at  Versailles  ;  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  at  Paris. 

April  11.  Cessation  of  arms  proclaimed  by  congress.  Independence 
of  the  United  States  recognized  by  Holland,  April  19,  1782  ; 
Sweden,  Feb.  5,  1783  ;  Denmark,  Feb.  25  ;  Spain,  March  24  ; 
•Russia,  in  July. 

April  19.     Peace  proclaimed  by  the  commander  of  the  army. 

1783,  Sept.  3.  Definitive  Treaty  of  Peace  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  signed  at  Faris  ;  be- 
tween Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain  signed  at 
Versailles,     (p.  441.) 

1.  1.  Recognition  of  the  indepe*idence  of  the  United  States,  and 
establishment  of  boundaries.  (From  the  intersection  of  a  line  due 
N.  from  the  head  of  the  St.  Croix  river  in  Nova  Scotia,  with  the 
highlands  S.  of  the  St.  Lawrence  ;  along  the  highlands  to  the  head  of 
the  Connecticut  ;  along  that  river  to  45°  N.,  thence  W.  to  the  river 
Iroquois,  thence  through  lakes  Ontario,  Erie,  Huron,  Superior,  Long 
Lake,  and  Lake  of  the  Woods  ;  thence  W.  to  the  Mississippi  and  along 
that  river  to  31°  N.  ;  from  this  point  E.  to  the  Apalachicola  or 
Catouche,  along  this  river  to  the  Flint ;  thence  direct  to  the  head  of 
St.  Mary's  river,  and  so  to  the  Atlantic  :  east,  from  the  mouth  of  the 
St.  Croix  river  to  its  source,  and  due  north  to  the  highlands,  includ- 
ing all  islands  within  twenty  leagues  of  the  coast,  except  such  as  be- 
longed to  Nova  Scotia.) 

2.  Right  of  fishery  secured  to  the  United  States  on  the  Grand  Bank 
and  all  other  Newfoundland  banks,  and  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
as  well  as  on  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  ;  right  to  cure  fish  on  all 
unsettled  parts  of  Nova  Scotia,  Labrador,  and  Magdalen  islands  as 
long  as  they  should  remain  unsettled. 

3.  All  good  debts  heretofore  contracted  should  be  considered 
binding. 

4.  Restitution  of  confiscated  estates  to  be  recommended  by  co\i- 
gress  to  the  states. 

5.  Navigation  of  the  Mississippi  to  be  open  to  both  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States. 

II.  Great  Britain  ceded  Tobago  to  Prance. 

III.  G-reat  Britain  ceded  Florida  to  Spain. 
Establishment  of  the  Society  of  the  Cincinnati  by  officers  of  the 

army. 

Nov.  2.     Washington's  farewell  address  to  the  army. 

Nov.  25.     Evacuation  of  New  York. 

Dec.  23.     Washington  resigned  his  commission. 

1784.  Partial  abolition  of  slavery  in  Connecticut.  Erection  of  a 
temporary  government  for  the  western  territory  (April).  Or- 
ganization of  the  state  of  Franklin  or  Frankland  by  the  west- 
ern counties  of  North  Carolina  (Dec.)  ;  it  was  given  up  in 
1788. 

1786.  Insurrection  in  Massachusetts  and  in  New  Hampshire, 
springing  from  financial  complications. 

1787,  Jan.-Feb.      The    insurgents  in    Massachusetts,  numbering 


A.  D.  America.  —  Great  Britain.  433 

about  1,100,  under  Daniel  Shays,  met  the  troops  of  the  state 
under  general  Shepherd,  but  were  dispersed  by  the  mere  sight 
of  artillery.     Three  men  were  killed  {Shays'  Rebellion). 
The  restricted  powers  of  the  congress  approving  themselves  totally 
insufficient  for  the  proper  government  of  the  country  (failure  to  estab- 
lish a  revenue  by  an  impost  tax  ;  infraction  of  treaties  by  the  states), 
Virginia  proposed  a  convention  for  forming  a  better  Constitution 
(1786).     The  recommendation  meeting  with  favor,  after  much  delay 
1787,  May  25.    Delegates  from  seven  states  met  in  convention  at  Phil- 
adelphia, and  elected  Washington  president.    Delegates  from 
other  states  came  in,  until  all  were  represented  except  Rhode 
Island.    The  debates  were  long  and  warm,  and  more  than  one 
compromise  (tacit  recognition  of  slavery  ;  equal  representation 
of  all  states  in  the  senate  ;  in  the  house  representation  accord- 
ing to  population)  was  necessary  before  the  delegates 

Sept.  1 7.  Signed  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
which  was  forthwith  laid  before  the  separate  states. 

1787.  Ordinance  for  the  government  of  the  territory  north- 
July  13.    west  of  the  Ohio,  which  was  ceded,  or  to  be  ceded,  to  the 

United  States  by  the  states,  and  bought  of  the  Indians. 
Slavery  and  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  punishment 
for  crime,  -were  forbidden  within  this  region. 

1788,  Sept.  13.  All  the  states  except  Rhode  Island  and  North 
Carolina  having  accepted  the  Constitution,  congress  appointed 
days  for  elections  under  the  same.  {See  p.  5^7.) 

§8.    GREAT  BRITAIN.  {See  p.  389.) 

1702-1714.     Anne, 

second  daughter  of  James  II.,  wife  of  Prince  George  of  Den- 
mark.    In  the  first  part  of  her  reign  the  queen  was  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Whigs  (John  Churchill,  duke  of  Marlborough  and  his  wife). 
1702,  May  4.     War  declared  upon  France  by  the  grand  alliance,  in- 
cluding England.     For  the  war  (of  the  Spanish  Succession) 
see  p.   390.    Marlborough  was  captain-general  of  all  the  land 
forces  ;    Godolphin,  lord   high   treasurer  ;   Nottingham,  secre- 
tary of  state.     Halifax  and  Somers  not  in  the  privy  council. 
July  2.     Sixth  Parliament  of  William  III.  dissolved. 

The  campaign  of  this  year  resulted  in  the  capture  of  Venloo  and 
Liege  and  the  loss  of  the  lower  Rhine  to  France.  Sir  George  Rooke 
failed  to  take  Cadiz,  but  seized  a  number  of  treasure  ships  at  Vigo 
Bay  (Oct.). 

1702,  Oct.  20-1705,  March  14.     First  parliament  of  Anne.^ 

Harley  speaker  of  the  house  of  commons.    Marlborough  made 
a  duke. 
Dec.     Bill  to  prevent  occasional  conformity  passed  by  the  com- 
mons but  rejected  by  the  lords  {High  church  and  Low  church), 

1703.  Severe  laws  in  Ireland  against  Irish  Catholics. 

1  The  dates  are  those  of  the  actual  meeting  and  separation  of  the  parliaments. 
nut  of  the  oroclamations  summoning  and  dissolving  them. 
28 


434  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

1703,  Methuen  treaty  between  England  and  Portugal.  England 
agreed  to  admit  the  heavy  wines  of  Portugal  at  one  third 
lower  rate  than  the  light  French  wines,  while  Portugal  prom- 
ised to  import  all  her  woolens  from  England. 

Sept.     Archduke  Charles  assumed  the  title  of  Charles  III.  of  Spain. 

Nov.     Establishment  of  Queen  Anne's  Bounty  ;  a  grant  of  the 

first  fruits  and  tithes  which  Henry  VIII.  had  confiscated  for 

the  crown,  in  trust  for  increasing  the  income  of  small  benefices. 

In  this   campaign    (1703)  Marlborough  took  Bonn   and  Huyy 

Limburg  and  Guelders. 

1704,  Mar.     Case  of  Ashby  and  White  (right  of  electors  to  vote). 
July  24.     Gibraltar  taken  by  Sir  George  Rooke  and  Sir  Cloudesley 

Shovel. 
Aug.  13.     Victory  of  Blenheim  or  Hochstddt  (p.  392).     Naval  vic- 
tory off  Malaga  ovei  the  French. 
Attempt  to  pass  the  occasional  conformity  hill  by  tacking  it  to  a 
money  bill  (tackers).     The  scheme  was  defeated  in  the  com- 
mons. 

1705,  Oct.  4.     Capture  of  Barcelona  by  Charles  Mordaunt,  lord  Pe- 

terborough. 

1705,  Oct.  25-1708,  Apr.  1.    Second  Parliament  of  Anne.    Whigs 

in  majority. 

1706,  May  23.  Ramillies  ;  conquest  of  Brabant  (p.  392)  ;  Turin, 
Sept.  7;  conquest  of  Italy  (p.  392).     The  allies  in  Madrid. 

1707,  Apr.  25.   Battle  of  Almanza;  defeat  of  the  allies  by  the  duke 

of  Berwick.     Spain  lost  to  the  allies. 

1707»  May  1.     Union  of  England  and  Scotland  under 
the  name  of  Great  Britain  went  into  effect. 
This  measure,  which  was  made  necessary  by  the  omission  of 
Scotland  from  the  act  of  settlement,  provided  :  1.   that  Sophia, 
princess  of  Hanover  and  her  Protestant  heirs  should  succeed 
to  the  crown  of  the  united  kingdom.     2.  There  should  be  one 
parliament,  to  which  Scotland  should  send  sixteen  elective  peers 
and  forty-five  members  of  the  commons.     No  more  peers  of 
Scotland  to  be  created.     Scotch  law  and  legal  administration  to 
be  unchanged  ;  the  Episcopal  church  in  England  and  Presbyte- 
rian in  Scotland  to  be  unchanged.     Adoption  of  the  Union 
Jack  (Crosses  of  St.  George  and  St.  Andrew)  as  the  national 
flag  of  Great  Britain. 
1707,  Oct.  23.    First  Parliament  of  Great  Britain.^    The  influence 
of  Marlborough  and  his  wife  had  been  gradually  weakened 
by  Harley  and  by  the  influence  of  the  queen's  new  favorite,  Abigail 
Hill,  now  Mrs.  Masham.     Marlborough,  however,  was  still  so  strong 
that  a  hint  at  resignation  secured  the  dismissal  of  Harley  and  St.  John 
from  the  cabinet,  and  the  substitution  of  Boyle  and  Robert  Walpole 
(secretary-at-war).    Last  Royal  veto. 

1  Not  a  new  parliament,  but  the  second  parliament  of  Anne  revived  by  pro- 
clamation. Henceforward  parliaments  are  numbered  without  regard  to  reigns, 
but  here  the  distinction  is  retained.  The  number  as  a  parliament  of  Great 
Britain  is  indicated  by  a  Roman  numeral  in  parenthesis. 


A.  D.  Great  Britain.  435 

1708,  March.  James  Edward  {Chevalier  de  St.  George,  the  Old 
Pretender)  landed  in  Scotland.  A  French  fleet  sent  to  assist 
him  was  repulsed  by  Admiral  Byng^  and  the  Pretender  soon 
returned  to  France. 

July  11.     Battle  of  Oudenarde  (p.  392). 

1708,  Nov.  16-1710,  Apr.  5.     Third  Parliament  of  Anne  (II.). 

Whig  majority.  Somers  president  of  the  council.  Leaders 
of  the  whigs  (Jmito)  :  Somers,  Halifax,  Wharton,  Oxford, 
Sunderland. 

1709,  Sept.  11.     Battle  of  Malplaquet  (p.  393). 
Oct.     Townshend's  harrier  treaty.    Copyright  act. 

1710,  Feb.-Mar.     Trial  of  Dr.  Sacheverell  for  preaching  sermons 

of  an  ultra  Tory  cast.     He  was  convicted  and  thereby  secured 
great  popularity  in  the  kingdom. 
Harley  chancellor  of  exchequer.     St.  John,  secretary  of  state. 
Sept.     Charles  III.  in  Madrid  driven  out  by  Vendome. 

1710.  Nov.  25-1713,  July  16.    Fourth  Parliament  of  Anne  (III.). 

Tory  majority.     Dismissal  of  Godolphin  ;  resignation  of  all 
the  Whig  ministers. 
South  Sea  Company  established. 

1711.  Mrs.  Masham  superseded  the  duchess  of  Marlborough  as 
keeper  of  the  privy  purse.  The  duke  retained  his  office.  At- 
tempted assassination  of  Harley  by  the  marquis  of  Guiscard. 
Harley  created  earl  of  Oxford  and  Mortimer  and  lord  high 
treasurer. 

Sept.  13.     Marlborough  captured  the  fortress  of  Bouchain. 
Oct.     Charles  III.  left  Spain  ;  elected  emperor  Charles  VI. 
Nov.     Philip  V.  entered  Madrid. 

Passage  of  the  occasional  conformity  bill. 
Marlborough,  who  had  returned  to  England,  was  accused  of 
peculation  (Nov.)  and  dismissed  from  all  his  offices.   Duke  of 
Ormond,  commander-in-chief. 
Dec.  30.     Qualification  act  (repealed  1866). 

1712.  Creation  of  twelve  Tory  peers  to  secure  a  majority  in  the 
lords. 

July.     Henry  St.  John  created  viscount  Bolingbroke. 

1713.  Apr.  11.     Peace  of  Utrecht  (p.  393). 

Articles  affecting  Great  Britain. 

Great  Britain  and  France  :  Renunciation  of  the  Pretender; 
recognition  of  the  Protestant  succession  in  Great  Britain  ;  crowns  of 
France  and  Spain  not  to  be  united  under  one  head  ;  fortifications  of 
Dunkirk  to  be  leveled  and  its  harbor  filled  up  ;  cession  of  Hudson's 
Bay  and  strait,  Nova  Scotia  (Acadia),  Newfoundland,  St.  Christopher 
to  England ;  Great  Britain  and  Spain,  cession  of  Gibraltar  and  Mi- 
norca to  England;  grant  of  the  Assiento  {el  pacto  de  el  asiento  de 
nigros),  or  contract  for  supplying  slaves  to  Spanish  America,  to  the 
subjects  of  Great  Britian  for  thirty  years  (Royal  African  Company). 

1714.  Feb.  16-1714,  Aug.  25.     Fifth  Parliament  of  Anne  (IV.). 
iL714,  May  28.     Death  of  princess  Sophia  of  Hanover.     Schism  act. 
July  27.      Earl  of  Oxford  dismissed,  and  succeeded  as  lord  high 

treasurer  by  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury  (Talbot). 


436 


Modem  History. 


A.  D. 


Aug.  ] .     Death  of  Anne. 

Alexander  Pope,  1688-1744  ;  Jonathan  Swift,  1667-1745  ; 
Daniel  Defoe,  1661?-1731;  Joseph  Addison,  1672-1719;  Sir 
Richard  Steele,  1671-1729.  Periodical  literature  ;  Tatler,  1709, 
Apr.  12-1711,  Jan.  2;  Spectator,  1711,  Mar.  1-1714,  Dee.  20. 

1714  —  X.     House  of  Hanover  or  Brunswick. 

None  of  Anne^s  seventeen  children  having  survived  her,  the 
crown,  according  to  the  act  of  succession,  descended  to  the 
protestant  house  of  Hanover,  the  catholic  line  of  the  Stuarts 
being  excluded. 

James  I.  (Stuart)  f  1625. 
I 


3.  Elizabeth 
m.  Frederic  V., 
elector  palatine. 


12.  Sophia, 
m.  Ernest 
Augustus  el. 
of  Hanover. 


5.  Charles  I.  f  1649, 
m.  Henrietta  Maria, 
d.  oi  Henrv  IV.  of  France. 


Charles  II.         Mary 
t  1685.     m.  William  11. 
of  Orange. 


I 
James  H. 

deposed  1689, 
d.  1701. 

by  Anne  Hyde  |  by  Mary  of  Este. 


George  I. 

t  1727. 
m.  Sophia  Dorothea, 
d.  of  duke  of  Brunswick 

and  Zell. 
_J 

I 


William  IH. 

t  1702. 


I 
Mary 

t  1694. 


I 
Anne 
t  1714. 


Sophia  Dorothea, 

m.  Frederic 
William,  elector 
of  Brandenburg. 

Frederic  II., 
king  of  Prussia. 


James 

Francis 

Edward, 

the  Old 

Pretender, 

t  1766. 

I 
1 


Charles  Edward  Henry, 

the  young  Pretender,  cardinal 

without  is&iie.  York, 

1 1788.  without  issue. 

t  1807. 


George  II. 

t  1760, 
m.  Caroline 
of  Anspach. 

Frederic  Louis, 

t  1751, 
m.  Augusta,  d. 
of  duke  of  Saxe  Coburg. 

and  Gotha. 

George  TIT. 

t  1820, 
m.  Charlotte  of 
Mecklenburg 
Strelitz. 

1714-1727.     George  I. 

1714,  Sept.  18.  The  king  landed  in  England.  George  I.  favored 
the  Whigs  in  the  formation  of  the  first  government ;  Lord 
Townshend  sec.  of  state  ;  Shrewsbury  resigned,  and  Halifax  was  made 
first  lord  of  the  treasury  (^Shrewsbury  was  the  last  lord  high  treasurer)  ; 
Sunderland  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  ;  lord  Comper  chancellor : 
earl  of  Nottingham  president  of  the  council  ;  Marlborough  comman- 
der-in-chief. 


A.  D.  Great  Britain,  437 

1715,  Mar.  17-1722,  Mar.  7.  First  ParUament  of  Gteorge  I.  (V.). 
Impeachment  of  Bolingbroke,  Ormond,  Oxford.  Flight  of  Bol- 
inghroke  and  Ormond ;  Oxford  committed  to  the  Tower.  Jac- 
obite riots.     Riot  act. 

1715-1716,  Sept.     Jacobite  rising  in  Scotland  under  the  earl  of  Mar. 
Battles  of  Sheriffmuir  and  Preston.     Arrival  of  the  Pretender 
in  Scotland  (Dec.)    As  his  friends  dispersed  upon  the  approach 
of  the   duke  of  Argyle,  the  Pretender  abandoned  Scotland 
(Feb.  5,  1716)  and  returned  to  France. 
Barrier  treaty  (in  1781  Joseph  II.  dismantled  the  fortresses). 
Impeachment  of  the  Jacobite  leaders.     Execution  of  Derwent" 
water  and  Kenmure  (Feb.  24). 
Act  creating  septennial  instead  of  triennial  parliaments. 

1717,  Jan.  4.     Triple  alliance  between  England,  France,  and  Holland 

in  consequence  of  the  intrigues  of  the  Pretender,  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden,  and  Spain  (Alberoni). 
Feb.  20,  1722-Mar.  7.     First  Septennial  Parliament. 

Convocation  ceased  to  meet  for  business  (revived  under  the 
present  reign). 

1718,  Aug.  2.  Quadruple  alliance  between  England,  France,  the 
emperor,  Holland  (p.  397). 

1718,  Dec.  17-1720.     War  between  England  and  Spain. 

1718,  Jan.     Repeal  of  the  occasional  conformity  act  and  the 

schism  act. 

1719,  Abortive  Spanish  expedition  to  Scotland  in  favor  of  the  Pre- 
tender. 

Nov.  20.  Treaty  of  Stockholm ;  Sweden  ceded  Bremen  and  Ver- 
den  (p.  397)  to  George  I.  for  1,000,000  rix  dollars. 

1720,  Jan.     Spain  joined  the  quadruple  alliance.     Bursting  of  the 

south  sea  bubble,  from  a  panic  originating  in  the  failure  of 

Law's  scheme  in  France. 
1721-1742.    Administration  of  Walpole  (1726-1742,  admmistra- 

tion  of  Fleury  in  France). 
1722,  Oct.  9-1727,  July  17.     Second  parliament  of  George  I. 

(VI.). 
1725,  Sept.  3.     Treaty  of  Hanover  between  Englandy  France  and 
Prussia  (alliance  of  Herrenhausen). 

1727,  June  11.     Death  of  George  I. 

1727-1760.    George  II. 

Walpole  continued  in  office.  The  king  governed  by  his  wife, 
Wilhebnina .  Charlotte  Caroline,  of  Anspach. 

1728,  Jan.  23-1734,  Apr.  16.     First   Parliament   of  George   IIo 

(VII.). 

1729,  Nov.  9.     Treaty  of  Seville  with  Spain;  restoration  of  con- 

quest ;  confirmation  of  the  assiento.  Gibraltar  ceded  to  Eng- 
land. 

1731,  Mar.  16.  Treaty  of  Vienna  :  dissolution  of  the  Ostend  East 
India  Co.  which  had  been  formed  as  a  rival  to  the  English  East 
India  Co.  by  the  emperor. 

1735,  Jan.  14-1741,  Apr.  25.  Second  Parliament  of  George  XL 
CVIII.}. 


438  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

1736.     Porteous  riots  in  Edinburgh. 
1739-1748.     War  with  Spain. 

1739,  Nov.  22.     Capture  of  Porto  Bello  in  Darien  by  admiral  Vernon. 

1740.  Futile  attack  upon  Carthagena  by  Vernon  and  Wentworth. 
Disease  in  the  army. 

1740,  Sept.-1744,  June.  ,  Voyage  of  commodore  Anson  to  the  coast 

of  Chili  and  Peru  and  around  the  world. 

1741,  Dec.  1-1747,  June   17.     Third  Parliament  of  George  II. 
(IX.).   Fall  of  Walpole  (succeeded  by  the  earl  of  WilmingtoUp 

Feb.  1742). 
1743-1754.     Administration  of  Henry  Pelham,  who  succeeded  the 
earl  of  Wilmington  (f),  July  1743,  as  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 

1740-1748.     "War  of  the  Austrian  Succession. 

England  took  part  with  Austria  (pragmatic  army);  for  her 
share  in  the  war  see  p.  400. 

Nov.  Ministry  of  Pelham,  Pitt,  Newcastle,  Harrington  (Stanhope), 
Bedford.     ("  Broad  Bottom  Ministry.") 

1745,  May  11.  Battle  of  Pontenoy  (p.  402);  Saxe  defeated  Cum- 
berland.    Louisburg  taken  from  the  French  (p.  421). 

1745,  Second  Jacobite  rebellion. 

The  young  Pretender,  Charles  Edward,  landed  in  Scotland 
(July  25),  and  proclaimed  his  father  (f  1766)  as  James  VIII. 
of  Scotland  and  III.  of  England. 

Sept.  11.     The  Pretender  entered  Edinburgh  with  some  2,000  men. 

Sept.  21.     Jacobite  victory  at  Prestonpans. 

Dec.  4.     Pretender  at  Derby  (about  6,000  men). 

Dec.  18.     Jacobite  victory  at  Penrith. 

1746,  Jan.  17.  Jacobite  victory  at  Falkirk  Moor,  over  general 
Hawley. 

April  16.     Battle  of  CuUoden  ;  victory  of  the  duke  of  Cumberland 
over  lord  George  Murray  and  the  Pretender. 
Execution  of  Jacobite  lords.   Escape  of  the  Pretender  to  France 
(Sept.  20). 

1747,  Nov.  10-1754,  Apr.  6.    Fourth  Parliament  of  George  II. 

(X.). 

1748,  Oct.     Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (p.  403). 

1752.    Adoption  of  the  reformed  (Gregorian)  calendar  in  Eng- 
land and  the  colonies. 
The  year  was  to  begin  Jan.  1  instead  of  March  25  ;  eleven  days 
were  omitted  between  Sept.  2  and  14. 

1754.  The  duke  of  Newcastle  succeeded  his  brother,  Mr.  Pelham  (f 
March),  as  prime  minister.     Fox  secretary  of  state. 

1754,  May  31-1761,  Mar.  19.  Fifth  Parliament  of  George  II. 
(XL). 

1755-1763.  Land  and  naval  war  between  England  and 
France  (Seven  Years'  War),  originating  in  boundary  disputes 
in  North  America,  carried  on  by  land  in  America  (and  Ger- 
many), by  sea  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  English  had  the 
advantage  of  the  French  almost  everywhere.  (War  in  Amer-^ 
ica,  p.  420  ;  in  Europe,  p.  403  ;  in  India,  p.  443.) 


A.  D.  Great  Britain,  439 

1753.     Foundation  of  the  British  Museum. 

1756.     Black  Hole  at  Calcutta,     (p.  443.) 

1757-1761,  Oct.  5.  Coalition  ministry  of  the  duke  of  Newcastle, 
first  lord  of  the  treasury,  and  the  elder  Pitt  (William  Pitt,  b. 
1708;  member  of  the  commons  1735;  vice-treasurer  for  Ireland 
1746;  privy  councillor  and  paymaster-general,  secretary  of  state 
1756;  retired  1761;  in  opposition  1761-1766  ;  privy  seal  1766- 
1768;  earl  of  Chatham  July  29,  1766;  died  May  11,  1778), 
secretary  of  state. 

1759,  Sept.  13.    Battle  of  Quebec,  death  of  Wolfe. 

1759,  Nov.  20.     Naval  battle  of  Quiberon  Bay  ;  defeat  of  the 

French  by  Sir  Edward  HawTce. 

1760,  Oct.  25.     Death  of  George  II. 

1760-1820.     George  III.,  first  part  of  his  reign,  to  1783. 

1761,  Aug.  15.     Bourbon  family  compact, 

between  France  and  Spain  with  the  assumption  of  the  accession 
of  Naples  and  Parma,  for  reciprocal  guarantee  of  all  posses- 
sions and  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance.  Pitt,  insisting 
that  war  ought  to  be  declared  upon  Spain,  resigned  (Oct.  5). 
Lord  Bute,  the  true  adviser  of  the  king;  "  the  king's  friends;  " 
the  "  power  behind  the  throne." 
1761,  Oct.  5-1762,  May  29.  Ministry  of  the  duke  of  Newcas- 
tle. Egremont  and  Bute,  secretaries  of  state  ;  George  Grenville 
leader  in  the  commons. 

1761,  Nov.  3-1768,  Mar.  10.  First  ParUament  of  George  ILL 
(XIL). 

1762,  Jan.     War  declared  against  Spain. 

1762,  May  29-1763,  Apr.  1.  Ministry  of  lord  Bute  ;  Grenville, 
secretary  of  state. 

1763,  Feb.  10.     Peace  of  Paris 

between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain. 
1.     France  ceded  to  England:  in  North  America,  Canada,  and  Cape 

Breton  Island ;  the  Mississippi  was  recognized  as  the  boundary 
between  Louisiana  and  the  British  colonies ;  in  the  West  Indies  Granada; 
in  Africa  the  French  possessions  on  the  Senegal.  England  restored  to 
France  Goree  in  Africa,  and  all  conquests  in  India.  2.  Spain  ceded 
to  England  Florida,  as  indemnification  for  which  France  had  already 
ceded  Louisiana  to  Spain  ;  Spain  received  from  England  all  con- 
quests in  Cuba  including  Havana. 

In  consequence  of  this  peace  and  her  acquisitions  in  India  (p.  443) 
Great  Britain  reached  the  summit  of  her  extent  and  power;  the  North 
American  colonies  had  gradually  developed  into  states  under  gover- 
nors, with  liberal  constitutions,  modeled  after  that  of  Great  Britain, 
1763,  April  1-1765,  July.     Ministry  of  George  Grenville;  Halifax 

and  Egremont,  secretaries  of  states ;  Fox  created  lord  Holland. 
No.  45  of  the  North  Briton  containing  insulting  remarks  concerning 
the  king  by  John  Wilkes,  general  warrants  for  the  apprehension  of 
the  authors,  printers,  and  publishers,  were  issued.  Wilkes  was  ar- 
rested and  expelled  from  the  commons.  General  warrants  declared 
illegal  by  the  chief  justice.     Wilkes  outlawed. 


440  Modem  History,  a.  d. 

1765,  Feb.     Stamp  act  (p.  425). 

1765,  July-1766,  July.   Ministry  of  the  marquis  of  Rockingham ; 

general  Conway  secretary  of  state  and  leader  of  the  comnaons. 

1766,  March.     Repeal  of  stamp  act  (p.  423). 

1766,  April  22.     General  warrants  declared  illegal  by  resolution 

of  the  commons  (a  declaratory  bill  to  this  effect  was  thrown  out 
by  the  lords). 
Aug.  1767,  Dec.     Ministry  of  Chatham;  Grafton. 

1767,  Dec-1770,  Jan.     Ministry  of  the  duke  of  Grafton  ;  Towns- 

hend  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  ;  general  Conway,  lord  Shel- 
bumCf  secretaries  of  state.  Pitt  (earl  of  Chatham)  lord  privy 
seal.     Lord  Hillsborough  first  colonial  secretary. 

1768,  May  10-1774,   June  22.      Second  Parliament   of  George 

III.  (XIII.).     Wilkes  member  for  Middlesex. 

1769,  Feb.     "Wilkes  expelled  the  house  for  an  alleged  libel  on  lord 

Weymouth.  He  was  thrice  elected  and  thrice  rejected  ;  at  the 
last  election  his  opponent,  colonel  Luttrell,  who  received  a 
small  minority,  was  declared  elected. 
1769-1772.  Letters  of  Junius,  containing  bitter  attacks  upon  the 
duke  of  Grafton,  lord  Mansfield  (Murray),  and  other  mem- 
bers of  the  government,  appeared  in  the  "  Daily  Advertiser." 
The  author  is  still  unknown,  though  the  letters  are  attributed 
by  many  with  great  confidence  to  Sir  Philip  Francis. 

1770,  Jan.-1782,  March  20.     Ministry  of  lord  North  (first  lord  of 

the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer). 

1770,  May.     Remonstrance  of   the  lord  mayor  and  aldermen    of 

London  with  the  king. 

1771.  Abortive  attempt  of  the  commons  to  prevent  the  publication 
of  speeches.  Complaint  of  colonel  Onslow;  arrest  of  the 
printers  ;  commitment  of  Crosby,  lord  mayor,  and  Oliver ^  alder- 
man of  London,  for  granting  bail. 

1774.     Boston  Port  Bill  (p.  425). 

1774,  Nov.  29-1780,  July  8.  Third  Parliament  of  George  HI. 
(XIV.). 
Wilkes,  lord  mayor,  and  member  for  Middlesex  ;  motion  to 
expunge  the  resolution  rejecting  him.  (On  the  sixth  motion. 
May  3,  1782,  he  was  successful,  and  the  resolutions  were  ex- 
punged "  as  subversive  of  the  rights  of  electors.") 

1775-1783-     War  of  independence  of  the  British  col- 
onies in  North  America,  see  p.  426. 
1778-1783.     War  between  Great  Britain  and  France. 

1778.     Repeal  of  penal  laws  against  papists  in  England. 

1779-1783.     War  between  Great  Britain  and  Spain. 

1779-1782.     Gibraltar  besieged  hj  the  French  and  Spanish  in  vain ; 

bravely  defended  by  Elliott. 
1780.     No  popery  riots,  caused  by  the  intended  relief  of  papists  in 

Scotland.      Protestant  associations;    lord    George    Gordon, 

'president. 
June  2.     Presentation  of  a  no  popery  petition  ;   riot  in  London 

lasting  five  days.     Executions. 


A.  D.  Great  Britain,  441 

The  armed  neutrality  (p.  412)  formed  to  resist  England's 
assumption  of  the  right  of  search. 

1780,  Oct.  31-1784,  Mai-.  24.  Fourth  ParUament  of  George 
LEI.  (XV.). 

0.780,  Dec.  30-1783.     War  between  Great  Britain  and  Holland. 

1781,  Oct.  19.     Surrender  of  Cornwallis  (p.  431).     In  this  year 

the  English  lost  Pensacola,  Tobago,  St.  Eustachius,  Demerara, 
Essequibo,  St.  Christopher,  Nevis,  Monserrat,  Minorca  (1782). 

1782,  Feb.     Motion  of  general  Conway  "  that  the  house  will  consider 

as  enemies  to  the  king  and  country  all  who  shall  advise,  or  by 
any  means  attempt,  the  further  prosecution  of  offensive  war, 
for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  revolted  colonies  to  obedience 
by  force." 

March  15.  Motion  of  Sir  J.  Rous  "  that  the  house  could  no  longer 
repose  confidence  in  the  present  ministers,"  lost  by  nine  votes. 
On  a  threat  of  renewal  of  the  motion  lord  North  resigned. 

1782,  March  20-July  1.  Ministry  of  the  marquis  of  Rocking- 
ham (t  July  1, 1782) ;  lord  Shelburne,  and  Charles  James  Fox 
(b  1749,  son  of  Henry  Fox,  lord  Holland;  entered  the  commons 
1768  ;  lord  of  the  admiralty  1770,  of  the  treasury  1773;  1774 
in  opposition  ;  1782  in  the  cabinet  ;  1784  in  opposition  to  Pitt; 
died  Sept.  13,  1806),  secretaries  of  state  ;  lord  Thurloiu,  lord 
chancellor;  Edmund  Burke  (b  1729?  in  Dublin,  entered  par- 
liament 1765,  paymaster  of  the  forces  1782,  in  opposition 
with  Fox  1784,  until  the  French  revolution;  died  July  9, 1797), 
paymaster  of  the  forces  ;  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan  (b. 
1751  at  Dublin,  entered  parliament  1780,  died  July  7,  1816), 
under-secretary  of  state. 

April  12.     Battle  of   Martinique,  naval  victory  of   Rodney  and 
Hood  over  De  Grasse. 
Reduction  of  the  pension  list ;  establishment  of  the  legislative 
independence  of  Ireland  ;   exclusion  of  contractors  and  rev- 
enue officers  from  parliament. 

1782,  July  1-1783,  Feb.  24.    Ministry  of  lord  Shelburne  following 

the  death  of  Rockingham.  "William  Pitt  (b.  1759,  entered 
parliament  1781  ;  chancellor  of  exchequer  1782  ;  prime  min- 
ister 1783  ;  retired  1801  :  returned  to  office  1804  ;  died  Jan. 
23, 1806),  twenty-three  years  old,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  ; 
Fox,  Burke,  Sheridan,  resigned. 
Nov.  30.     Secret  treaty  of  Paris  with  America  (p.  431). 

1783,  Jan.  20-Sept.  3.  Peace  of  Versailles  and  Paris 
(p.  432). 

1.  Recognition  of  the  independence  of  the  thirteen  United  States 
(the  Americans  retained  the  Western  territory  ;  the  navigation  of  the 
Mississippi  was  in  common).  2.  England  surrendered  to  France  in 
the  West  Indies  Tobago  ;  in  Africa  the  region  of  Senegal.  3.  Spain 
retained  Minorca  in  Europe,  and  Florida  in  America. 
1783,  April  2-Dec.  13.  Coalition  ministry  of  the  duke  of  Port- 
land ;  Caveyidish,  chancellor  of  exchequer ;  lord  North  and 
Fox,  secretaries  of  state  ;  Burke,  paymaster. 


442  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

1757-1784.     War  of  the  English  in  India,  see  p.  443. 

In  the  epoch  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  the  English  East  India 
Company  (at  once  sovereigns  and  merchants)  began  the  foundation 
of  an  extensive  empire  in  place  of  the  existing  factories.  The  vic- 
tories of  lord  Clive  gave  the  English  the  upper  hand  of  the  French, 
and  secured  for  them  Bengal. 

War  with  the  Mahrattds,  who  were  allied  with  the  sultan  of  My- 
sore, Hyder  AH  (f  1782,  his  son,  Tippu  Saib),  with  the  Nizam  of 
Golkonda  and  the  French.  From  the  war  this  company  came  out  vic- 
torious and  with  greatly  increased  strength.  Under  the  ministry  of 
the  younger  Pitt  (1783-1801)  the  company  was  subordinated  by 
the  East  India  Bill  (1784)  in  political  and  military  affairs  to  a  royal 
commission  {board  of  control). 

1768-1779.     Voyages  of  James  Cook  (b.  1728;   under  Wolfe  at 
Quebec,  1759;  d.  1779). 

1.  Aug.  26,  1768,  to  June  11,  1771  :  discovery  of  Cook's  strait  and 
of  the  strait  between  Australia  and  New  Guinea.  2.  July  13,  1772, 
to  July  30,  1775:  touching  at  New  Zealand,  Cook  discovered  many 
islands  in  the  Pacific,  penetrated  to  71°  S.  latitude  and  rounded  Cape 
Horn.  3.  July  12,  1776,  investigation  of  Behring's  strait  ;  on  the  re- 
turn Cook  was  killed  by  the  natives  on  Hawaiiy  one  of  the  Sandwich 
islands,  Feb.  14,  1779.  (See  p.  535.) 

§  9.    THE  EAST. 

India.  (Seep.  390.) 

Decline  of  the  Mughal  empire  of  Delhi. 

Bahadur  Shah  (1707-1712),  Jahandar  Shah  (1712-1713),  son 
and  grandson  of  Aurangzeb,  both  under  the  control  of  the  general 
Zul-fikar  Khan.     Successful  revolt  of  Farrukhsiyyar  (1713-1719)  ; 
oppression,  revolt,  and  punishment  of  the  Sikhs  in  the  Punjab. 
1715.     Rajputana  practically  independent  of  the  empire. 

The  Sayyid  chiefs,  Husdin  All  and  Abdulld,  placed  two  boy  em- 
perors on  the  throne,  who  were  followed,  after  four  months, 

by 

1719-1748.     Muhammad  Shah. 

1720-1748.      Independence  of  the  Deccan   established  under  the 

Nizam  ul  Mulk,  or  governor. 
1732-1743.     Practical  independence  of  Oudh. 

1739.     Invasion  of  India  by  Nadir  Shah,  of  Persia  ;  sack  of  Delhi. 
1748.     Death  of  Muhammad  Shah;  from  this  time  the  emperors  were 

but  puppets,  with  a  shadow  only  of  power. 
1748-1754.     Ahmad  Shah. 
1748-1761.     Five   invasions   of    India  by  Ahmad   Shah   Durani, 

Afghan  ruler  of  Kandahar:  1748  ;  1751-1752  ;  1761  (sack  of 

Delhi)  ;  1759  ;  1761. 
1754-1759.      Alamgir   II.  ;  capture   of    Delhi  by  the   Mahrattds 

(1759). 
1759-1806.     Shah  Alam  II. 
1761.     Battle  of  Pauipat  ;  defeat  of  the  Mahrattds  by  the  Afghans 


A.  D.  The  East:  India.  443 

under  Ahmad  Shah  Durani.  The  Mahratta  power  was  following 
fast  in  the  footsteps  of  the  Mughal  emperors.  Under  Sahu^  grand- 
son of  Sivaji  (p.  389),  the  real  power  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  chief 
minister,  a  Brahman  with  the  title  of  Peshwa  ;  this  man  and  his 
successors  {Bdlaji,  1718-1720  ;  Bdji  Rao,  1721-1740;  BdLaji  Bdji 
Rdo,  1740-1761  ;  Madhu  Rdo,  1761-1772)  built  up  a  confederacy  at 
Poona  while  the  true  sovereigns  sank  into  the  petty  princes  of  Sd- 
tdra  and  Kolhapur  (the  latter  still  exists).  Under  the  first  three 
Peshw^  their  armies  prospered,  they  conquered  the  Deccan  and  ex- 
torted tribute  from  Bengal  (1751).  After  the  defeat  of  Panipat 
(1761),  the  power  of  the  Peshwa  of  Poona  rapidly  declined,  and 
the  confederacy  split  up  into  five  divisions  :  the  Peshwds  (Poona), 
Bhonslds  (Nagpur),  Sindhia  (Gwalior),  HoUcar  (Indore),  Gdekwdrs 
(Baroda). 

The  British  in  India. 

When  the  eighteenth  century  opened,  the  British  were  established 
at  Bombay,  Madras,  and  in  Bengal  (Calcutta).  The  French  had  a 
factory  at  Pondicherri,  soutii  of  Madras.  This  eastern  coast  land, 
the  Kamatic,  was  under  the  Nawdh  (Nabob)  of  Arcol,  a  subordinate 
of  the  Nizam  of  Haidardhdd  (Deccan). 

1744-1748.     War  between  France  and  England  in  Europe  ;  fol- 
lowed by  war  between  these  powers  in  India.     Dupleix,  gov- 
ernor of  Pondicherri. 
1746.     Capture  of  Madras  by  the  French ;  it  was  restored  in  the 

peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
1751-1754.  War  between  French  and  British  in  India.  De- 
fense of  Arcot  by  Clive  (Robert  Clive,  b.  1725,  clerk  in 
Madras  1743,  ensign  1744,  paymaster  1748  ;  in  England  1753- 
1755 ;  governor  of  Bengal  1758  ;  Irish  peer,  baron  Clive  of 
Plassey,  1760  ;  governor  of  Bengal  1765-1767  ;  committed 
suicide  Nov.  22,  1774). 
1756-1763.  Seven  Years'  War  in  Europe  (p.  403)  and  Amer- 
ica (p.  420).  War  between  the  British  and  French  in  India. 
1756,  June  29.  "  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta."  The  young  Naiodb 
(Nabob)  of  Bengal,  Sirdj-ud-Dauld  (Surajah  Dowlah),  hav- 
ing quarreled  with  the  English,  seized  Calcutta  and  imprisoned 
146  persons  in  the  military  prison  of  Fort  William,  a  room 
some  eighteen  feet  square.  In  the  morning  but  23  of  the  146 
were  alive.  Clive  recaptured  Calcutta,  took  the  French  fac- 
tory at  Chandamaffar  and  defeated  a  much  more  numerous 
force  under  Surajah  Dowlah  in  the 

i757,  June  23.    Battle  of  Plassey. 

Mir  Jafar  was  placed  on  the  (viceregal)  throne  of  Bengal  ;  Sura- 
jah Dowlah  was  soon  put  to  death, 
1758.     Clive  governor  of  Bengal  ;  defeat  of  the  Dutch  (Nov.  1759). 

Establishment  of   British  influence  as  superior  to  that  of  the 

Frencli  in  tlie  south. 


444  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

1760,  Jan.  22.     Battle  of  Wandewash;  defeat  of  the  French  under 
Lally  by  colonel  (afterwards  sir  Eyre)  Coote.     Destruction  of 
the  French  power  in  India. 
The  British  having  deposed  Mir  Jafar  and  set  up  Mir  Kosim  as 

Nawdb  in  1761  were  soon  involved  m  a  war  with  the  latter  (massacre 

of  Patnd,  1763).    Sepoy  mutiny,  1764. 

1764.  Battle  of  Baxar  won  by  major  Munro  over  Shah  Alarn,  the 
emperor.     Conquest  of  Oudh. 

1765.  Settlement  of  Indian  relations  by  Clive,  again  governor  of 
Bengal  (1765-1767).  Oudh  restored  to  the  Nawab  ;  Alla- 
habad and  Kora  given  to  the  emperor,  Shah  Alam,  the  British  re- 
ceived the  financial  administration  of  Bengal,  Behar,  Orissa,  and  the 
sovereignty  over  the  Northern  Circars. 

1771.     Shah  Alam  submitted  to  the  Mahrattds. 

Famine  in  Bengal  ;  bad  condition  of  the  company's  affairs  ;  its 
servants  grew  rich  on  extortions  and  perquisites,  but  the  com- 
pany was  near  bankruptcy.     Failure  of  Clive's  system  of  man- 
agement. 
1772-1774.     "Warren  Hastings,  governor  of  Bengal  (b.  1732;  clerk 
in  Bengal  1749  ;  member  of  government  1761  ;  in  England; 
member  of  council  in  Madras  1765;  governor  of  Bengal  1772, 
of  India  1774;  recalled  1785,  impeached  1788,  acquitted  1795, 
privy  counselor  1814,  died  1818). 
1774-1785.     Warren  Hastings,  governor-general  of  India.     Coun- 
cil of  five  instead  of  twelve,  Hastings  having  the  casting  vote. 
Introduction  of  reforms  in  administration  ;   acquirement  by 
the  British  of  complete  control  of  the  finances  of  the  empire. 
Opposition  of  Philip  Francis  (Junius  ?). 
Holding  that  the  emperor  had  broken  the  agreement  with  Clive  by 
joining  the  Mahrattas,  Hastings  sold  Allahdhdd  and  Kora  to  the  gov- 
ernor of  Oudh.     The  resistance  of  Chait  Sinh,  the  Rajd  of  Benares, 
to  the  demands  of  Hastings  was  fanned  into  a  rebellion  ;  Hastings 
charged  the  mother  of  the  governor  of  Oudh  (Begam  of  Oudh)  with 
abetting  the  rebel,  and  extorted  over  £1,000,000  from  her.      For 
these  acts  Hastings  was  impeached  in  parliament  on  his  return  to 
England  (1788-1795  ;  speech  of  Burke),  but  acquitted. 

War  with  the  Mahrattds    (1778-1781),  and  with  Haidar  All  of 
Mysore  and  his  son  Tipu  {Tippu  Saib).  {See p.  5^1.) 

China.  {See  p.  390.) 

1721-1735.     Tung-ching. 
1735-1795.     Kien-lung. 

Annexation  of  Hi.  Conquest  of  East  Turkestan.  Unsuccess- 
ful invasion  of  Cochin  China  and  Burmah.  Suppression  of  a  Moham- 
medan revolt  in  Kan-sah.  Severe  persecution  of  the  Christians.  Liter- 
ary labors  of  the  emperor,  who  was  himself  a  poet ;  foundation  of  four 
libraries. 

1792.    Conquest  of  the  Gorkhas  and  the  Nepaulese.     Unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  suppress  a  rebellion  in  Formosa. 


A.  D.  Japan.  —  France.  445 

1793.     Embassy  of  earl  Macartney. 

1795.     Abdication  of  the  emperor,  who  died  in  1798.       {See  p.  560.) 

Japan.  {See  p.  357) 

From  1654  to  1853  the  history  of  this  country  is  marked  by  few 
events  of  interest.  Under  the  Tokugawa  Shoguns,  many  of  whom 
were  famous  for  their  active  interest  in  science  and  literature,  the 
people  progressed  m  civilization  and  the  diffusion  of  education.  To- 
ward the  close  of  the  second  century  the  country  began  to  feel  the 
evil  effects  of  the  long  peace  :  wealth,  luxury,  enervation.  lyetsiina 
1G50-1681  ;  construction  of  a  cooperative  history  of  Japan,  the  Dai 
Nikon  Shi,  under  the  care  of  the  prince  of  Mito ;  department  of 
astronomy;  growth  of  Yedo.  Tsunayoski,  1681-1708,  the  friend  of 
learning.  Kaempfer  in  Japan.  Yoshimuue,  1717-1744,  one  of  the 
ablest  of  the  Tokugawas  ;  revision  of  the  criminal  code  ;  mtroduction 
of  sugar-cane  ;  foundation  of  a  free  hospital  at  Yedo  ;  hygienic  in- 
formation distributed  tliroughout  the  country  (population  of  Japan  in 
1744,  26,080,000).!  From  1763-1770  an  empress  sat  on  the  Mikado's 
throne. 

1780-1816.  The  Mikado  Kokaku  ;  the  Shoguns  ;  lyeharu  1763- 
1786  ;  lyenori  1787-1837.  Reformation  of  the  administra- 
tion. During  this  reign  the  influence  of  the  Dutch  increased 
rapidly,  while  several  attempts  of  the  Russians  to  open  inter- 
course with  Japan  were  brusquely  repulsed.  (See  p.  562^ 

§  10.  FRANCE.  {Seep.  371.) 

1715-1774.     Louis  XV.,  five  years  old, 

the   great-grandson  of  Louis   XIV.,  whose  son  (the  dauphin 
Louis),  and  grandson  (the  duke  of  Burgundy)  died  before  him. 
1715-1723.     Philip,  duke  of  Orleans,  regent  during  the  minority 

of  Louis  XV.  He  set  the  country  (and  the  king)  an  example 
of  the  most  shameless  debauchery.  His  favorite  was  cardinal  Du- 
bois (f  1723),  a  man  of  low  birth  and  character,  but  of  considerable 
ability.  Abandonment  of  the  policy  of  Louis  XIV.  ;  alliance  with 
England  (1717,  p.  349)  ;  religious  tolerance.  The  quadruple  alli- 
ance, p.  397.  War  ^vith  Spain  ;  marshal  Berwick  in  Spain  ;  peace, 
Feb.  17,  1720  (treaty  of  Londvon  ;  the  emperor  received  Sicily,  Savoy 
obtained  Sardinia). 
1718-1720.     La"w's  Mississippi  scheme. 

In  his  financial  distress  the  regent  grasped  at  the  dazzling 
plans  of  the  Scotchman,  John  Law.  Royal  bank  ;  company  of  the 
west  ;  grant  of  Louisiana.  Popular  infajtuation.  Enormous  infla- 
tion of  the  currency  ;  issue  of  notes  to  the  amount  of  3,000,000,000 
francs,  based  on  the  land  of  the  kingdom.  Sudden  collapse  of  the 
bank  and  the  company,  bringing  widespread  disaster  (1720).  See 
the  South  Sea  Bubble  (p.  437). 
1723-1726.     Administration  of    the  duke   of  Bourbon.     The  young 

king  married  the  daughter  of  the  deposed  king  of  Polan(^ 

1  Keed,  i.  p.  236. 


446  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

Stanislaus  LesczinsH,  having  broken  off  the  projected  marriage  with 
the  Infanta  of  Spain  and  sent  back  the  princess  to  the  great  indigna- 
tion of  Philip  V.  Louis  was  under  the  influence  of  liis  tutor,  cardinal 
Fleury,  who  overthrew  the  duke  of  Bourbon  and  his  favorite  the  mar- 
quise de  Prie,  and  banished  them  from  court. 
1726-1743.     Administration  of  Fleury. 

Participation  of  France  in  the  "war  of  the  Polish  succes- 
sion, p.  398;  in  the  "war  of  the  Austrian  succession,  p.  400;  in 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  p.  403 ;  war  with  England  and  the  peace 
of  Paris,  pp.  422,  441. 

Persecution  of  the  Jansenists.     Miracles  at  the  cemetery  of    St. 
Medard.    Convulsionnaires.    Closure  of  the  cemetery,  1732. 

"  De  par  le  Roi,  defense  k  Dieu, 
De  faire  miracles  en  ce  lieu." 

After  the  death  of  Fleury  (1743),  government  of  mistresses  and  of 
ministers  whom  they  placed  in  office.     Senseless  expenditure  and  re- 
volting arbitrary  rule.     Marquise  de  Ckateauroux, 
1745-1764.     Marquise  de  Pompadour  (Lenormant  d'Etioles). 
1745,   May  11.     Battle  of  Fontenoy  ;    victory   of    Marshal   Saxe 
over  the  allies  (p.  402  and  438). 
Struggle  between  the  church,  parliament,  and  crown. 
The  due  de  Choiseul,  a  friend  of  Pompadour,  minister. 

1756.  Hostilities  with  England  in  North  America  led  to  war  (p. 

1757,  Jan.  5.     Attempted  assassmation  of   Louis  XV.  by  Damiens, 

who  was  barbarously  tortured  and  torn  by  four  horses. 

1768.  Death  of  the  queen. 

1769.  Annexation  of  Corsica. 

The  immorality  and  extravagance  of  the  court  reached  its  height 
when  Louis  XV.,  toward  the  close  of  his  reign,  came  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  shameless  prostitute  Jeanne  Vaubemier,  by  marriage  with 
a  superannuated  courtier, 
1769-1774.     Countess  DuBarry. 

Contest  with  the  parliament  of  Paris,  which  was  abolished 
in  1771  by  the  chancellor,  Maupeou,  and  superseded  by  a  Conseil  du 
Roi,  without  political  privileges.  The  parliament  was,  however,  re- 
stored under  the  next  reign.  Pacte  de  famine  ;  a  company  in  which 
the  king  was  shareholder,  which  had  a  monopoly  of  the  corn  supply. 
1774,  May  10.  Death  of  Louis  XV.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  grand- 
son, 

1774-1792.    Louis  XVL, 

whose  moral  purity  .and  sincere  good- will,  neutralized  by  a 
total  lack  of  energy,  were  unable  to  quiet  the  approaching  storm  of 
the  revolution  by  feeble  attempts  at  reform.  Restoration  of  the 
parliament.  Louis,  while  dauphin  (1770)  had  married  Marie  An- 
toinette,  daughter  of  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria.  The  queen,  at  first 
extremely  popular,  soon  incurred  the  dislike  of  the  people,  and  became 
an  object  of  the  grossest  slanders,  particularly  in  connection  with 
the  scandalous  affair  of  the  diamond  necklace  (1785  ;  given  to  the 


A.  D.  France.  447 

queen  by  cardinal  Rohan;  countess  Lamothe).    Her  influence  was  an 
evil  one,  being  exerted  for  the  maintenance  of  the  system  of  favorit- 
ism, and  for  the  resistance  of  reforms. 
1774-1781.     Maurepas,  the  king's  favorite  minister. 
1774-1776,  May.     Turgot  minister  of  marine  and  finance. 
1777-1781.     Necker,  muiister  of  finance  ;  abolition  of  six  hundred 

superfluous  offices. 
1778.    Alliance  between  France  and  the  United  States  of  America 

(p.  429). 
For  the  participation  of  France  in  the  war  of  American  independ- 
ence, see  p.  429,  etc. 
1781.     Publication  of  the  compte  rendu  by  Necker.     On  the  death  of 

Maurepas  the  Comte  de  Vergennes  succeeded  to  the  favor  of  the 

king. 
1783-1787.     Calonne,  a  favorite  of  the  queen,  minister  of  finance. 

Great  extravagance  of  the  court  ;  contraction  of  an  enormous 

debt. 

1787,  Feb.  22.     Assembly  of  notables  summoned  at  Versailles. 

Fall  of  Calonne. 
De  Brienne,  minister  of  finance.     Dissolution  of  the  assembly 
(May  25).     Opposition  of  the  parliament  of  Paris,  which  re- 
fused to  register  the  reform. 
Edicts,  alleging  that  such  changes  needed  the  approval   of   the 
states-general.     Banishment  of  the  parliament  to  Troyes.    An  agree- 
ment was  patched  up,  but  on  the  recall  of  the  parliament,  a  still  more 
aggravated  quarrel  broke  out  concerning  new  loans. 

1788,  Jan.     Presentation  of  grievances.    Arrest  of  the  leaders  of  the 

parliament.     Abolition  of  that  body,  the  place  of  which  was 
to  be  taken  by  a  cour  pleniere,  nominated  by  the  king.     Revolts 
in  the  provinces. 
Summons  of  a  states-general  for  May  5,  1789. 
1788,  Aug.     De  Brienne  resigned  office.     Necker  recalled. 

THIRD  PERIOD. 

FROM  THE   BEGINNING  OF  THE  FIRST   FRENCH    REVOLUTION 
TO  THE  CONGRESS  OF  VIENNA  (1789-1815). 

The  revolution  ran  through  three  stages  to  the  extreme  of  a  demo- 
cratic republic,  three  other  periods  brought  it  gradually  through  a  reac- 
tion back  to  absolute  monarchy,  after  which  came  a  time  of  constitutional 
monarchy,  then  a  republic,  then  the  second  empire,  then  a  republic 
again. 

1.  States  Greneral  and  Constituent  Assembly  (Constituante)  ; 
from  May  5  (June  17),  1789,  to  Sept.  30, 1791  (2^  years).  A  limited 
(constitutional)  monarchy.     Influence  of  the  higher  middle  classes. 

2.  The  Legislative  Assembly  (Legislatif)  ;  from  Oct.  1.  1791,  to 
Sept.  21,  1792  (almost  a  year).  Monarchy  still  further  limited,  then 
suspended.     Increase  of  the  power  of  the  lower  classes. 

3.  The  National  Convention  (Convention  Nationale) ;  from  Sept. 
21,  1792,  to  Oct.  25,  1795  (more  than  three  years);  called  to  frame  a 


448  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

new  constitution,  it  first  abolished  the  monarchy  and  condemned  the 
king  to  death  ;  it  supported  the  Reign  of  Terror,  and  then  overthrew 
it.     It  led  the  resistance  to  foreign  foes. 

N.  B.  The  left  of  the  constituent  was  the  right  of  the  legisla- 
tive, and  the  left  of  the  legislative  was  (at  first)  the  right  of  the 
convention. 

4.  The  Directory  (Directoire):  from  Oct.  26, 1795,  to  Nov.  9,  1799 
(18  Brumaire,  An.  VIII.)  more  than  four  years.  The  middle  classes 
recovered  their  influence.  Party  divisions.  The  army.  General 
Bonaparte's  coup  d'etat. 

5.  The  Consulate  (consulat),  at  first  provisional  then  definitive, 
from  Dec.  25,  1799,  to  May  20,  1804  (4|  years)  ;  civil  and  military 
rule,  virtually  of  one  man  ;  progress  of  French  arms. 

6.  The  (first)  Empire;  from  May  20,  1804  to  (April,  1814)  June 
22,  1815  (about  eleven  years).  Napoleon  I.  made  France  the  con- 
trolling power  on  the  continent,  but  was  finally  overthrown.^ 

General  Causes  of  the  Revolution. 

1.  The  spirit  of  the  eighteenth  century  —  a  spirit  devoted  to  the 
destruction  or  reformation  of  all  existing  institutions.  Attacks  of 
French  writers  upon  church  and  state.  Montesquieu  (1689-1755)  ; 
Voltaire  (1694-1778)  ;  Rousseau  (1670-1741)  ;  the  Encyclopedia 
(1751-1780),  the  work  of  the  Encyclopedists  :  Holbach  (1723- 
1789)  ;  Helvetius  (1715-1771)  ;  Diderot  (1713-1784)  ;  D'Alem- 
bert  (1717-1783)  ;  Condillac  (1715-1789). 

2.  The  unequal  division  and  miserable  cultivation  of  the  land  (nearly 
two  thirds  of  which  was  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy  and  the  nobles), 
and  the  strict  control  exercised  by  the  guilds,  which  checked  the  de- 
velopment of  trade  and  industry. 

3.  The  arbitrary  government,  the  abuses  in  the  administration,  the  un- 
equal apportionment  of  the  burdens  of  taxation.  Since  1614,  the  consti- 
tutional assembly  of  the  kingdom,  the  etats-generaux  had  not  been 
summoned  (p.  325).  Control  of  the  liberty  of  the  subject  by  arbitrary 
warrants  of  imprisonment  (lettres  de  cachet.  Bastille)  of  their  property 
by  arbitrary  taxation. 

In  opposition  to  the  right  assumed  by  the  parliament  of  Paris,  to 
refuse  the  registration  of  edicts  of  taxation,  the  court  had  recourse 
to  beds  of  justice  (lits  de  justice,  a  despotic  enforcement  of  registra- 
tion), and  the  banishment  of  members  of  parliament.  Commissions 
in  the  army,  places  in  parliament,  and  most  of  the  higher  offices, 
were  purchasable,  but  as  a  rule,  only  by  the  nobles.  The  privileged 
classes  {nobility  and  clergy^  were  allowed  many  privileges  in  regard 
to  the  direct  taxes,  although  by  no  means  exempt  by  them.^  Continu- 
ation in  the  country  of  the  oppressive  feudal  burdens  (corvees,  enforced 
labor  on  the  estate  of  the  lord  and  on  public  roads  without  pay),  ex- 
actions of  the  feudal  lords,  who  wasted  their  revenues  in  the  capital 
and  gave  the  peasants  neither  protection  nor  assistance  in  return. 
Taille,  land  and  property  tax;  gabelle,  tax  on  salt. 

1  Assmann. 

2  Vou  toybel,  Geschichte  der  Rtvolutionszeit. 


A.  D.  First  French  Revolution.  449 


Special  Cause. 

The  immense  public  debt  and  the  deficit.  The  yearly  deficit  owed 
its  origin  to  the  wars  of  Louis  XIV.,  to  his  costly,  often  senseless 
buildings  (  Versailles  with  its  basins  and  fountams  lying  in  a  district 
totally  without  water),  and  to  his  extravagant  court  ;  it  grew  under 
the  profligate  expenditure  of  Louis  XV.  and  the  cost  of  the  North 
American  war  under  Louis  XVI.  till  it  amounted  to  nearly  half  of 
the  yearly  income.  As  Turgofs  (1774^1776)  attempts  at  reforms 
(removal  of  internal  duties  on  commerce ;  abolition  of  the  corvee,  abo- 
lition of  many  guilds),  Necker^s  (1776-1781)  economical  administra- 
tion, and  the  assembly  of  notables  summoned  upon  the  advice  of 
Calonne  (1787),  brought  no  relief,  the  kmg  took  the  advice  of 
Necker,  who  had  reassumed  office  (1788),  and  resolved  upon  the 

1789,  May  5.  Summons  of  the  ^tats-Generaux  to  Ver- 
sailles, with  a  double  representation  of  the  middle  classes, 
the  third  estate  (tiers  etat),  nobles  300,  clergy  300,  commons  600.  Dis- 
pute about  the  manner  of  debatmg  and  of  voting  (whether  votes  should 
be  cast  by  the  orders  as  such,  or  by  each  member  individually) 
which  broke  out  during  the  verification  of  the  powers  of  the  members. 
The  nobles  and  the  clergy  demanded  a  separate  verification,  the  com- 
mons wished  that  it  should  take  place  in  common.  The  true  question 
was  whether  the  legislative  body  should  consist  of  a  lower  house  of 
commons,  and  an  upper  house  of  nobles  and  clergy  which  would  check 
the  lower,  or  of  one  house  in  which  the  commons  equaled  in  number 
the  nobles  and  clergy  together.  Upon  the  motion  of  the  abbe  Sieyes 
(author  of  the  remarkable  pamphlet  asking.  What  is  the  third  estate  ?) 
the  representatives  of  the  third  estate  assumed  the  title  of  the 

1789,  June  17-1791.     National  Assembly  (constituante) 
and  invited  the  other  orders  to  join  them. 

1789.     Suspension  of  the  meetings  for  three  days ;  the  hall 
June  20.     closed  to  the  members,  who  at  last  resorted  to  a  neighbor- 
ing tennis  court  {jeu  de  paume)  and  took  an  oath  not  to 
separate  until  they  had  given  the  realm  a  constitution.     Pres- 
ident Bailly.     Many  of  the  clergy  and  some  nobles  joined  the 
assembly. 
June  23.     Fruitless  royal  sitting  ;  the  king  ordered  the  assembly  to 
meet  in  three  houses. 
Principal  orator  of  the  assembly  :  Mirabeau  (Riquetti,  count 
of  Mirabeau,  born  1749,  of  remarkable  talent,  but  dissolute, 
in  debt,  at  variance  with  his  family,  elected  in  Provence  as 
representative  of  the  third  estate).     The  representatives  of 
the  clergy  and  the  nobility  join  the  third  estate  by  re- 
quest of  the  king.     Concentration  of  troops  near  Paris. 
Rumors  of  a  purpose  to  dissolve  the  national  assembly,  and  the  dis- 
missal of  Necker  (July  11)  caused  the 

1789.     Storm  and  destruction  of  the  Bastille  in  Paris 
July  14.     (murder  of  De  Launay),  Camille  Desmoulins.     Paris  in  the 
29 


450  Modern  ^xistory.  A.  d^ 

hands  of  the  mob  scarcely  controlled  by  the  electors  who  had 
chosen  the  deputies  from  Paris  for  the  assembly  and  now  sat 
at  the  Hotel  de  Ville  as  a  provisional  government.  Necker 
recalled.  Lafayette  commander  of  the  newly  established 
National  Guard.  Bailly  mayor  of  Paris.  Adoption  of  the 
tricolor:  blue,  red  (colors  of  Paris),  white  (color  of  France). 
Beginning  of  the  emigration  of  the  nobles,  headed  by  the  count  of 
Artois,  second  brother  of  the  king,  prince  Conde,  Polignac. 

Rising  of  the  peasants  against  the  feudal  lords  in  Daupkine',  Pro- 
vence, and  Burgundy.  Riots,  provisional  governments,  guards  in  the 
provincial  cities. 

Aug.  4.     Voluntary  surrender  by  the  representatives  of  the  nobles 
(vicomte  de  Noailles)  of  all  feudal  rights  and  privileges  ;  abo- 
lition of  the  titles,  prohibition  of  the  sale  of  offices,  dissolution 
of  the  guilds,  etc. 
Aug.  27.     Declaration  of  the  rights  of  man.     Discussion  of  the  veto 

power. 
Oct.  5, 6.  Outbreak  of  the  mob  of  Paris,  caused  by  hunger,  the  bribes 
of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  and  rumors  of  an  intended  reaction. 
March  of  a  band,  consisting  principally  of  women,  to  Versailles.  The 
royal  family,  rescued  by  Lafayette,  were  obliged  to  go  to  Paris, 
whither  the  national  assembly  followed  them.  200  members  re- 
signed. 

Democratic  monarchical  constitution  :  one  chamber  with  legisla- 
tive power  and  the  sole  right  of  initiation.  The  royal  veto  was  sus- 
pensive only,  delaying  the  adoption  of  a  measure  for  two  legislative 
terms.  The  king  could  not  declare  war  and  conclude  peace  without 
the  consent  of  the  chamber,  ratification  by  which  was  necessary  for 
the  validity  of  all  foreign  treaties. 

In  order  to  relieve  the  financial  distress  the  ecclesiastical  estates 
were  declared  public  property.  Assignats,  notes  of  the  govern- 
ment, having  for  security  the  public  lands,  the  value  of  which  was 
not  to  be  exceeded  by  the  issue  of  notes  (a  check  which  was  inopera- 
tive).    The  state  assumed  the  support  of  the  clergy. 

1790,  July  14.  National  federation  in  Paris ;  the  CJonstitu- 
tion  accepted  by  the  king. 
Abolition  of  the  old  provinces  and  ffovemments;  France  divided 
into  eighty-three  departments,  named  after  rivers  and  mountains  ; 
these  departments  being  subdivided  into  374  districts  and  cantons. 
The  communes  were  left  unchanged  (44,000) ;  tax  qualijication  for  the 
exercise  of  active  suffrage  in  the  primary  assemblies,  which  chose 
electors  (ilecteurs)  who  then  elected  the  representatives  (745)  for  a  legis- 
lature with  a  term  of  two  years.  The  administrative  officers  of  the 
departments  and  districts  were  selected  from  the  electors;  the  muni- 
cipal officers  and  the  judges  were  taken  from  the  great  body  of  voters, 
the  active  citizens.  Each  department  and  each  district  had  a  local 
assembly.  Abolition  of  the  parliaments  and  tlie  old  judicial  constitu- 
tion. Juries.  Abolition  of  hereditary  nobility,  titles,  and  coats-of-arms. 
Dissolution  of  all  ecclesiastical  orders,  excepting  those  having  educa- 
tion and  the  care  of  the  sick  for  their  objects.     Civil  organization  of 


A.  D.  First  French  Revolution,  451 

the  clergy;  the  pastors  to  be  chosen  by  the  voters  of  the  districts,  the 
bishops  by  the  voters  of  the  departments.  Only  one  third  of  the 
ecclesiastics  submitted  to  the  new  constitution  by  taking  the  required 
oath,  so  that  henceforward  there  was  a  distinction  between  priests 
who  had  taken  the  oath  (pretres  assermentes)  and  priests  who  had  not 
(refractaires) . 

Clubs  had  existed  since  1789 ;  the  Jacobins,  named  after  their 
place  of  assembly,  which  was  formerly  occupied  by  Dominican  monks 
from  the  Rue  St.  Jacques  {Robespierre^ ^  soon  the  greatest  power  in 
the  state  ;  the  Cordeliers,  who  held  their  meetings  in  a  monastery 
of  Franciscans  {Danton,  Alarat,  Camille  Desmoulins,  Hebert);  the 
Feuillants,  moderate  monarchists  who  had  separated  from  the  Jaco- 
bins {Lafayette^  Bailly).  Reorganization  of  the  municipality  (com- 
mune)  of  Paris,  in  forty-eight  sections  ;  84,000  voters  (pop.  800,000) ; 
general  council,  executive  board  (44).  Each  section  had  its  primary 
assembly. 

1790,  Sept.     Fall  of  Necker. 

Alliance  between  the  court  and  Mirabeau,  who  endeavored  to  stem 
the  revolution  and  prevent  the  destruction  of  the  throne. 

1791,  April  2.     Death  of  Mirabeau. 

June  20.  Flight  of  the  king.  Stopped  at  Varennes,  brought  back  to 
Paris  (June  25).  Unprovoked  assault  on  a  meeting  in  the 
Champs  de  Mars  (July  17,  "  massacre  of  the  Champs  de  Mars.") 
Suspended,  reinstated  by  the  moderate  party  (Sept.),  Louis 
XVI.  accepted  the  constitution  as  revised  and  com- 
pleted. Dissolution  of  the  assembly  (Sept.  30)  after  it  had 
voted  that  none  of  its  members  should  be  eligible  for  reelec- 
tion to  the  next  legislature. 

1791,  Oct.  1-1792,  Sept.     Legislative  Assembly. 

746  representatives,  mostly  from  the  middle  class.  Parties  : 
the  rigJit,  composed  of  constitutionalists,  royalists,  Feuillants,  became 
weaker  with  every  day.  The  left  side,  comprising  the  majority,  was 
divided  into  :  1.  Moderate  republicans  (the  plain,  la  plaine),  contain- 
ing the  group  of  the  Girondists  (so  called  after  its  leading  members 
from  Bordeaux,  the  department  of  the  Gironde),  Guadet,  Vergniaud, 
Brissot,  etc.,  advocates  of  a  federal  republic.  2.  The  Mountain  {la 
montagne,  les  montagnards),  so  called  from  their  seats,  which  were  the 
highest  on  the  left  side  of  the  hall,  radicals,  adherents  of  a  united, 
indivisible  republic  (une  et  indivisible).  They  were  composed  of  the 
leaders  of  the  clubs  of  the  Jacobins  and  the  Cordeliers.  Petion,  mayor 
of  Paris. 

1791,  Aug.     Meeting  at  Pillnitz  between 

1786-1797.  Frederic  William  II.,  king  of  Prussia 
( Wollner,  Bischofswerder),  and 

1790-1792.     Leopold  II.,  the  emperor. 

Preliminary  understanding  in  regard  to  Eastern  matters,  the 
political  relations,  and  the  French  disturbances. 


452  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

1791,  Sept.     Annexation  of  Avignon  (massacres)  and  the  Venaissin  to 

France. 

1792,  Feb.    Alliance  between  Austria  and  Prussia.    Leopold  was  suc- 

ceeded bj 

1792-1806.  Francis  II.  (As  emperor  of  Austria,  Fran- 
cis I.  until  1835). 

1792-1797.     War  between  France  and  the  First  Coali- 
tion. 
A  Girondist  ministry  (Roland,  Dumouriez)  took  the  place  of  the 
constitutionalist  ministry,  whose  fall  was  caused  by  the  declaration  of 

Pillnitz. 

April  20.  Declaration  of  war  against  Austria.  Three  armies  in  the 
field.  Rochambeau  (48,000),  between  Dunkirk  and  Philippe- 
ville;  Lafayette  (52,000),  between  Philippe ville  and  Lauter- 
bourg ;  Luckner  (42,000),  between  Lauterbourg  and  Basle. 
The  fortune  of  war  was  against  the  French,  which  increased 
the  revolutionary  excitement  at  Paris.  Dismissal  of  the  min- 
istry of  Roland  (June  13). 

June  20.  Invasion  of  the  Tuileries  by  the  mob.  Calm  behavior  of 
the  king  ;  the  bonnet  rouge. 

July  11.     The  Legislative  Assembly  pronounced  the  country  in  dan- 
ger.   Formation  of  a  volunteer  army  of  revolutionists  through- 
out the  country.     Threatening  manifesto  of  the  duke  of  Bruns- 
wick. 
The  municipal  council  of  Paris  broken  up  and  its  place  usurped  by 

conmiissioners  from  the  sections  ;  the  new  commune  (288  members). 

Aug.  10.  (Tenth  of  August).  Storm  of  the  Tuileries  by  the  mob,  in 
consequence  of  an  order  given  by  the  king  to  the  Swiss  guards, 
who  were  advancing  victoriously,  to  cease  firing.  Massacre  of 
the  Swiss  guards.     The  king  took  refuge  in  the  hall  of  the 

Aug.  13.  Assembly,  was  suspended,  and  placed  in  the  tower  of  the 
temple  (the  old  house  of  the  Knights  Templars).  Numerous 
arrests  of  suspected  persons.  The  Jacobins  in  power.  Call  of 
a  national  convention,  elected  by  manhood  suffrage,  to  draw 
up  a  constitution  for  the  state. 

Aug.  20.  Lafayette,  impeached  and  proscribed,  fled,  was  captured  by 
the  Austrians  and  imprisoned  m  Olmiitz  (till  1796).  Verdun 
taken  by  the  Prussians  ;  battles  at  Grandpre  and  Valmy. 

Sept.  2-7.  Jail  delivery  at  Paris  :  terrible  massacre,  lasting  five 
days,  of  royalists  and  constitutionalists  detained  in  the  prisons, 
instigated  by  the  city  council  and  by  Danton,  the  minister  of  justice. 
Like  scenes  took  place  at  Versailles,  Lyons,  Rheims,  Meaux  and  Or- 
leans. 

20  Sept.  French  (Dumouriez,  Kellermann)  success  at  Valmy  against 
the  allies  (duke  of  Brunswick). 

1792,  Sept.  21-1795,  Oct.  National  Convention  com- 
posed entirely  of  republicans  (749  members,  486  new 
men).     Parties,   Girondists   (right,    Vergniaud,  Brlssot) 


A.  D.  First   French   Revolution,  453 

and  the  Mountain  (left ;  members  for  Paris,  Robespierre, 
duke  of  OrleaTis  {Philip  Egalite),  Danton,  Collot  d' 
Herhois). 

1792.    Abolition  of  the  monarchy.    France  declared  a 
Sept.  21.     Republic. 

Sept.  22  was  the  first  day  of  the  year  one  of  the  French  repub- 
lic. Citoyen  et  citoyenne ;  decree  of  perpetual  banishment  against 
emigrants;  tu  et  toi.  Inglorious  retreat  of  the  Prussians  through 
Champagne  to  Luxembourg  and  across  the  Rhine.  The  French  general, 
Custine,  took  Speier,  Mainz,  and  Frankfort  on  the  Main.  Occupation 
of  Nice  and  Savoy  (Sept.). 

1792.     Victory  of  the  French  general  Dumouriez  at  Jemmapes.    He 
Nov.  6.     took  Brussels  and  conquered  the  Austrian  Netherlands.     The 

Prussians  retook  Frankfort. 
Nov.  19.     Proclamation  of  the  convention  ofPering  French  assistance 
to  all  peoples  who  wished  to  throw  off  their  present  govern- 
ment. 

Savoy  and  Nice  annexed  ;  the  Schelde  opened  to  commerce  (p. 
408). 

1792,  Dec.-1793,  Jan.     Triax  o'  Louis  XVI.  before  the  convention. 

Barrere  prosecutor  ;  Malei>,ier^es,  Deseze,  Tronchet,  for  the  de- 
fense. 
Proposed  appeal  to  the  nation  rejected.  January  15,  683  votes  out 
of  721  declared  the  king  guilty.  Jan.  16,  361  votes,  exactly  a  major- 
ity (among  them  that  of  the  duke  of  Orleans  (Egalite),  were  cast 
unconditionally  for  death,  360  being  cast  for  imprisonment,  banish- 
ment, or  death  with  respite. 

1793,  Jan.  21.     Execution  of  Louis  XVI. 

Feb.  1.     War  declared  agamst  Great  Britain,  Holland,  Spain. 

England,  Holland,  Spain  and  the  Empire,  joined  the  alliance 
agamst  France,  Sardinia  having  been  at  war  with  the  latter  power 
since  July,  1792.  Annexation  of  Belgium.  The  emigrants,  under  the 
prince  of  Conde,  proclaimed  Louis  XVII.,  who  was  a  prisoner  in  the 
temple. 

Royalistic  revolt  in  the  Vendee,  upon  occasion  of  a  levy  of  recruits. 
{Charette,  Stofflet,  Cathelineau,  La  Rochejaquelein). 

The  Austrians  uuder  the  duke  of  Coburg  defeated  Dumouriez  at 
Neerwinden  (March  18),  and  recaptured  Brussels.     Dumouriez  went 
over  to  the  Austrians  with  the  duke  of  Chartres,  Louis  Philippe,  son 
of  Egalite. 
March  9.     Establishment  of  the  revolutionary  tribunal. 

At  Paris,  in  the  convention,  struggle  for  life  and  death,  between 
the  Girondists  and  the  Mountain.  After  the  failure  of  the  plan  of  the 
Orleanists,  belonging  to  the  Mountain,  to  make  the  duke  of  Orleans 
(Egalite),  protector,  all  power  centred  in  the  Committee  of  General 
Security  and  the 

1793.     Committee  of  Public  Safety   {Comite  du  Solid 
April  u.     Public).     Composed  of  nine  (afterwards  twelve)  members, 


454  Modem  History.  a.  rr. 

who  exercised  dictatorial  power.  Leaders  :  Danton  (from  the 
first);  Robespierre^  St.  Just,  Couthon  (these  three  in  July)  ; 
afterwards,  Camot,  who  managed  the  miHtary  department 
only,  and  Collet  d'Herbois  (Sept.).  The  third,  and  in  reality 
the  greatest  power  m  the  state,  was  the  commune  of  Paris, 
now  reorganized  on  the  basis  of  manhood  sulfrage,  and  acting 
through  its  committee,  now  numbermg  only  twenty,  at  the 
Hotel  de  Ville,  under  the  guidance  of  Chaumettey  and  especially 
of  Hebert  (editor  of  Le  Pere  Duchesne). 
Financial  difficulties.  New  issues  of  assignats  based  on  the 
lands  of  the  emigrants,  the  sale  of  which  was  ordered.  At- 
tempts to  check  the  depreciation  of  assignats  by  severe  penal- 
ties. 
Jmie  2.  An  uprising  of  the  mob,  organized  by  the  commune  of 
Paris,  commanded  by  Henriot,  compelled  the  convention  to  ar- 
rest thii-ty-one  Girondists  (^Brissot,  Vergniaud,  Petiori). 

The  second,  fully  democratic  constitution,  as  passed  by  the  conven- 
tion, was  sent  to  the  primary  assemblies  of  voters  for  ratification,  but 
never  came  to  execution. 

1793,  July  13.    Assassination  of  Marat  by  Charlotte  Corday  (executed 
July  16). 

1793-1794.     Reign  of  Terror  in  France, 

Robespierre  at  the  head  of  the  state.  Revolutionary  commit- 
tees throughout  the  country.  Commissaries  of  the  committee  of 
public  safety  committed  unheard-of  atrocities  in  the  large  cities  of  the 
provinces.  Tallien  at  Bordeaux,  Lebon  in  Arras,  Carrier  in  Nantes, 
Chattier,  Couthon,  Fouche,  Collot  d'Herbois  in  Lyons. 

Mainz  captured  by  the  Prussians  after  a  siege  of  three  months 
(July).  The  allies  took  the  fortresses  of  Conde  and  Valenciennes. 
For  this  reason  Custine  was  executed  at  Paris.  The  English  laid  siege 
to  Toulon.  The  troops  of  the  Republic  were  driven  back  at  almost 
all  points.  Revolts  in  the  interior,  partially  conducted  by  Girondists 
who  had  escaped  from  Paris.  Energetic  measures  of  the  committee 
of  public  safety  (Camot). 

1793,  Aug.  23.     Levy  of  the  whole  male  population  capable  of  bear- 
ing arms.    Fourteen  armies  were  soon  placed  in  the  field.    Caen^ 
Bordeaux,  Marseilles,  conquered  by  the  republicans.     Lyons 
Oct.     captured  after  a  two  months'  siege  and  partially  destroyed  ; 
Massacre  of  the  inhabitants  {Collot,  Fouche  ;  la  commune  affran- 
chie.} 
Sept.  17.     Establishment  of  a  maximum  price  for  a  vast  number  of 
commodities  ;  also  for  wages.     The  state  exacted  all  its  labor 
and  goods  at  the  maximum  price  and  paid  in  assignats  at  the 
face  value,  the  market  value  being  one  third  of  the  face. 
Law  authorizing  the  imprisonment  of  all  persons  suspected  (lot 
des  suspects)  of  being  unfriendly  to  the  republic. 
Defeat  of  the  Vendeans  at  Chollet  (Oct.  20)  and  at  Le  Mans 
(Dec.  12).    Revolutionary  tribunal  at  Nantes  (15,000  persons 
put  to  death  in  the  three  months  of  October,  November,  Decem- 
ber by  Carrier  ;  noyades,  fusillades,  mariages  repuoLicains). 


A.  D.  First  French  Revolution.  455 

Oct.  16.     Execution  of  the  queen,  Marie  Antoinette. 
Oct.  31.     Execution  of  the  Girondists  (21).    Reign  of  the  revolu- 
tionary tribunal  and  the  guillotine  {Place  de  la  Bevolution,  now 
Place  de  la  Concorde^  ;  Fouquier^Tinvilley  public  prosecutor. 
Sixty  executions  a  month;  neglect  of  legal  forms. 
Execution  of  Bailly,  Egalit^  (Nov.),  Madame  Roland.     Abolition 
of  the  worship  of  God.     Cult  of  reason  (He'bert,  Chaumette,  Cloots). 
Profanation  of  the  royal  sepulchre  at  St.  Denis. 

Revolutionary  calendar.  Beginning  of  the  year  one,  Sept.  22, 
1792.  The  months  :  Vendemiaire,  Brumaire,  Frimaire;  Nivose,  Plu- 
viose,  Ventuse ;  Germinal,  Flore'al,  Prairial ;  Messidor,  Thermidorf 
Fructidor ;  each  month  had  thirty  dajs,  five  intercalary  days  (sans  cu- 
lottides),  every  tenth  day  a  holiday.  Transportation  of  priests. 
iN'ov.  10.  Festival  of  reason  in  Notre  Dame.  Abolition  of  the  old 
army.  Creation  of  a  new  army.  Capture  of  Conde,  Valen- 
ciennes, Le  Quesnoi  by  the  allies  (Coburg).  Jourdan  commander  of 
the  French  forces. 

Oct.  11-13.     Storm  of  the  French  lines  at  Weissenburg  on  the  Rhine 
by  Austrians  and  Prussians  (Pichegru,  commander  of  the  French 
on  the  Rhine,  Hoche,  of  the  army  on  the  Moselle.) 
Nov.     Defeat  of  Hoche  by  the  duke  of  Brunswick  at  Kaiserslautem. 
Dec.     Pichegru  defeated  the  Austrians  under  Wurmser.     Retreat  of 
the  allies  across  the  Rhine.     Worms  and  Speier  recaptured. 
Toulon  rescued  from  the  English. 
First  appearance  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  (b.  Aug.  15, 1769,  at 
AJaccio  in  Corsica  ;  1779  at  the  military  school  in  Brienne  ;    1785 
lieutenant  in  Valence,  1793  captain;  at  Toulon,  colonel;  after  the  cap- 
ture, brigadier-general  ;  adherent  of  the  revolutionary  movement,  in 
close  connection  with  the  Jacobins,  particularly  with  the  two  Robes- 
pierres,  although  he  afterward  denied  it  ^). 

1794.  Robespierre  (representing  the  committee  of  public  safety) 
crushed  both  parties  which  were  opposed  to  him,  the  ultra-rev- 
olutionary commune  {Hebertists)  and  the  moderate  Dantonists  (the 
Mountain),  using  one  against  the  other.  After  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt at  an  insurrection 

March  24.    Condemnation  and  execution  of  the  Hebertists  {Chaumette^ 
Hehert,  Cloots,  etc.).     March  29,  condemnation  of  the  Dan- 
tonists. 
April  6.      Execution  of    Danton,    Camille    Desmoulins,  Herault  de 

Sechelles,  etc. 
April  18.     Defeat  of  the  allies  by  Pichegru  at  Turcoing. 
April  19.     Treaty  of  the  Hague  between  England  and  Prussia  ;  sub- 
sidies for  60,000  men. 
Unhampered  rule  of  the   Committee   of  Public  Safety. 
Robespierre  abolished  the  worship  of  reason  and  caused  the 
convention  to  pass  a  resolution  acknowledging  the  existence  of 
a  supreme  bemg. 
June  8.     Fetes  de  VEtre  supreme  ;  Robespierre  high  priest. 
June  10.     Portentous  increase  of  power  bestowed  on  the  revolution- 
ary tribunal.     Juries  to  convict  without  hearing  evidence  or 
1  P.  I,anfi*ey,  Histoire  de  Napoleon  I. 


456  Modern  History,  A.  d. 

argument.     Enormous  increase  of  executions,  running  up  to 
354  a  month. 
June  25.     Capture  of  Charleroi  by  the  French. 

June  26.     Battle  of  Fleurus,  repulse  of   the  allies  under  Coburg, 
Evacuation  of  Belgium. 
An  attempt  to  exterminate  the  Vendeans  {Turreau)  caused  a  fresh 
outbreak  of  the  war. 

Conspiracy  of  the  Mountain  and  the  moderates  against  Robespierre 
{Tallien,  Freron,  Fouche,  Vadier,  Collot  d^Herbois,  BiUaud-Varennes). 

1794,  July  27  (9th  Thermidor).  Fall  of  Robespierre, 
arrest  of  the  two  Robespierres,  of  Couthon  and  St.  Just ; 
being  released  they  were  outlawed,  surprised  at  the  Hotel 
de  Ville,  and  executed,  with  eighteen  others.  On  the 
following  days  over  eighty  of  his  party  were  executed. 
The  commune  was  nearly  extinct. 

1794-1795.  The  National  Convention  controlled  by  the  mod- 
erates. 

Meanwhile  the  armies  of  the  republic  had  been  f ortimate  on  the  bor- 
ders. The  Prussians,  victors  at  Kaiserslautern  in  May,  1794,  after 
a  second  battle  at  the  same  place  in  Sept.,  retired  across  the  Rhine. 
The  duke  of  Coburg,  defeated  June  26,  1794,  by  Jourdan  at  Fleurus, 
resigned  his  command.  The  Austrians  retired  across  the  Rhine  (see 
above). 

In  Paris  the  power  of  the  commune,  of  the  Jacobins,  and  of  the 
mob  was  gradually  broken  by  the  Thermidorians,  or  the  supporters  of 
the  moderate  revolution,  and  by  the  violence  of  the  young  men  of  the 
upper  classes  (called  later  the  Jeunesse  doree).  The  Jacobin  club 
closed  (Nov.  12).  Those  Girondists  who  had  escaped  with  their  lives 
were  readmitted  to  their  seats  in  the  convention  (Dec.  8,  1794,  March 
8,  1795).     Execution  of  Carrier  and  Fouquier-Tinville. 

Public  misery.  Repeal  of  the  maximum  (Dec.  24,  1794).  New 
issues,  increased  depreciation  of  assignats  ;  in  May,  1795,  they  were 
worth  7  per  cent. 

1795,  April  1  (Germinal  12).     Bread  riots  in  Paris  ;  attack  on  the 

convent  suppressed  ;  transportation  of  Billaud,  Collot,  Barrere, 
Vadier.  Growing  reaction  in  the  capital  and  the  provinces. 
Return  of  emigrants.     Reactionary  terror  (The  White  Terror). 

May  20  (PraLrial  1).     Insurrection,   or   bread   riot.     Fierce  attack 
upon   the   convention.      Firmness    of    the    president,    Boissy 
d'Anglas.     Suppression  of  the  outbreak.  May  20.     Extermina- 
tion of  the  Mountain. 
Meantime   the    armies    of    France   were   everywhere    successful. 

Pichegru   had  invaded  Holland  in  the  winter   of  1794-1795.      The 

hereditary  stadthalter  fled  to  England. 

1795-1806.  Batavian  Republic  founded,  which  surrendered  Dutch 
Flanders  to  France.  Tuscany  withdrew  from  the  coalition  and 
concluded  peace  with  France.  Prussia,  whose  finances  were  exhausted 
and  which  had  quarreled  with  Austria,  concluded  with  the  convention 
the 


I 


A.  D.  First  French  Revolution.  457 

1795,  April  5.     Peace  of  Basle  (Hardenberg), 

wliich  Saxony,  Hanover,  and  Hesse-Cassel  joined.  Open  condi- 
tions :  1.  France  continued  in  possession  of  the  Prussian  territory  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  until  peace  should  be  concluded  with  the 
empire.  2.  A  line  of  demarkation  fixed  the  neutrality  of  northern 
Germany.  Secret  articles :  Prussia  consented  to  the  absolute  cession 
of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  to  France  and  received  the  assurance  of 
a  recompense  through  secularization. 

After  other  notable  successes  of  the  French,  Spain  concluded  the 
1795,  July.     Peace  of  Basle.     Spanish  St.  Domingo  was  ceded  to 
France  ;    all    other    conquests    were    restored    (Godoy,   the 
Spanish  minister,  jormce  of  the  peace). 

In  the  naval  war  the  English  were  for  the  most  part  in  the  ascend- 
ency. 
1795,  June  8.     Death  of  the  ten-year-old  dauphin  (Louis  XVII.)  in 

the  temple,  where  he  had  been  most  shamefully  abused.^ 
June  27.   English  and  emigrants  land  at  Quiberon  (Brittany)  to  assist 
the  royalists  of  that  region  (Chouans),  but  were  defeated  by 
Hoche  (July  16-21)3  and  over  700  emigrants  executed. 

Retaliatory  massacre  of  1,000  republican  prisoners  by  Charette. 
Conclusion  of  the  war  of  the  Vendee,  defeat  of  the  insurgents 
by  Hoche.  Execution  of  Stofflet  and  Charette  (latter  March  29, 
1796). 

At  Paris  adoption  of  a  new  (third)  constitution.  Constitution 
of  the  year  III.,  or  1795.  The  executive  power  was  given  to  a 
directory  of  five  persons  ;  the  legislative  to  the  council  of  elders  (250), 
and  the  council  of  five  hundred,  but  it  was  decreed  that  for  the 
first  term,  two  thirds  of  the  members  of  both  councils  should  be 
taken  from  among  the  members  of  the  National  Convention. 

Opposition  to  this  limitation  of  choice  at  Paris  and  in  the  provinces. 
The  royalists  in  the  capital  instigated  an  outbreak  of   the  sections 
(city  districts  or  wards).     On  the  motion  of  Barras,  general  Bona- 
parte was  placed  in  command  of  the  troops  of  the  convention.    Bona- 
parte crushed  the  revolt  by  the  bloody  victory  of  the 
1795,  Oct.  5.    13th  Vendemiaire,  called  the  Day  of  the  Sections. 
Cannonade  from  the  church  of  St.  Roch.     The  convention  dis- 
solved (Oct.  26)  after  having  voted  (Oct.  25,  Brumaire  3)  that 
relatives  of  emigrants  could  hold  no  office. 

1795-1799-     Government  of  the  Directory  in  Prance. 

Substitution  of  mandats  convertible  into  a  specified  amount  of  land 
for  the  assignats,  of  which  145  billion  francs  had  been  issued. 

In  the  Vendee,  after  a  short  truce,  a  new  and  bloody  war,  which 
spread  to  Brittany  (Chouans).  Hoche  suppressed  the  revolt  in  the 
Vendee  (ended  March  5,  1796). 

By  the  advice  of  Carnot  the  directory  undertook  a  triple  attack 
npon  Austria.     1.  The  army  of  the  Sambre  and  Meuse  under  Jourdan 

1  The  death  of  the  dauphin,  officially  established  and  evidenced  by  many 
witnesi^es,  is  bevond  doubt.  The  pretenders  who  assumed  his  name  later  were, 
one  and  all,  impostors. 


458  Modern  History.  A.  d, 

advanced  from  the  lower  Rhine  to  Franconia  ;  2.  the  army  of  the 
Rhine  and  Moselle  under  Moreau  penetrated  from  the  upper  Rhine  to 
Swabia  and  Bavaria  ;  3.  the  army  of  Italy  under  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte was  to  attack  Austria  in  Italy,  and  unite  with  the  two  former 
by  way  of  Tyrol. 

The  German  campaign  opened  successfully  for  the  French.  Jour- 
dan  and  Moreau  invaded  south  Germany.  Baden,  Wiirtemberg,  and 
Bavaria  were  compelled  to  conclude  truces.  Suddenly  fortune 
changed. 

1796.  Archduke  Charles  of  Austria  (brother  of  the  emperor 
Francis)  took  the  ofPensive  against  Jourdan,  defeated  him  at 
Amberg  (Aug.^,  and  at  Wiirzburg  (Sept.  3).  Jourdan  retreated 
to  the  Sieg,  and  resigned  his  command.  The  archduke  then  turned 
.upon  Moreau,  who  retired  to  the  upper  Rhine  (retreat  through  the 
Black  Forest). 
1796,  Mar.  9.     Marriage  of  Bonaparte  with  Josephine  de  Beauharnais. 

1796.  Brilliant  campaign  of  Bonaparte  in  Italy.  Starting  from 
Nice  he  followed  the  coast,  defeated  the  Austrians  in  the 

April.  Battles  at  Millesimo,  the  Piedmontese  at  Mondovi,  and 
compelled  the  king  of  Sardinia,  Victor  Amadeus,  to  conclude 

May.  A  separate  peace.  1.  Cession  of  Savoy  and  Nice  to  the 
French  republic.  2.  The  French  garrisoned  the  Piedmontese 
fortresses. 

Offensive  and  defensive  alliance  between  France  and  Spain,  the 
latter  declaring  war  on  England. 

May  10.  Pursuit  of  the  Austrians.  Storming  of  the  bridge  over  the 
Adda  at  Lodi  ;  Napoleon  entered  Milan  (May  15),  conquered 
the  whole  of  Lombardy  as  far  as  Mantua.  The  dukes  of 
Parma  and  Modena,  the  Pope  and  Naples,  purchased  a  truce 
with  money  and  art  treasures.  Definite  peace  with  the  Pope 
at  Tolentino  in  Feb.  1797  ;  the  Pope  ceded  the  Romagna, 
Bologna,  and  Ferrara. 

1796-1797.      Siege  of  Mantua.     Four  attempts   on  the  part  of 

July.  Feb.  the  Austrians  to  relieve  the  fortress.  The  Austrians 
defeated  at  Castiglione,  Roveredo,  Bassano,  at 

Nov.  15-19.     Arcole,  and  at 

1797,  Jan.     Rivoli.     Mantua  surrendered  (Feb.  2). 

1797,  March- April.    Bonaparte  crossed  the  Alps 

to  meet  archduke  Charles  who  was  advancing  from  Germany. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Venetian  territory  rose  against  the  French  ; 
in  Tyrol  and  Bohemia  the  people  were  called  to  arms.  Bonaparte,  in 
danger  of  being  cut  off,  opened  negotiations,  which  led  to  the  conclu- 
sion of  the 

1797.     Preliminary  peace  of  Leoben,  under  the  following  condi- 
April  18.     tions,  which,  however,  were  materially   changed  in   tlie 
definite  peace  of  Campo  Formic  (see  below). 

1.  Austria  ceded  the  Belgian  provinces  to  France.  2.  A  congress 
should  mediate  for  peace  with  the  empire  on  the  basis  of  the  integ- 
rity of  the  empire.     3.  Austria  ceded  the  region  beyond  the  Oglio, 


A.  D.  First  French  Revolution.  459 

receiving  in  return  the  Venetian  territory  between  the  Oglio,  Po, 
and  Adriatic  (which  she  was  to  conquer  for  herself),  Venetian  Dal- 
matia  and  Istna,  and  the  fortresses  of  Mantua,  Peschiera,  and  Palma 
Nova.  4.  Venice  was  to  be  indemnified  with  the  Romagna,  Bologna, 
and  Ferrara.  5.  Austria  recognized  the  Cisalpine  Republic  which 
was  to  be  formed  in  northern  Italy. 

1797,  May.     The  French  declared  war  upon  Venice,  under  pretext 
of  an  outbreak  at  Verona.     Abolition  of  the  aristocracy  and 
establishment  of  popular  government.     Occupation  of  the  republic 
by  French  troops  ;  also  of  the  Venetian  islands  of  Greece  (Ionian). 

Proclamation  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic  {Milan,  Modena, 
Ferrara,  Bologna,  Romagna).  Transformation  of  the  republic  of 
Genoa  into  the  Ligurian  Republic  under  French  control. 

1797,  Sept.  4.  18th  Fructidor.  Coup  d'Btat  at  Paris. 
Victory  of  the  republican  party  over  the  party  of  reaction, 
which  was  represented  in  the  council  of  five  hundred,  in  the  council 
of  ancients,  and  in  the  directory.  The  three  republican  directors, 
Barras,  Rewbel,  and  La  Revelliere  defeated  their  colleagues,  Bar- 
thelemy  and  Camot.  The  latter  escaped  by  flight  ;  Barthelemy 
and  many  of  his  adherents,  including  Pichegru,  were  transported  to 
Cayenne. 
After  lengthy  negotiations,  France  and  Austria  concluded  the 

Oct.  17.     Peace  of  Campo  Formio. 

Open  articles  :  1.  Austria  ceded  the  Belgian  provinces  to  France. 
2.  A  congress  was  convened  at  Rastadt  to  discuss  peace  with  the 
empire.  3.  Austria  received  the  territory  of  Venice  as  far  as 
the  Adige,  with  the  city  of  Venice,  Istria,  and  Dalmatia.  4.  France 
retained  the  Ionian  islands.  5.  Austria  recognized  the  Cisalpine 
Republic  and  indemnified  the  duke  of  Modena  with  the  Breisgau. 
Secret  articles :  1.  Austria  agreed  to  the  cession  of  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine  from  Basle  to  Andernach,  including  Mainz,  to  France  ;  the 
navigation  of  the  Rhine  was  left  open  to  France  and  Germany  in 
common  ;  those  princes  who  lost  by  the  cession  were  to  receive  in- 
demnification in  Germany.  2.  France  was  to  use  her  influence 
to  secure  to  Austria,  Salzburg,  and  that  portion  of  Bavaria  which 
lay  between  Salzburg,  the  Tyrol,  the  Inn,  and  the  Salza.  3.  Re- 
ciprocal guarantee  that  Prussia  should  not  receive  any  new  acquisi- 
tion of  territory  in  return  for  her  cessions  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine. 

1796-1801.      Paul  I.,  Emperor   of    Russia,    succeeded   his 
mother  Catharine  II.  (p.  411). 

1797-1840.     Frederic  ^NTiUiam  III.,  King  of  Prussia. 
Wollner  dismissed.     Edict  of  religion  revoked. 

1797,  Dec.-1799,  April.     Congress  of  Rastadt.     No  agreement. 

1798.  The  French  occupied  Rome.     Proclamation  of  the 
Feb.     Roman  Republic.     Captivity  of  the  Pope,  Pius  VI. 

Disturbances  in  Switzerland.     The  French  entered  the  country. 
The  confederacy  transformed  into  one 


460  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

1798,  April.     Helvetian  Republic.     Geneva  annexed  to  France. 
1798-1799.      Bonaparte's  Egyptian  expedition, 

prepared  under  the  mask  of  an  invasion  of  England,  against 
whose  East  Indian  Empire  this  expedition  was  in  truth  directed. 
Army  of  England  at  Boulogne.  The  opposition  of  the  directory  being 
overcome  the  fleet  sailed  from  Toulon  (May  19,  1798),  with  35,000 
men,  accompanied  by  a  large  number  of  scientists.  Bonaparte,  Ber- 
ihier,  Kleber,  later,  Desaix.  Capitulation  and  occupation  of  Malta  (June 
12),  disembarkation  in  Egypt  (July  1).  Capture  of  Alexandria  (July 
2).  Battle  of  the  Pyramids  won  against  the  Mamelukes  (July  21). 
Capture  of  Cairo  (July  22).  Desaix  advances  toward  upper  Egypt. 
The  English  fleet  annihilated  the  French  in  the 

1798.  Battle  of  the  Nile  at  Aboukir  (Nelson),  thus  cut- 
Aug.  1.     ting  off  the  French  army  from  France. 

A  popular  uprising  in  Cairo  suppressed.  The  Porte  having  de- 
clared war  upon  France,  Bonaparte  attacked  the  pasha  of  Syria, 
stormed  Jaffa  (massacre  of  1200  prisoners)  but  was  unable  to  capture 
St.  Jean  d'Acre  (Ak/co),  the  defense  of  which  was  supported  by  the 
English.  Bonaparte  victorious  over  the  Turks  at  Mt.  Tabor  (April 
16).  Pestilence  in  the  French  army.  Retreat  to  Egypt.  Arrival  of 
the  Turks  at  Aboukir,  where  they  were  completely  defeated  by 
Bonaparte  (Murat),  1799,  July  25. 

1799-1801.     War  of  the  second  coalition, 

composed  of  Russia,  Austria,  England,  Portugal,  Naples,  the 
Ottoman  Porte,  and  owing  its  origin  chiefly  to  Paul  I.,  emperor  of 
Russia,  whom  the  Knights  of  Malta  had  elected  grand  master. 

Plan  of  the  allies  :  1.  An  English-Russian  army  (duke  of  York)  was 
to  drive  the  French  from  the  Netherlands.  2.  An  Austrian  army  {arch- 
duke Charles)  should  drive  them  out  of  Germany  and  Switzerland, 
while  3.  a  Russian- Austrian  army  expelled  them  from  Italy  {Suvaroj^ 
and  Melas). 

The  war  began  in  the  latter  part  of  1798  by  a  Neapolitan  invasion 
of  the  Roman  Republic,  under  the  Austrian  general  Mack.  The  in- 
vasion was  repulsed,  the  king  of  Naples  fled  to  Palermo,  the  kingdom 
of  Naples  was  occupied  by  the  French  and  transformed  into  the 

1799.  Parthenopaean  Republic.    The  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  was 
Jan.     driven  from  his  domains.     The  king  of  Sardinia  escaped  from 

Turin  and  took  up  his  residence  in  Cagliari  in  Sardinia;  his  for- 
tresses upon  the  mainland  were  placed  under  French  control.  After 
1802  they  were  annexed  to  France. 

The  directory  opposed  to  the  coalition  six  armies  under  as  many  com- 
manders. 1.  Brune  in  Holland  ;  2.  Bemadotte  on  the  middle  Rhine; 
3.  Jourdan  on  the  upper  Rhine  ;  4.  Massena  in  Switzerland  ;  5. 
Scherer,  afterwards  Moreau,  in  upper  Italy;  6.  Macdonald  in  Naples. 
1799.  Jourdan,  defeated  by  archduke  Charles  at  Ostrach  and  Stock- 
March,     ach,  retreated  across  the  Rhine  and  laid  down  his  command. 

His  army  and  that  of  Bernadotte  were  placed  under  Massena. 
April.    Scherer  defeated  by  the  Austrians  at  Magnano.    His  successor, 

Moreau,  defeated  by  the  Austrians  (Melas)  and  Russians  (Su- 

varoff)  at  Cassano.     Abolition  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic. 


A.  D.  First  French  Revolution.  461 

1799,  April  8.     Dissolution  of  the  Congress  of  Rastadt.     Mysterious 
murder  of  the  French  ambassadors,  Roherjot  and  Bonnier  (De- 
hry  escaped),  on  their  journey  home,  by  Austrian  hussars  from 
Transylvania  (Apr.  28). 
June  4-7.     Massena  defeated  by  archduke  Charles  at  Zurich.     Mac- 
donald  being  called  to  upper  Italy,  the  king  of  Naples  returned 
and  the  Parthenopsean  Republic  was  abolished.     Terrible  ven- 
geance, accompanied  by  massacres.     Nalsonj  Lady  Hamilton. 
Abolition  of  the  Roman  Republic. 
June  17-19.    Macdonald  defeated  by  Suvaroff  on  the  Trebbia.    Man- 
tua taken  by  the  allies.     The  directory  sent  Joubert  to  Italy 
with  a  new  army.     He  was  defeated  in  the  bloody 
Aug.  15.     Battle  of  Novi  by  Suvaroff  and  Melas.    Joubert.f     Su- 
varoff crossed  the  Alps  by  the  pass  of  St.  Gothard  in  order 
to  imite  with  the  second  Russian  army  under  Korsakoff,  who  had 
taken  the  place  of  archduke  Charles  when  the  latter  went  to  the  mid- 
dle Rhine,  in  Switzerland. 

His  army  however  had  already  been  defeated  at  Zurich  by  Mas- 
sena. Suvaroff  left  Switzerland  after  a  series  of  terrible  battles  and 
marches,  and  returned  to  Russia. 

A  Russian-Turkish  fleet  had  wrested  the  Ionian  islands  from  French 
control  in  May,  1799.  Erection  of  the  Republic  of  the  Ionian  Isl- 
ands under  Turkish  protection,  and  the  guarantee  of  Russia,  which 
occupied  the  same  until  1807. 

June  18.  Revolution  of  3d  Prairial.  Reorganization  of  the  directory 
under  Sieyes ;  a  revolution  which  resulted  in  the  return  of 
Bonaparte. 

1799,  Oct.     The  duke  of  York  was  defeated  and  capitulated 

at  Alkmar. 

Oct.  8.  Bonaparte,  returning  unannou»ced  from  Egypt,  landed  at 
Frejus,  and  in  alliance  with  the  directors, 

June.  Sieyes  and  Roger-Ducos  and  his  brother,  Lucien  Bonaparte, 
president  of  the  council  of  five  hundred,  overthrew  the  direc- 
tory by  the 

Nov.  9,     Coup  d'Etat  of  the  18th  Brumaire, 

and  broke  up  the  council  of  five  hundred  upon  the  following 
day. 

1799-1804.     The  Government  of  the  Consulate 

with  Napoleon  Bonaparte  as  regent  under  the  title  of  Jirst 
consul  for  ten  years,  and  two  consuls  appointed  by  him,  Cambaceres  and 
Lebrun,  who  had  consultative  voices  only. 

The  new  (fourth)  constitution  (constitution  of  the  year  VIII.),  ori- 
ginally devised  by  Sieyes,  but  essentially  changed  by  Napoleon,  and 
accepted  by  direct  vote  of  the  whole  nation  (3,000,000  to  1,567),  pre- 
served the  appearance  of  a  republic  but  in  reality  established  a  military 
monarchy.  A  senate  (80  well  paid  senators  elected  for  life  with  but 
little  to  do),  appointed,  from  lists  of  names  sent  in  by  the  depart- 
ments, the  members  of  the  legislative  department,  the  higher  officials 
and  the  judges.     Legislative  power  without  the  initiative :  1.  tnbunate 


462  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

(100)  discussed  the  proposals  of  the  government  without  voting. 
2.  The  legislative  chamber  (300)  could  only  accept  or  reject  these 
proposals,  without  debate.  The  executive  power  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  first  consul,  who  was  aided  by  a  council  of  state. 

The  people  voted  for  notables  of  the  communes,  who  then  elected  a 
tenth  of  their  number  as  notables  of  the  departments,  whence  were 
elected  a  tenth  portion,  the  notables  of  France,  from  which  latter  list 
the  senate  appomted  the  members  of  the  legislative  bodies. 

Establishment  of  prefectures  (administration  of  the  departments^  and 
sub-prefectures  (administration' of  the  arrondissements),  and  consequent 
creation  of  that  centralization  which  still  prevails  in  France.  New 
system  of  tax-collection  ;  receveur-general  for  each  department  (abol- 
ished under  the  second  empire),  receveur  particulier  for  each  arron- 
dissement.     Code  Napoleon  commenced. 

The  overtures  of  peace  made  by  the  first  consul  were  rejected. 
Paul,  emperor  of  Russia,  however,  was  won  over  by  Napoleon's  flat- 
tery, and  withdrew  from  the  coalition.  Defensive  alliance  between 
Russia  and  Sioeden  (1799),  closer  connection  between  Russia  and 
Prussia.  Paul  quarreled  with  England  in  regard  to  Malta.  Re- 
ne wal  of  the  previous  (1780)  armed  neutrality  at  sea  (p.  536).  North- 
ern convention  (1800). 

1800.  Double  campaign  of  the  French  in  Italy  under  NapO' 
leon  Bonaparte,  in  Upper  Germany  under  Moreau. 

April.     A.  In  Italy. 

Massena  defeated  at  Voltri ;  Melas  advanced  to  Nice.     Obsti- 
nate defense  of  Genoa  by  Massena  (and  Soult)  ;  after  a  terri- 

June  4.     ble  famine   (15,000  people  perished)  the  city  capitulated  to 

May.  Ott.  Meantime  passage  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard  by 
Bonaparte.     (The  fortress  of  Bard,  passed   by  a  detour). 

June  2.  Capture  of  Milan*  Restoration  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic. 
General  Melas,  after  a  brave  contest,  and  after  victory  had 
once  been  in  his  hands,  defeated  by  a  second  attack  in  the 

1800,  June  14.     Battle  of  Marengo,  by  Napoleon. 

Desaix  f .  According  to  the  truce  concluded  with  Melas,  all 
fortresses  west  of  the  Mincio  and  south  of  the  Po  were  sur- 
rendered by  the  Austrians  to  the  French. 
B.  In  Germany  :  Moreau  crossed  the  Rhine  from  Alsace  in 
April,  and  advanced,  winning  victories  at  Engen  and  Stock- 
ach,  toward  Kray  (May).  Moreau  in  Munich  (July).  Truce 
until  November.  Recommencement  of  hostilities.  Moreau 
defeated  the  archduke  John  in  the 

1800,  Dec.  3.     Battle  of  Hohenlinden, 

captured  Salzburg  and  advanced  to  the  Linz.     Truce  of  Steyer. 
After  Brune  in  Italy  had  won  a  battle  on  the  Mincio  (Dec.) 
and  had  crossed  the  Adige  (Jan.  1,  1801),  a  truce  was  conclu- 
ded in  Treviso,  which  was  succeeded  by  the 

1801,  Feb.  9.     Peace  of  Luneville, 

from  which  the  abolition  of  the  old  Holy  Roman  Empixe 
practically  dates. 


/L.  D.  First  French  Revolution.  463 

Chief  conditions  :  1.  Ratification  of  the  cessions  made  by  Austria 
and  to  her  in  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio  (p.  459).  2.  Cession  of 
the  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany  (Austrian  secundogeniture)  to  Par- 
ma, to  be  indemnified  in  Germany.  3.  The  Emperor  and  Empire 
consented  to  the  cession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  to  France,  the 
valley  of  the  Rhine  {i.  e.  the  middle  of  the  river),  the  boundary.  The 
princes  who  lost  by  this  operation  received  indemnification  in 
Germany.  4.  Recognition  of  the  Batavian,  Helvetian,  Cisalpine, 
and  Ligurian  Republics.  Germany  lost  by  this  peace,  taking 
the  Belgio  territory  into  account,  25,180  square  miles  with  almost 
3,500,000  inhabitants.  The  German  princes  received  an  increase  of 
territory.  The  shameful  negotiations  over  the  indemnifications  lasted 
more  than  tv^ro  years  (p.  465),  during  which  time  the  ambassadors 
of  German  princes  haunted  the  antechambers  of  the  First  Consul  to 
beg  for  better  terms,  and  bribed  French  ambassadors,  secretaries  and 
their  mistresses. 

Tuscany  was  transformed  into  the  kingdom  of  Etruria,  for  the 
satisfaction  of  Parma.  Besides  losing  Parma,  a  Spanish  secundogeni- 
ture,  Spain  ceded  Louisiana  to  France,  which  afterwards  sold  it 
to  the  United  States  (1803).  The  peace  of  Lundville  was  succeeded, 
after  conclusion  of  a  truce,  by  the 
1301,  March  18.     Peace   of  Florence  with  Naples.     Conditions  : 

1.  Closure  of  the  harbors  to  British  and  Turkish  vessels.  2. 
Cession  of  the  Neapolitan  possessions  in  central  Italy  and  the  island  of 
Elba.     3.  Reception  of  French  garrisons  in  several  Italian  towns. 

Prussia  joined  the  Northern  Convention  against  England.    Occupa- 
tion of  Hanover. 
1801,  March  23.     Paul  I.,  Emperor  of  Russia,  murdered.     He  was 

succeeded  by  his  son, 
1801-1825.     Alexander  I. 

Reconciliation  between  Russia  and  England  (in  1801  England 

had  attacked  Denmark,  the  ally  of  Russia,  and  forced  her  to 

withdraw  from   the   Northern  Convention).     The   Northern 

Convention  was  now  dissolved. 

1800.  Conspiracies  against  the  life  of  Bonaparte.  Infernal  ma- 
chines. 130  "  Terrorists  and  Jacobins  "  transported,  although 
the  attempts  had  originated  with  the  royalists. 

In  Egypt  the  chief  command  after  the  departure  of  Bonaparte 
had  devolved  upon  Kle'ber,  who  defeated  the  Turks  in  the  battle 
of  Heliopolis  (1800,  March).  After  the  murder  of  Kleber  at  Cairo 
(June),  Menou  became  commander-in-chief.  He  concluded  a  treaty 
with  the  English  at  Cairo  (1801),  under  which  Egypt  was  to  be 
abandoned  and  returned  to  the  Ottoman  Porte,  and  the  French  army 
transported  to  France  by  the  English  fleet. 

1801.  Union  of  Ireland  with  Great  Britain  under  one  parliament. 
In  France  restoration  of  the  Catholic  worship,  and  after  long 
negotiations  with  the  papacy,  conclusion  of  a 

1801.     Concordat  (executed  in  1802),  whereby  the  (10)   French 
archbishops  and  (50)  bishops  were  to  be  appointed  and  sup- 
ported by  the  government,  and  confirmed  by  the  Pope.     Pius    VII., 
elected  in  1800  in  Venice,  was  recognized  in  the  possession  of  the 


464  Modern  History,  A.  d, 

Papal  States,  without  Ferrara,  Bologna,  and  the  Romagna.  The  lib- 
erties of  the  GallicaD  church  were  strongly  asserted.  By  the  new 
organization  of  the  "  Universite,"  an  incorporated  body  of  teachers 
who  had  passed  a  state  examination,  the  entire  system  of  higher 
education  was  made  dependent  upon  the  government.  The  institut 
national  was  reorganized  and  divided  into /bur  (later  y?2;e)  academies  : 
1.  academie  frangaise  (1635)  ;  2.  a.  des  inscriptions  et  belles-lettres 
(1663,  1701)  ;  3.  a.  des  sciences  (1666)  ;  4.  a.  des  beaux  arts  (1648)  5 
5.  a.  des  sciences  morales  et  politiques  (1832). 

After  the  withdrawal  of  the  younger  Pitt  from  the  English  cabir 
net,  and  after  long  negotiations,  the 
1802.  March  27.     Peace  of  Amiens 

was  concluded  between  IBngland  and  Prance. 

1.  Surrender  of  all  conquests  made  by  England  to  France  and  her 
allies,  excepting  Trinidad  which  was  ceded  by  Spain,  and  Ceylon 
which  was  ceded  by  the  Batavian  Republic.  2.  France  recognized 
the  Republic  of  the  Seven  Ionian  Islands.  Malta  must  be  restored  to 
the  order  of  the  Knights  of  Malta.  In  consequence  of  this  peace, 
peace  was  concluded  between  France  and  the  Porte. 

Creation  of  the  order  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  (May  19,  1802).  As- 
sumption of  regal  state  and  authority.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  caused 
liimself  to  be  elected  by  a  popular  vote  (plebiscite,  3^  millions), 

1802,  Aug-ust  2.     Consul  for  life,  with  the  right  of  appointing  his 

successor. 
Ne"w  (fifth)   constitution.     The  powers  of  the  senate,  which  was 
ruled  by  the  first  consul,  were  enlarged;  the  importance  of  the  legis- 
lative bodies  and  the  tribunate  was  very  decidedly  reduced. 

Napoleon  had  already  become  president  of  the  Italian  Republic,  as 
the  Cisalpine  Republic  was  henceforward  called.  Elba  and  Pied- 
mont were  annexed  to  France.  Military  interference  of  the  French 
in  Switzerland,  which  was  torn  with  civil  dissensions.  The  act  of 
mediation  restored  the  independence  of  the  separate  cantons,  but  the 
country  remained  still  so  far  a  single  state  that  it  was  represented  by 
a  landamman  and  a  diet. 

As  regards  the  internal  relations  of  Germany,  the  peace  of  Lune- 
ville  was  executed  according  to  a  plan  of  indemnification  established 
by  France  and  Russia  by  the 

1803,  Feb.    Enactment  of  the  delegates  of  the  empire.     {Reichs- 

deputationshauptschluss) .  ^ 
Of  the  ecclesiastical  estates  there  were  left  only  :  1.  the  former 
elector  of  Mainz,  now  electoral  archchancellor,  with  a  territory  formed 
out  of  the  remains  of  the  archbishopric  of  Mainz  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  the  bishopric  of  Regensburg,  and  the  cities  of  Regensburg 
and  Witzlar.  2.  the  masters  of  the  order  of  St.  John,  and  the  Teu- 
tonic order.  3.  Of  the  48  free  imperial  cities  which  still  existed,  only 
6  were  left,  the  3  Hanseatic  cities  :  Lubeck,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and 
Frankfort,  Augsburg,  Nuremberg.  All  other  ecclesiastical  estates  and 
imperial  cities  were  devoted  to  indemnifications.  The  electoral  bish- 
oprics of  Trier  and  Cologne  were  abolished.  Four  new  electorates  ? 
aesse-Cassel,  Baden,  Wurtemberg,  Salzburg. 

1  Eichhorn,  Deutsche  Stauls  u.  Rechtsgeschichte,  IV.  §  606. 


J 


A.  D.  First  French  Revolution.  465 

Principal  Indemnifications  :  1.  The  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany :  Salz- 
lurg,  and  Berchtesgaden.  2.  Duke  of  Modena  :  Breisgau  (in  ex- 
change for  which  Austria  received  the  ecclesiastical  foundations  of 
Trient  and  Brixen).  3.  Bavaria  :  bishoprics  of  Wurzburg,  Bamberg, 
Freising,  Augsburg,  the  majority  of  the  prelacies  and  imperial  citiea 
in  Franconia  and  eastern  Swabia,  in  return  for  which,  4.  Baden 
received  that  portion  of  the  Palatinate  lying  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhine  (Heidelberg,  Mannheim).  Baden  also  received  :  the  portion  of 
the  bishoprics  of  Constance,  Basle,  Strasburg,  Speyer,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  many  ecclesiastical  foundations  and  imperial 
cities.  5.  "WUrtemberg  :  many  abbeys,  monasteries,  and  imperial 
cities,  especially  Reutlingen,  EssUngen,  Heilbronn,  etc.  Prussia  :  the 
bishoprics  of  Paderborn,  Hildesheim,  the  part  of  Thuringia  which  had 
belonged  to  Mainz  (Eichfeld  and  Erfurt),  a  part  of  Miinster,  many 
abbeys,  particularly  Quedlinburg,  and  the  imperial  cities,  Muhlhau- 
sen,  Nordhausen,  Goslar.  7.  Oldenburg  :  bishopric  of  Liibeck.  8. 
Hanover  :  bishopric  of  OsnabrUck.  9.  Hesse  (Darmstadt  and  Cas- 
sel)  and  Nassau  divided  the  portions  of  the  archbishoprics  of  Mainz, 
Trier  and  Cologne,  which  remained,  upon  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine. 
10.  Nassau-Orange  :  bishopric  of  Fulda,  and  abbey  of  Corvey.  As 
a  rule  the  indemnified  princes  gained  considerably  in  territory  and 
subjects.  • 

1803.     New  dissensions  between  France  and  England,  caused  by  the 
refusal  to  surrender  Malta  and  the  quarrels  of  the  journalists. 

The  French  occupied  Hanover,  where  they  nearly  exhausted  the 
resources  of  the  state.  The  encampment  at  Boulogne  threatened 
England  with  an  invasion. 

Conspiracy  against  the  life  of  the  First  Consul  discovered  (1804, 
Feb.).  Pichegru  met  a  mysterious  death  in  prison,  George  Cadou- 
dal  was  executed.  Moreau  fled  to  America.  The  duke  of  Enghien, 
a  Bourbon  prince  of  the  branch  line  of  Cond^,  was  taken  by  violence 
from  the  territory  of  Baden,  condemned  by  a  commission  acting  in 
accordance  with  the  wishes  and  under  the  order  of  Napoleon,^  with- 
out the  observation  of  any  of  the  forms  of  law,  and  shot  at  Vincennes 
on  the  night  of  March  20-21.  On  the  18th  of  May  the  tribunate  and 
senate  proclaimed  the  Consul  Bonaparte, 

1804-1814   (15)   Napoleon   I.,   Hereditary  Emperor  of 

the  French. 

The  succession  was  in  the  male  line,  the  emperor  having  the 
privilege  of  adopting  the  children  of  his  brothers,  in  default  of  which 
and  of  direct  issue,  the  crown  was  to  go  to  Joseph  and  Louis  Bona- 
parte. The  election  was  ratified  by  a  popular  election,  by  means  of 
lists  to  which  the  people  signed  their  names  (3,572,329  to  2,569). 
The  emperor  was  consecrated  at  Paris  by  Pius  VII .  (Dec.  2),  placing 
the  crown  upon  his  own  head.     (Imitation  of  Pepin  and  especially  of 

1  That  no  misunderstandings  took  place,  as  is  asserted  by  Thiers  and  others, 
throughout  the  whole  shameful  proceeding,  that  Napoleon  I.  afterwards  endeav- 
ored in  all  ways  to  conceal  the  truth,  and  that  the  guilt  of  this  premeditated 
murder  rests  mainly  upon  himself,  has  been  proved  by  Lanfrey,  Histoire  de 
Napoleon  I.  iii.  128,  foil. 
30 


466 


Modern  History. 


A.  Do 


A.  D.  Napoleonic   Wars,  467 

Charles  the  Great,  who,  as  Charlemagne,  was  transformed  into  a 
Frenchman  and  prototype  of  Napoleon).  Establishment  of  a  bril- 
liant court.  Grand  dignitaries  of  the  empire  ;  eighteen  marshals. 
New  nobility.  An  absolute  monarchy  of  the  purest  type.  (Aboli- 
tion of  the  tribunate,  1807.) 
1805.     Napoleon  king  of  Italy.     His  stepson  Eugene  Beauhamais, 

son  of  Josephine,  viceroy  of  Naples.     The  Ligurian  Republic 

incorporated  with  France. 

1805-     Third  coalition  against  France, 

between  England,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Sw^eden  {Gustavus 
IV.),  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe. 
Spain  allied  with  France. 

The  camp  at  Boulogne  broken  up.  The  French  armies  under  Da- 
vout,  Soult,  Lannes,  Ney,  advanced  toward  the  Rhine.  The  main 
force  of  the  Austrians  in  Italy  under  archduke  Charles  opposed  to 
Massena  ;  in  Germany,  under  archduke  Ferdinand  and  Mack.  Napo- 
leon commanded  in  person  in  Germany  ;  relying  on  the  support  of 
most  of  the  south  German  states,  he  advanced  to  meet  the  Austrians 
who  had  invaded  Bavaria.  On  the  upper  Danube  he  concentrated 
his  forces  (200,000  men),  reinforced  by  Bemadotte,  who  on  his  way 
from  Hanover  had  marched  through  the  neutral  territory  of  Ansbach 
in  Prussia,  and  by  troops  from  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  Baden, 
Hesse,  Nassau.  After  the  Austrians  (80,000  men)  had  been  de- 
feated in  several  engagements,  and  the  main  army  was  surrounded 
by  the  French, 

1805.     Mack  surrendered  in  Ulm  with  the  whole  Austrian  army 
Oct.  17.     (30,000  men),  prisoners  of  war. 

On  the  sea  England  opened  the  war  brilliantly  with  the 

1805-     Victory  of  Nelson  at  Trafalgar 
Oct.  21.     over  the   French   and    Spanish    fleet.     Death  of    Nelson 
("  England  expects  every  man  to  do  his  duty  ").     This  vic- 
tory broke  the  naval  power  of  France. 

The  French  marched  upon  Vienna,  which  was  taken  by  Murat 
without  resistance.  Archduke  Charles,  who  had  driven  hack  Massena, 
returned  to  Germany  ;  a  Russian  army  under  Kutusoff,  a  second  un- 
der the  emperor  Alexander,  came  to  the  assistance  of  Austria.  In 
the 

1805.     Battle  of  Austerlitz  (the  battle  of  the  three  em- 
Dec.  2.      perors),  Napoleon  defeated    the  united  forces   of    Austria 

and  Russia.  Truce  with  Austria.  Retreat  of  the  Russians. 
Dec.  15.  Treaty  concluded  by  Prussia,  which  was  on  the  point  of 
joining  the  coalition,  with  Napoleon  at  Schonbrunn  (Haug- 
witz).  Prussia  ceded  to  France  the  remaining  part  of  Cleve 
(^Wesel)  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  Ansbach,  and  Neuchately 
and  was  promised  Hanover  in  exchange. 

Dec.  26.  Peace  of  Pressburg,  between  France  and  Austria. 

1.  France  received  Piedmont,  Parma,  and  Piacenza.     2.  Austria 

ceded  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy  all  that  she  had  received  of  Venetian 


468  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

territory  at  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio  (p.  459)  ;  also  Venetian 
Istria  and  Dalmatia,  and  recognized  Napoleon  as  king  of  Italy.  3. 
Austria  ceded  to  Bavaria  :  Tyrol,  Vorarlberg,  the  bishoprics  Brixen 
and  Trient,  Burgau,  Eichstadt,  Passau,  Lindau,  besides  which  Bavaria 
received  the  free  city  of  Augsburg.  4.  Austria  ceded  to  Wurtem- 
berg  and  Baden  what  remained  of  the  western  Austrian  lands.  5. 
Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg  were  recognized  as  kingdoms.  6. 
Austria  received  as  indemnification  :  Salsburg,  Berchtesgaden,  and 
the  estates  of  the  Teutonic  order  which  were  secularized.  The  elec- 
tor of  Salzburg  received  Wiirzburg  from  Bavaria  as  indemnification. 
Russia  remained  hostile. 

1805.  The  Bourbons  in  Naples  were  dethroned  by  a  proclamation 
Dec.     issued  by  Napoleon  from  Schonbrunn  (Za  dynastie  de  Naples 

a  cesse  de  regner), 

1806.  Joseph,  Napoleon's  elder  brother,  king  of   Naples.     The 
court  of  Naples  withdrew  to  Palermo. 

Sicily  was  beyond  Napoleon's  reach,  as  the  English  controlled  the 
sea. 

Joachim  Murat,  brother-in-law  of  Napoleon,  created  grand  duke 
of  Berg  ;  Marshal  Berthier,  prince  of  Neuchdtel  ;  Louis  Bonaparte, 
Napoleon's  third  brother,  king  of  Holland  (the  former  Batavian  Re- 
public). 

1806.  Establishment  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine. 
July  12. 

Napoleon,  protector.  Prince  Primate,  formerly  electoral  arch- 
chancellor  ;  the  kings  of  navaria  and  Iv  urttmberg  ;  the  grand  dukes 
of  Baden,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  Berg,  duke  of  Nassau,  etc.  After- 
wards all  the  German  princes  joined  the  confederation  except  Aus- 
tria, Prussia,  Brunswick,  and  the  electorate  of  Hesse. 

Many  princes  holding  immediately  of  the  empire  mediatized.  The 
free  city  of  Nuremberg  assigned  to  Bavaria,  Frankfort  to  the  prince 
primas  {grand  duke  of  Frankfort). 

Emperor  Francis,  who  had  already  assumed  the  title  of  emperor 
of  his  hereditary  Austrian  estates  (1804), 

1806>  Aug.  6.     Abdicated   the   crown   of   the   Holy  Roman 
empire.     End  of  the  old  German  empire. 

1806-1835.     Francis  I.,  emperor  of  Austria. 

1806-1807.     (Fourth)  War  with  Prussia  and  Russia. 

Grounds  of  the  Prussian  declaration  of  war  :  Erection  of  the  con- 
federacy of  the  Rhine,  annexation  of  Wesel,  seizure  of  Essen  and 
Verden,  garrisoning  of  half  of  Germany  with  French  troops  ;  Napo- 
leon's offer  to  England  to  take  away  from  Prussia  the  territory  of 
Hanover  which  had  just  been  forced  upon  her  ;  the  Prussians  were, 
moreover,  embittered  against  the  French  by  the  high-handed  execu- 
tion of  Palm,  a  bookseller  of  Nuremberg,  who  had  published  some 
strictures  upon  Napoleon. 

Dangerous  situation  of  Prussia  at  the  outbreak  of  war.  The  com- 
plete separation  of  the  military  and  civil  orders  had  brought  it  about 


A..  D.  Napoleonic  Wars.  469 

that  the  safety  of  the  state  rested  on  a  half-trained  army  composed 
in  part  of  foreigners,  on  a  superannuated  general,  and  on  subordinate 
commanders  who,  full  of  arrogant  pride  in  the  ancient  military  fame 
of  Prussia,  regarded  the  French  with  contempt.  No  allies  except 
Saxony  and  distant  Russia.  Dissension  between  Prussia  and  England. 
Want  of  decision  in  the  cabinet  and  in  the  conduct  of  the  war. 

1806.  Concentration  of  the  Prussian  army  in  Thuringia  under  the 
old  dutke  of  Brunswick.  Defeat  of  the  Prussian  advance  at 
Saalfeld  (Oct.  10),  prince  Louis  Ferdinand  f .     In  the 

1806)  Oct.  14.     Double  battle  of  Jena  and  Auerstadt 

«  the  main  army  was  completely  defeated.  Dissolution  of  the 
army.  The  reserve  under  the  prince  of  Wurtemberg  was  de- 
feated and  scattered  at  Halle  (Oct.  17). 
Napoleon  in  Berlin  (Oct.  27).  The  prince  of  HoherUohe  with 
12,000  men  was  forced  to  surrender  at  Prenzlau  (Oct.  28).  BlUcher 
after  a  brave  defence  in  Liibeck  was  obliged  to  surrender  his  whole 
corps  at  Rathau  as  prisoners  of  war  (Nov.  7).  Incredibly  hasty 
surrender  of  the  fortresses  :  Erfurt,  Spandau,  Stettin,  Kiistrin,  Magde- 
burg, Hameln  ;  only  Kolberg  (Gneisenau,  SchUlf  Nettelheck)  and  Grau- 
denz  (  Courbiere)  defended  themselves  resolutely.  The  duke  of  Bruns- 
wick (t  Nov.  10,  at  Ottensen)  and  the  neutral  elector  of  Hesse  were 
driven  out  of  the  country.  Coarse  behavior  of  Napoleon  toward  the 
royal  family  (queen  Louisa).  Robbery  of  the  museums  and  picture 
galleries.  From  his  headquarters  in  Berlin  Napoleon  proclaimed  (Nov. 
21)  the  senseless  (paper)  blockade  of  Great  Britain  and  the  closure 
of  the  continent  to  British  trade,  a  policy  summed  up  in  the  title, 
*'  Continental  System  "  ("  Berlin  decree  ").  The  troops  of  France, 
Bavaria,  and  Wiirtemberg  invaded  Silesia.  The  Poles  summoned  to 
revolt.  Separate  peace  and  alliance  of  Napoleon  with  the  elector  of 
Saxony  (Dec,  11),  who  joined  the  confederacy  of  the  Rhine  as  king 
of  Saxony.     Occupation  of  Hanover  and  the  Hanseatic  cities. 

1807.  Fall  of  Br^lau,  followed  by  that  of  the  most  of  the  Silesian 
fortresses.  After  several  bloody  engagements  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Pultusk,  Prussians  and  Russians  fought  against  the 
French,  without  decisive  result,  in  the  murderous 

1807,  Feb.  7,  8.     Battle  of  Eylau, 

where  the  Prussians  repulsed  the  right  wing  of  the  French 

under  Dauout.     Winter  quarters.     Frederic  William  III.  went 

to  Memel. 
iViay  26.     Danzig  captured  after  a  brave  defense  (Kalckreuth).   After 

several  engagements  Napoleon  was  victorious  in  the 

June  14.     Battle  of  Friedland, 

over  the  Russians.      Kbnigsberg  and  the  country  as  far  as  the 
Niemen  occupied  by  Napoleon.     Truce  with  Russia  (June  21),  with 
Prussia  (June  25).     Meeting  of  Napoleon,  Alexander,  and   Frederic 
William  on  the  Niemen. 
1807.     Peace  of  Tilsit. 
July  7.     A.  Between  France  and  Russia. 
July  9.     B.  Between  France  and  Frussia* 


470  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

A.  1.  Russia  recognized  the  duchy  of  Warsaw^  which  was 
formed  out  of  South  Prussia,  parts  of  West  Prussia,  and  New  East 
Prussia,  under  the  king  of  Saxony.  2.  Danzig  restored  to  the  con- 
dition of  a  free  city.  3.  A  part  of  New  East  Prussia  (Bialystock) 
ceded  to  Russia.  4.  Russia  recognized  Joseph  Bonaparte  as  king  of 
Naples,  Louis  Bonaparte  as  king  of  Holland,  Jerome  Bonaparte  as 
king  of  Westphalia,  a  new  kingdom  yet  to  be  created  ;  Russia,  more- 
over, recognized  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and  accepted  the 
mediation  of  Napoleon  in  concluding  peace  with  the  Turks,  while 
Napoleon  accepted  the  like  good  offices  from  Alexander  in  regard  to 
England.  In  a  secret  article,  Alexander  agreed  to  an  alliance  ^with 
France  against  England,  in  case  the  latter  refused  to  accept  the  prof- 
fered peace. 

B.  1.  Prussia  ceded  :  (a)  to  Napoleon  for  free  disposal,  all  lands 
between  the  Rhine  and  Elbe  ;  (b)  to  Saxony,  the  circle  of  Cottbus  ;  (c) 
all  lands  taken  from  Poland  since  1772  for  the  creation  of  a  duchy  of 
Warsaw,  also  the  city  and  territory  of  Danzig.  2.  Prussia  recognized 
the  sovereignty  of  the  three  brothers  of  Napoleon.  3.  All  Prussian 
harbors  and  lands  were  closed  to  British  ships  and  British  trade  until 
the  conclusion  of  a  peace  with  England.  4.  Prussia  was  to  maintain 
a  standing  army  of  not  more  than  42,000  men.  In  regard  to  the  res- 
toration and  evacuation  of  the  Prussian  provinces  and  fortresses,  it 
was  settled  by  the  treaty  of  Konigsberg  (July  12),  that  Prussia  should 
first  pay  all  arrears  of  war  indemnities. 

These  indemnifications,  fixed  at  nineteen  million  francs  by  the  Prus- 
sian calculations,  were  set  at  120  millions  by  the  French,  which  sum 
was  raised  to  140  millions  in  1808.  After  120  millions  had  been 
paid  the  fortresses  were  evacuated,  excepting  Stettin,  Kiistrin,  and 
Glogau.  Until  this  occurred  the  Prussian  state,  reduced  as  it  was 
from  89,120  to  46,032  square  miles,  was  obliged  to  support  150,000 
French  troops. 

1807,  Aug.  Foundation  of  the  kingdom  of  "Westphalia  (capital, 
Cassel)  by  a  decree  of  Napoleon,  who  reserved  for  himself 
half  of  the  domains. 

High-handed  proceeding  of  the  English  against  Denmark,  which 
had  been  summoned  to  join  the  continental  system.  An  English  fleet 
bombarded  (1807,  Sept.)  Copenhagen,  and  carried  off  the  Danish 
fleet.  Alliance  of  Denmark  with  France.  Russia  declared  war  upon 
England.     Stralsund  and  Riigen  occupied  by  the  French. 

Portugal,  which  refused  to  join  the  continental  system,  occupied 
by  a  French  army  under  Junot  (duke  of  Abrantes)  Nov.  1807. 
The  royal  family  fled  to  Brazil.    Milan  decree,  Dec.  17,  1807. 

Spain  invaded  by  100,000  Frenchmen  under  the  pretext  of  guard- 
ing the  coasts  against  the  English.  Charles  IV.  (1788-1808)  abdi- 
cated in  favor  of  his  son  Ferdinand  (March,  1808),  in  consequence 
of  an  outbreak  which  had  occurred  against  his  favorite,  the  prince  of 
the  peace,  Godoy.  Father  and  son,  with  Godoy,  were  enticed  by  Na- 
poleon to  Bayonne  and  compelled  to  renounce  the  throne  (May). 
Napoleon's  brother  Joseph  became  king  of  Spain,  Murat  taking  the 
throne  of  Naples  instead,  of  Joseph.  General  uprising  of  the 
Spaniards. 


A.  D.  Napoleonic  Wars.  471 

1808-1814.  War  between  Napoleon  and  Great  Brit- 
ain in  Spain  and  Portugal.     ("  Peninsular  War.") 

The  English  lauded  in  Portugal  and  forced  Junot  to  surrender 
Cintra,  after  which  he  was  obliged  to  evacuate  the  country  (Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley).  The  French  were  soon  driven  back  to  the  Ebro. 
Napoleon,  secured  against  Austria  by  a  closer  alliance  with  the  em- 
peror Alexander,  since  the  assembly  of  princes  at  Erfurt,  where 
four  kings,  thirty-four  princes,  and  other  German  rulers  who  had  done 
him  homage,  hastened  in  person  to  Spain  with  250,000  men,  advanced 
to  Madrid,  and  with  Soult  drove  the  English  from  Spain  (battle  of 
Corunna  Jan.  16,  1809.  Death  of  Sir  John  Moore).  After  the  de- 
parture of  Napoleon  hostilities  continued  in  Spain.  Guerrilla  war- 
fare. The  English  returned.  Heroic  defense  of  Saragassa  (Palafox), 
which  surrendered  in  Feb.  1809.  The  English  general.  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley  (b.  1769;  officer  in  East  India  1797-1805  ;  M.  P.  1806;  vis- 
count Wellington,  1809 ;  duke  of  Wellington,  1814  ;  prime  minister, 
1827-1830  ;  d.  1852,  Sept.  18),  after  his  victory  over  Joseph  at  Tala- 
vera,  July  28,  1809,  was  ^created  viscount  Wellington,  and  made 
commander-in-chief  of  all  English  troops  in  the  Spanish  peninsida. 
SouCt^  duke  of  Dalmatia,  at  first  victorious  against  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese,  was  obliged  to  evacuate  Oporto  again. 

In  Prussia,  meanwhile,  the  state  was  reorganized  after  the  dis- 
missal of  Beymes  and  Zastrow,  by  Charles,  baron  of  and  in  Stein 
(b.  1757  at  Nassau  ;  since  1780,  in  Prussian  civil  service  ;  1796  over- 
president  of  the  chamber  of  Westphalia  ;  1804  minister  of  finance, 
d.  1831),  and  Hardenberg.  Regulations  for  the  cities,  liberation  of 
industry,  abolition  of  hereditary  serfdom,  reformation  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  public  finances.  Reorganization  of  the  army  on  the  basis 
of  universal  military  service,  by  Gneisenau,  Grolman^  Boyen, 
Clausewitz,  Scharnhorst  (b.  1755,  in  Hanover,  son  of  a  peasant,  offi- 
cer in  the  service  of  Hanover,  1801  lieutenant-colonel  in  Prussia,  taken 
prisoner  at  Ratkau  with  Bliicher,  major-general  at  Eylau;  d.  1813). 

Foundation  of  the  university  at  Berlin  (1810),  by  Humboldt,  Al- 
tenstein,  Niebuhr,  Schleiermacher.  Fichte's  addresses  to  the  German 
nation.  Tugendbund.  Gymnastics,  John.  E.  M.  Arndt.  Preparations 
for  the  liberation  of  Germany  and  Europe  from  the  French  yoke. 
Futile  attempt  of  Austria  to  accomplish  this  liberation  alone,  by  mak- 
ing use  of  Napoleon's  entanglement  in  the  Spanish  war. 

1808,  July-Nov.     English  expedition  to  Walcheren  (p.  537). 

1809.  (Fifth)  ^War  with  Austria. 

Archduke  Charles,  commander  of  the  Austrian  army  of  Ba- 
varia, and  archduke  John,  commander  of  the  Austrian  forces  which 
were  sent  to  Italy,  summoned  the  German  people  to  take  part  in  the 
struggle  against  the  French  supremacy.  Tyrol  alone  heeded  the 
summons,  and  took  up  arms  (Andreas  Hofer,  Speckbacher). 

Napoleon  engaged  archduke  Cliarles  in  Bavaria,  with  German 
Apr.  19-23.     troops,  drove  him  over  the  Danube  to  Bohemia,  after 
five  days'  fighting  at  Abensherg,  Landshut,  Eckmuhl  and  Re- 
May  13.     gensburg,  and  captured  Vienna  for  the  second  time.     Na- 
poleon crossed  the  island  of  Lobau,  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Dan- 
ube, where  in  the  bloody 


472  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

1809,  May  21-22.    Battle  at  Aspern  and  Essling 

(on  the  Marchfeld),  he  was,  for  the  first  time,  defeated  by 
archduke  Charles,  and  (Lannes  f )  forced  to  recross  the  Dan- 
ube {Massena),  where  he  united  with  the  viceroy  Eugene,  who 
had  pursued  archduke  John  from  northern  Italy  to  Hungary 
and  defeated  him  at  Raab.  With  180,000  men  Napoleon 
crossed  the  Danube  anew,  defeated  archduke  Charles  in  the 
murderous 

1809,  July  ^Q,    Battle  of  Wagram, 

and  pursued  him  toward  Moravia.     Truce  of  Znaim. 
Oct.  14.     Peace  of  Vienna 

between  France  and  Austria,  signed  in  the  palace  at  Schon- 
hrunn. 

1.  Austria  ceded  a  territory  of  32,000  square  miles,  containing  3^ 
million  inhabitants,  viz.  :  a.  Salzburg  and  Berchtesgaden,  the  Inrtr- 
viertel,  and  half  of  the  Hausriickoiertel  to  Bavaria  ;  b.  W&it  Galicia 
to  the  duchy  of  Warsa-w  ;  c.  one  district  in  East  Galicia  (Tarnopol) 
to  Russia  ;  d.  the  lands  beyond  the  Save,  ihe  circle  of  Villach,  Istria, 
Hungarian  Dalmatia,  and  Ragusa  to  the  emperor  Napoleon,  who 
created  from  these  cessions  and  the  Ionian  Islands,  which  Russia  had 
surrendered  to  him  in  1807,  the  new  state  of  the  Illyrian  provinces  un- 
der Marmont,  duke  of  Ragusa,  as  governor.  2.  Austria  joined  the 
continental  system,  and  broke  off  all  connection  with  England. 

The  Tyrolese,  left  to  themselves,  continued  the  war  with  heroic  cour- 
age, but  were  in  the  end  subdued.  Hofer  captured  and  shot  by  the 
French  at  Mantua  (1810).  Southern  Tyrol  annexed  to  the  king- 
dom of  Italy. 

Bold  attempt  of  Schill,  a  Prussian  major,  to  precipitate  the  war  of 
liberation.  With  600  hussars  he  left  Berlin  in  the  spring  of  1809, 
and  summoned  the  people  of  Germany  to  take  up  arms.  The  news 
of  Napoleon's  victories  on  the  Danube  frustrated  the  scheme.  Schill 
fell  fighting  bravely  at  Stralsund  (May  31).  Eleven  of  his  officers 
were  court-martialed  and  shot  in  Wesel,  the  captured  soldiers  were 
condemned  to  hard  labor  by  order  of  Napoleon,  carried  to  France,  and 
after  a  half  year's  imprisonment  in  the  bagno,  or  prison  for  galley- 
slaves,  enrolled  among  the  French  coast  guards. 

1809.  Bold  expedition  of  the  duke  of  Brunsunck  across  northern  Ger- 
many. He  succeeded  in  transporting  himself  and  the  "  Black 
Legion  "  to  England. 

Gkistavus  IV.,  of  S^veden,  a  bitter  opponent  of  the  Revolution 
and  of  Napoleon,  but  ignorant  of  the  true  interests  of  his  country,  had 
been  since  1808  involved  in  war  with  Russia,  which  had  conquered 
Finland.  He  fell  at  last  by  a  military  revolution,  the  victim  of  his 
obstinacy.  The  capital,  Stockholm,  being  threatened  by  the  passage 
of  the  Russians  under  Barclay  de  Tolly  over  the  frozen  gulf  of  Both- 
nia, by  the  capture  of  Tornea  and  that  of  the  islands  of  Aland,  a  mu- 
tiny broke  out  in  the  Swedish  army.  The  king  was  arrested  on  March 
13,  1809,  by  generals  Klingspor  and  A  dlerkreuz,  obliged  to  abdicate,  and 
dismissed  from  the  kingdom  with  his  family.  The  crown  was  given 
to  the  uncle  of  the  king,  Charles  XIII.  (1809-1818),  passing  over  his 


i 


A.  D.  Napoleonic   Wars.  473 

son.  In  the  peace  of  Friedrichsham  with  Bussia,  Sept.  17,  1809, 
Svredeii  surrendered  to  Russia  the  principality  of  Finland  as  far  as 
the  river  Tornea,  together  with  the  islands  of  Aland.  By  the  media- 
tion of  Russia  Sweden  concluded  the  peace  of  Paris  with  France, 
Jan.  6,  1810,  whereby  S"weden  joined  the  continental  system  and 
obtained  the  restoration  of  Swedish  Pomerania.  After  the  sudden 
death  of  prince  Christian  August  of  Holstein-Augnstenburg,  whom 
Charles  XIII.  had  adopted  and  appointed  heir  to  the  throne,  the 
French  marshal  Bemadotte  (prince  of  Pontecorvo)  was  elected  croum 
prince  of  Sweden. 

Rome  had  been  occupied  by  the  French  in  1808.  Pope  Pius  VII. 
steadfastly  refusing  to  enter  into  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance 
with  France,  and  to  close  his  seaports  against  England,  Napoleon, 
after  the  infliction  of  unheard-of  violence  for  a  year,  proclaimed  from 
Schonbrunn,  May,  1809,  that  the  papal  states  and  the  city  of  Rome  were 
incorporated  with  France.  Pius  VII.  excommunicated  Napoleon  in 
June,  whereupon  he  was  arrested  and  taken  over  Mt.  Cenis  to  Grenoble 
and  thence  to  Savona.  As  he  still  refused  to  yield  to  Napoleon's  de- 
mands, Pius  VII.  was  placed  on  prisoner's  allowance,  and  lived  for 
three  years  almost  entirely  upon  alms  (1812  taken  to  Fontainebleau.) 

In  Turkey,  after  the  deposition  of  Selim  III.,  war  broke  out  again 
with  Russia  (1809-1812).  After  the  bloody  battle  at  Rustchuck,  the 
Russians  retired  across  the  Danube,  and  the  Tm-kish  army  which 
pursued  them  was  captured  (1811). 

1812,  May  28.  Peace  of  Bucharest  :  the  Pruth  was  made  the 
boundary  between  Russia  and  Turkey, 

1810,  April.     Napoleon,  divorced  from  Josephine,  married  Maria 

Louisa,  daughter  of  Francis  I.  of  Austna.  Abdication  and 
flight  (July)  of  Louis  Bonaparte,  king  of  Holland,  who  had  refused 
to  ruin  his  country  by  joining  the  continental  system.  Anne'xation  of 
Holland,  as  the  "  alluvial  deposit  of  French  rivers,"  to  the  French 
empire.  Annexation  of  the  canton  of  Wallis,  and  soon  after  of 
Oldenburg,  a  large  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  the  grand 
duchy  of  Berg,  East  Friesland,  the  Hanseatic  cities,  so  that  the  French 
empire,  which  now  comprised  130  departments,  extended  on  the  east 
as  far  as  the  Trave. 

In  Spain  strenuous  exertions  against  Napoleon  ;  French,  Italian, 
and  Polish  troops,  along  with  those  of  the  confederacy  of  the  Rhine, 
overran  the  peninsula.  Conquest  of  Andalusia  by  Victor  and  Mortier. 
Unsuccessful  siege  of  Cadiz,  whither  the  Central  Junto  had  fled  from 
Seville.  A  special  session  of  the  Cortes  called  at  Cadiz  assumed  the 
sovereignty  and  drew  up  a  constitution  (completed  1812). 

In  Portugal  struggle  between  Wellington  and  Massena.  Siege  and 
capture  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  by  the  latter  (July  10,  1810).  Retreat 
of  Wellington  to  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras  (Oct.  9).  Winter 
quarters.  1811,  March  ;  masterly  retreat  of  Massena.  Siege  of 
Almeida  and  Badajoz  by  the  English.  Defeat  and  retreat  of  Massena 
from  Portugal.  Soult,  hastening  to  the  relief  of  Badajoz,  was  de- 
feated in  the  bloody 

1811,  May  16.  Battle  of  Albuera.  The  English  returned  to 
Portugal.  1812,  capture  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  (Jan.  19)  and 
Badajoz  (April  6). 


474  Modern  History,  ^,  D, 

1812,  July  22.  Battle  of  Salamanca;  victory  of  Wellington.  Cap- 
ture of  Madrid.     Loss  of  southern  Spain  to  the  French. 

1811,  March.  Birth  of  a  son  to  Napoleon,  who  received  the  pomp- 
ous title  of  king  of  Rome. 

Napoleon  I.  at  the  summit  of  his  power.  In  the  naval  warfare 
and  in  the  colonies  France,  like  Holland,  had  met  nothing  but  losses, 
Cayenne,  Martinique,  Senegal,  St.  Domingo,  were  lost  in  1809.  Gua- 
deloupe, Isle  Bourbon,  and  Isle  de  France  in  1810  ;  Java  (with  Batavia) 
1811. 

1812-1814.  War  between  England  and  the  United  States  of 
North  America  in  consequence  of  commercial  dissensions 
concluded  by  the  treaty  of  Ghent,  Dec.  24,  1814  (p.  55]). 

1812.  (Sixth)  War  with  Russia. 

Cause  :  Napoleon's  claim  to  rule  the  continent  of  Europe.  The 
refusal  of  Russia  to  carry  out  strictly  the  absurd  continental  system, 
which  Napoleon  himself  evaded  by  salable  licenses,  and  which  had 
ruined  Russian  commerce,  roused  the  anger  of  the  tyrant.  The  ad- 
dition of  west  Galicia  to  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  by  the  peace  of 
Vienna,  had  caused  Alexander  anxiety  lest  the  restoration  of  Poland 
should  be  contemplated  ;  the  deposition  of  the  duke  of  Oldenburg, 
his  near  relative,  oifended  him  deeply. 

Alliance  of  Napoleon  with  Austria,  which  furnished  30,000  men 
for  the  Russian  expedition,  and  Prussia,  from  which  he  obtained 
20,000  men.  Denmark,  favored  by  its  position,  succeeded  in  main- 
taining neutrality  during  the  war  with  Russia.  Sweden  (^Bema- 
dotte),  which  had  been  forced  by  the  violent  reproaches  of  Napoleon 
concerning  disregard  of  the  continental  system  to  declare  war  upon 
England  (1810),  seized  the  opportunity  of  ihe  Russian  war,  to  shake 
off  her  'dependence  upon  France,  and  open  for  herself  the  prospect 
of  obtaining  Norway,  as  a  recompense  for  Finland.  Occupation  of 
Swedish  Pomerania  and  Rugen  by  the  French,  Jan.  1812.  Treaty 
of  St.  Petersburg  between  S-w^eden  and  Russia,  April  :  Russia 
promised  Sweden  the  annexation  of  Norway,  with  indemnification 
for  Denmark  ;  S-weden  promised  Russia  to  make  a  diversion  in 
northern  Germany  in  union  with  a  Russian  auxiliary  force. 

England  concluded  peace  with  Russia  and  Sweden  at  Orebro 
(June). 

The  French  army  of  invasion  included  Frenchmen,  Italians,  Swiss, 
Dutch,  Poles,  and  contingents  from  all  the  German  princes  of  the  con- 
federacy of  the  Rhine  ,  in  fact,  the  smaller  part  only  of  the  army  was. 
French.  The  total  number,  according  to  Thiers,  was  420,000  men, 
but  reinforcements  afterwards  swelled  it  to  553,000.  The  Aus- 
trians,  under  Schwarzenberg,  on  the  right  wing,  and  Prussians,  under 
York,  on  the  left  wing,  formed  separate  armies,  the  latter  being 
under  the  command  of  Macdonald. 

1812,  June.  Passage  of  the  Niemen  by  the  great  army  ;  occupation  of 
Wilna.  Poland  was  not  restored.  The  Russians  under  Barclay 
de  Tolly  retreated.  The  main  army  reached  Smolensk  without  a 
battle,  though  suffering  from  skirmishes  and  lack  of  provisions,  while 
the  Prussians  besieged  Paga,  and  the  Austrians  penetrated   Volhy- 


A.  D.  Napoleonic   Wars.  475 

nia.     Storm  and  destruction  of  Smolensk  (Aug.  17, 18).    The  Russian 
general  Kutusoff,  obtaining  the  command  in  chief,  fought  the  bloody 

1812,  Sept.  7.     Battle  at  Borodino  and  Moshaisk 

on  the  Moskowa,  in  which  both  parties  suffered  enormous  losses 
(French,  32,000  ;  Russian,  47,000),  but  the  Russians  were 
forced   to   withdraw.     Retreat   in   admirable   order   through 

Sept.  14.  Moscow.  Occupation  of  the  city,  which  the  inhabitants 
had  abandoned,  by  the  French,  whose  main  army  had  already 
shrunk  to  95,000  men.i     Napoleon  in  the  Kremlin. 

Sept.  16-19.     Burning  of  Moscow  (Bostopschin). 

Sack  of  the  city  in  the  midst  of  ashes  and  ruins.  Napoleon 
proffered  a  truce,  which  the  Russians  rejected  by  an  answer 
whose  delivery  was  purposely  delayed.  After  remaining  five 
weeks  in  Moscow,  Napoleon  commenced  his 

Oct.  19.     Retreat  from  Moscow, 

at  first  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  afterwards  towards  Smo^ 
lensk.  The  march  was  disturbed  by  the  Russian  main  army 
under  Kutusoff,  and  by  countless  swarms  of  Cossacks.  Des- 
perate contest  of  separate  corps  of  the  army  at  Jaroslavez, 
Oct.  24,  and    Vjazma,  Nov.  3. 

Nov.  6.  Commencement  of  the  cold  weather.  Terrible  suffer- 
ing from  hunger  and  frost.  Continuous  engagements,  espe- 
cially at  Krasnoy  (Ney,  "  the  bravest  of  the  brave  "),  and 
Borissoff. 

Nov.  26-28.     Terrible  passage  of  the  Berezina. 

Ney  and  Oudinot,  with  8,500  men,  forced  a  passage  against 
25,000.  From  this  point,  the  disorganization  of  the  remain- 
ing fragments  of  the  army  was  complete,  and  the  retreat  be- 
came a  wild  flight.  Dec.  3,  Bulletin  (No.  29),  of  Malodeczno. 
Napoleon  left  the  army  and  hastened  to  Paris  where  he  arrived 
Dec.  18.  The  army  continued  its  retreat  pursued  by  the  Rus- 
sians until  Dec.  13,  when  the  remaining  troops  (100,000), 
crossed  the  Niemen.  The  Russians  made  100,000  prisoners 
according  to  their  reports. 
In  any  case  this  expedition  cost  the  lives  of  at  least  300,000 
able-bodied  young  men  on  the  side  of  the  French  and  their 
allies. 

Dee.  30.  York  concluded  a  treaty  of  neutrality  with  the  Russian 
general  Diebitch,  in  the  mill  of  Poscherun  near  Tauroggen. 

1813  and  1814.     The  Great  War  of  Liberation 

of  the  allies  against  Napoleon. 

1813,  Feb.  3.  Appeal  of  Frederic  William  III.  issued 
from  Breslau,  directing  the  formation  of  volunteer  corps, 
whereupon  all  the  young  men  capable  of  service  flew  to  arms. 

Feb.  28.     Alliance  of  Kalish 
between  Russia  and  Prussia  : 
1.  Offensive  and  defensive  alliance,  enumeration  of  the  auxil« 

1  Cf.  V    ToU,  Denhwiirdigkeiten. 


476  Modem  History.  A.  o, 

iary  armies  to  be  furnished  by  either  side.  2.  Restoration  ol 
the  Prussian  monarchy  according  to  old  political  relations.  3. 
Invitation  extended  to  Amtria  and  England  to  join  the  alli- 
ance. 

1813,  March  3.  Treaty  between  England  and  Sweden  :  England 
paid  one  minion  rix  dollars  in  subsidies  and  promised  not  to  op- 
pose the  union  of  Norway  with  S-weden.  Sweden  furnished 
the  allies  an  army  of  30,000  men  under  command  of  the  crown 
prince  Bernadotte  (the  inactive  and  suspicious  conduct  of  thi? 
general  afterwards  entirely  disabled  the  northern  army). 

March  17.  Appeal  of  Frederic  William  III.  "  To  my  people," 
and  "  to  my  army."  Establishment  of  the  Landw^ehr  and 
the  Landsturm.     Iron  Cross. 

March.     Outbreak  in  Hamburg.     Tettenbom  occupied  the  city.     The 
dukes  of  Mecklenburg  withdrew  from  the  confederacy  of  the 
Rhine. 
Great  preparations  on  both  sides.     The  Elbe  was  the  boundary  be- 
tween the  combatants  ;  Danzig,  Stettin,  Kiistrin,  Glogau,  Modlin^  and 

Zamosc,  being,  however,  in  the  hands  of  the  French. 

March  27.     Occupation  of  Dresden  by  Russians  and  Prussians  under 
Wittgenstein  and  Blucher,  after  the  withdrawal  of  marshal  Da- 
vout.     Flight  of  the  king  of  Saxony. 
The  French  army  and  the  contingents  of  the  confederacy  of  the 

Rhine  concentrated  in  Franconia,  Thuringia,  and  on  the  Elbe. 

Napoleon,  after  the  end  of  April,  was  at  the  head  of  180,000  men 

in  Germany.     He  was  unexpectedly  attacked  by  the  armies  of  the 

allies,  numbering  85,000  men,  and  forced  to  fight  the 

May  2.    Battle  of  Gross-Gorschen  or  Liitzen. 

Victory  remained  with  the  French,  in  spite  of  their  losses. 
The  allies  withdrew  through  Dresden  to  Lusatia.     Schamhorst, 
severely  wounded,  died  in  Prague. 
Napoleon  in  Dresden,  in  close  alliance  with  the  king  of  Saxony, 
who  had  returned  from  Prague. 

1813,  May  18.  Landing  of  the  crown  prince  Bernadotte  with  Swedish 
troops,  in  Pommerania. 

May  20  and  21.     Battles  of  Bautzen  and  Wurschen. 

Napoleon  attacked  the  allies  at  Bautzen,  forced  them  to  retreat 
across  the  Spree,  and  completed  the  victory  at  Wurschen,  with 
great  loss  to  himself.  Duroc  f .  The  allies  retreated  to  Si- 
lesia. 

May  30.    Hamburg  occupied  by  Davout,  after  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Russians,  and  terribly  maltreated. 
The  combatants,  exhausted,  waited  for  reinforcements  and  strove 
to  secure  the  alliance  of  Austria. 

June  4-July  26.  Armistice  of  Poischwitz,  afterwards  prolonged 
until  Aug.  10  (16). 

June  15.  England  concluded  a  subsidy  treaty  with  Prussia  and 
Russia  at  Reichenbach. 

July  5  (28)-Aug.  11.  Congress  at  Prague.  Austria  played  the 
part  of  mediator.     After  futile  negotiations  (Metternich,  Cau- 


A.  D.  Napoleonic  Wars.  477 

laincourtf  William  von  Humboldt),  the  congress  was  dissolved 
and 

1813)  Aug.  12.     Austria  declared  war  upon  France. 

The  allies,  supported  by  English  subsidies,  placed  three 
main  armies  in  the  field  : 

1.  The  great  Bohemian  army  under  Schwarzenberg 
{Kleist,  Wittgenstein),  with  which  were  the  three  mon- 
archs,  Alexander,  Francis,  Frederic  William. 

2.  The  Silesian  army  under  Bliicher  (York,  Sacken, 
Langeron). 

3.  The  Northern  army  under  the  crown  prince  of  Swe- 
den, Bernadotte  {Bulow,  Tauenzien,  Winzingerode). 

Napoleon  opened  hostilities  with  an  attack  upon  Bliicher  who  re- 
tired behind  the  Katzbach.  Meanwhile  Schwarzenberg  advanced 
against  Dresden  from  Bohemia.  Napoleon  hastened  thither,  leaving 
Macdonald  to  oppose  Bliicher.  Before  an  action  occurred  at  either  of 
these  points,  Oudinot  and  Reynier,  whose  attack  upon  Berlm  was  to  be 
supported  by  Davout  from  Hamburg,  were  defeated  by  Biilow  in  the 
Aug.  23.     Battle  of  Grosbeeren, 

while  the  crown  prince  of  Saxony  looked  on  inactive. 
This  victory  saved  Berlin  from  capture  and  sack.     Directly 

afterwards  Macdonald's  army  was  defeated  in  the 
Aug.  26.     Battle  of  the  Katzbach  near  Wahlstatt 

by  Bliicher,  a  part  being  captured.     Bliicher  created  Prince  of 

Wahlstatt. 
Meanwhile   the   attack  of  the  Bohemian   army  upon   Dresden 

failed.    Napoleon  won  his  last  great  victory  on  German  soil 

in  the 

Aug.  26  and  27,  Battle  of  Dresden. 

Moreau,  on  the  side  of  the  allies,  was  severely  wounded  by  a 

cannon-ball,     f  Sept.  2. 
Aug.  27.     Victorious  engagement  at  Hagelberg.     (Landwehr  of  the 

electoral  mark.)     Vandamme,  in  the  attempt  to  intercept  the 

retreat  of  the  Bohemian  army,  was  defeated  in  the 
Aug.  30.     Battle  at  Kulm  and  Nollendorf 

near  Teplitz,   by   Ostermann  and  Kleist,  and  captured  with 

10,000  men. 
Ney,  who  was  to  occupy  Berlin,  was  defeated  in  the 

Sept.  6.     Battle  of  Dennewitz 

by  Biilow  and  Tauenzein.  Austria  having  already  arranged 
the  preliminaries  of  an  alliance  with  Russia  and  Prussia,  dur- 
mg  the  armistice,  a  formal 

Sept.  9.    Alliance  was  concluded  at  Teplitz  : 

1.  Firm  union  and  mutual  guarantee  for  their  respective  terri- 
tories. 2.  Each  party  to  assist  the  others  with  at  least  60,000 
men.    3.  No  separate  peace  or  armistice  to  be  concluded.    Secret 


478  Modem  History.  A.  d. 

articles  provided  for  the  restoration  of  the  Amtrian  and  Prus- 
sian monarchies  to  the  condition  of  1805. 

1813,  Sept.  17.  Napoleon  repulsed  by  Schwarzenherg  at  Nollendorf. 
York  forced  a  passage  across  the  Elbe  for  the  army  of  Silesia 
by  the 

Oct.  3.    Battle  of  Wartenburg, 

against  Bertrand.     The  northern  army  also  crossed  the  Elbe. 

Oct.  8.     Treaty  of  Ried  between  Austria  and  Bavaria,  which  with- 
drew from  the  confederacy  of  the  Rhine  and  joined  the  alli- 
ance against  Napoleon.     In  return  the  king  of  Bavaria  was 
secured  in  all  the  possessions  which  he  held  at  the  date  of  the 
treaty. 
As  the  three  main  armies  of  the  allies  were  attempting  to  unite  in 
Napoleon's  rear,  the  latter  left  Dresden  in  order  to  escape  being  cut 
off  from  France,  and  concentrated  his  troops  at  Leipzig. 

1813,  Oct.  16,  18,  19.     Battle  of  Leipzig.     ("Battle  of 

the  Nations"). 
Oct.  16.     On  the  first  day  : 

1.  Indecisive  battle  between  Napoleon  and  the  army  of  Bo- 
hemia under  Schwarzenberg  at  Wachau  (south  of  Leipzig). 

2.  Victory  of  Bliicher  at  Mockeru,  north  of  Leipzig,  over 
Mamiont. 

Oct.  17.     On  the  next  day  the  main  armies  desisted  from  fighting. 
Napoleon  sent  offers  of  peace  to  Francis  I.  which  were  rejected 
on  account  of  the  extravagance  of  his  demands.     Toward  even- 
ing union  of  the  four  armies  of  the  allies  :  the  grand  army, 
the  northern  army,  with  which  the  army  of  Silesia  had  already 
united  by  an  extraordinary  march  of  Bliicher,  and  finally  the 
Russian  reserve  (100,000)  under  Bennigsen.     The  armies  of 
the  allies,  forming  a  large  half  circle,  largely  outnumbered 
the  French.     (300,000  men  against  130,000). 
Oct.  18.      On  the  third  day  general  attack  of  the  allies,  ending, 
after  nine  hours'  fighting,  in  a  complete  victory.     (Struggle 
for  Probstheide).     In  the  evening  the  French  army  was  driven 
back  to  the  gates  of  Leipzig.     The  corps  of  Saxony  and  Wiir- 
temherg  went  over  to  the  allies. 
Oct.  19.     Storm  of  Leipzig  and  capture  of  the  king  of  Saxony.     After 
suffering  a  loss  of  more  than  30,000  men,  the  defeated  army 
of  Napoleon  commenced  the  retreat.     The  destruction  of  the  bridge 
over  the  Elster  before  the  whole  army  had  crossed  caused  the  drown- 
ing of  many  troops  in  the  Elster,  among  them  prince  Poniaiowski, 
nephew  of  the  last  king  of  Poland. 

On  the  retreat  engagement  on  the  Unstrut  between  Napoleon  and 
Yor^s  advanced  guard,  and  at  Hanau  (Oct.  30,  31)  with  an  Aus- 
tro-Bavarian  army  under  Wrede.     The  French  were  victorious. 

Immediate  consequences  of  the  battle  of  Leipzig  :  flight  of  king 
Jerome  from  Cassel  ;  end  of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  and  of  the 
grand  duchies  of  Frankfort  and  Berg.  Restoration  of  the  old  rulers 
in  Cassel,  Brunsmckf  Hanover,  Oldenburg.     The  central  administra- 


A.  D.  Napoleonic  Wars.  ^79 

tive  bureau  for  Germany  under  baron  von  Steiuj  which  had  been 
created  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  for  the  government  of  those  dis- 
tricts wliich  should  be  occupied  by  the  troops  of  the  allies,  found  its 
sphere  of  action  limited  almost  entirely  to  Saxony. 

1813,  Nov.     Napoleon  crossed  the  Rhine  at  Mainz.     Wurtemberg, 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  Baden,  and  the  remaining  members  of  the 

confederacy  of  the  Rhine  joined  the  allies.  The  cities  occupied  by 
the  French  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  allies  one  after  another.  Dres- 
den (Nov.  11),  Stettin  (Nov.  21),  Liibeck  (Dec.  5),  Zamosc,  Modlin, 
Torgau  (Dec.  26),  Danzig  (Dec.  30),  Wittenberg  (Jan.  12,  1814,  by 
Tauenzien),  Kustrin  (March  7).  Glogau,  Magdeburg,  Hamburg  {Da- 
vout),  Erfurty  Wiirzburgy  Wesel,  Mainz,  maintained  themselves  until 
the  peace. 

Uprising  in  Holland  (Nov.  15),  expulsion  of  the  French  officials. 
A  part  of  the  northern  army  under  Biiloio  entered  Holland,  while  the 
crown  prince  of  Sweden,  with  the  main  body  of  the  northern  army 
separated  completely  from  the  allies,  invaded  Holstein,  in  a  short 
winter  campaign  forced  Denmark  to  conclude  the 

1814,  Jan.  14.     Peace  of  Kiel  :  1.  Denmark  renounced  the  posses- 
sion of  Noricay  in  favor  of  Sweden,  which  guaranteed  to  the 

Norwegians  the  possession  of  their  liberties  and  rights.  2.  Sweden 
ceded  to  Denmark  western  Pomerania  and  Riigen.  At  the  same 
time  peace  between  Denmark  and  England,  the  latter  restoring  all 
conquests  except  Heligoland  ;  afterwards  peace  with  Russia  and  Prus- 
sia. 

Meantime  the  French,  after  they  had  already  (in  1812)  lost  the 
southern  part  of  the  country,  and  Madrid  itself  for  a  time,  were 
driven  almost  entirely  out  of  Spain  in  1813. 

After  the  French  power  had  been  weakened  by  the  departure  of 
Soult  with  a  large  number  of  troops  for  Germany  (Feb.  1813),  "Well- 
ington repulsed  Soult's   successor,  Jourdan,  and  king  Joseph,  and 
defeated  them  in  the 
1813,  June  21.     Battle  of  Vittoria. 

Joseph  fled  to  France.  Siege  of  Pampeluna  by  the  Spaniards. 
Soult  returning  with  reinforcements  to  the  relief  of  Pampeluna  was 
defeated  in  the  Pyrenees  (July  28,  29),  and  withdrew  behind  the 
Bidassoa.  At  the  same  time  marshal  Suchet  was  driven  out  of  Val- 
encia into  Barcelona.  After  the  conquest  of  Pampeluna  (Oct.  31)  by 
the  Spaniards,  Wellington  crossed  the  Bidassoa,  defeated  Soult  on 
French  soil,  and  compelled  him  to  retreat  to  Bayonne.  Napoleon  en- 
deavored to  secure  peace  with  Spain  by  a  treaty  with  the  imprisoned 
king,  Ferdinand  (whom  he  liberated  from  his  confinement  at  Valen- 
fay),  and  thus  to  protect  France  against  invasion  from  the  side  of  the 
Pyrenees,  but  the  attempt  was  a  failure.  The  Cortes  did  not  ratify 
the  treaty,  on  the  ground  that  the  king  had  not  been  a  free  agent, 
and  that  they  were  unwilling  to  conclude  a  peace  which  did  not  in- 
clude the  English. 

1813.     The  allies  on  Nov.  8  laid  before  Napoleon  a  proposal  which 

secured  to  France  the  Alps  and  Rhine  for  boundaries,  but  as 

Dec.  1.    Napoleon  did  not  earnestly  entertain  it,  they  adopted  the 

resolution  to  prosecute  the  war  vigorously  and  to  pass  the 


480  Modern  History,  A.  d. 

Rhine.  Napoleon  obtained  from  the  senate  a  new  levy  of  300,000 
men  ;  the  corps  legislatif,  in  which  words  of  blame  were  at  last  heard, 
was  prorogued  sine  die. 

Passage  of  the  allies  across  the  Rhine. 

1813,  Dec.  21-25.     The  main  army  under  Sckwarzenberg,  Wrede,  etc., 

crossed  the  upper  Rhine  and  traversed  Switzerland  (Basle)f 
whose  treaty  of  neutrality  with  Napoleon  was  disregarded. 

1814,  Jan.  1.     Blucher  with  the  army  of  Silesia  crossed  the  middle 

Rhine^  at  Mannheim,  Caub,  and  Coblentz. 
The  total  strength  of  the  allies  on  their  entrance  into  French  terri- 
tory was  not  quite  200,000  men.     The  main  army  advanced  through 
Burgundy;  Blucher  through  Lorraine  toward  Champagne.     To  pre- 
vent their  juncture,  Napoleon  attacked  Blucher  at  Brienne,  and  drove 
Jan.  29.    him  back  ;  Blucher,  however,  united  with  a  part   of  the 
main  army  (crown  prince  of  Wilrtemberg)  and  defeated  the  em- 
peror in  the 
Feb.  1.    Battle  of  La  Rothifere, 

and  drove  him  across  the  Aube.  The  impossibility  of  pro- 
visioning the  united  armies,  led  to  their  separation.  The  grand  army 
was  to  advance  upon  Paris  by  way  of  the  Seine,  while  the  army  of 
Silesia  followed  the  Marne  toward  the  same  goal. 

No  sooner  did  Napoleon  hear  of  this  separation  than,  with  aston- 
ishing boldness,  leaving  a  very  small  body  of  troops  behind  to  engage 
the  army  under  Schwarzenberg,  he  hurled  himself  suddenly  upon  the 
separate  divisions  of  the  army  of  Silesia,  defeated  them  in  four  battles 
Feb.  10-15.  at  Champaubert  (Sacken),  Montmirail  {York  driven 
across  the  Marne),  Chateau  -  Thierry,  and  Vauchamps,  and 
forced  Blucher  back  to  Etoges.  Then,  turning  like  a  flash  upon  the 
main  army,  he  defeated  it  in  the 
Feb.  17.     Engagement  at  Nangis   (Wittgenstein  and  Wrede), 

and  in  the 
Feb.  18.     Engagement  at  Montereau    (crown  prince  of  Wilrtem- 
berg). 
Napoleon  thus  obliged  the  main  army  to  retreat  to  Troyes,  after 
which  the  two  armies  were  for  a  short  time  again  united  on  the. 
Aube. 

Meanwhile  ambassadors  of  the  allies  had  met  the  envoy  of  Na^ 
poleon,  Caulaincourt,  in  a 

Feb.  5-March  19.     Congress  at  Chatillon   (on  the  Seine),  where 
Napoleon  was  offered  the  possession  of  France  with  the  bound- 
aries of  1792,  but  the  negotiations  came  to  naught  by  reason 
of  his  haughty  and  dubious  conduct. 
March  1.     Closer  union  between  the  allied  powers  at  Chaumont. 
The  deposition  of  Napoleon  resolved  upon. 
The    two   armies   separated    again.      The   main  army  under 
Schwarzenberg  defeated  Oudinoi  and  Macdonald  in  the 
Feb.  27.    Battle  of  Bar-sur-Aube. 

Blucher  reached  Meaux,  was  forced  to  retire  across  the  Marne 
and  Oise,  and  joined  the  army  of  the  north  under  Billow  and 
Winzingerode.     The  united  armies  defeated  Napoleon  in  the 


A.  D.  Napoleonic  Wars.  481 

1814,  March  9, 10.     Battle  of  Laon. 

Napoleon  now  turned  against  the  main  army,  which  defeated 

him  in  the 
March  20,  21.     Battle  of  Arcis-sur-Aube. 

Meanwhile,  Wellington  had  been  driving  back  Soult  with  equal 
success.  Occupation  of  Bordeaux  (March  12),  where  the  royal  ban- 
ner of  the  Bourbons  was  first  raised. 

Napoleon  formed  the  desperate  plan  of  throwing  himself  in  the 
rear  of  the  allies  in  Lorraine,  summoning  the  garrisons  of  the  for- 
tresses to  his  aid,  and  callmg  the  entire  population  to  arms.  The 
allies,  however,  with  equal  boldness,  advanced  upon  Paris,  and  de- 
feated the  marshals  Marmont  and  Mortier  in  the 
March  25.     Battle  of  La  Fbre-Champenoise. 

Marmont  and  Mortier  threw  themselves  into  the  capital.     The 

regent,  Maria  Louisa,  fled  to  Blois.    After  a  brave  defense  and 

after  the 
March  30.     Storm  of  Montmartre 

they  capitulated  under  condition  of  free  departure,  and  left 

Paris  to  its  fate. 

March  31.     Entrance  of  the  allies  into  Paris, 

where  the  senate,  through  the   influence  of   Talleyrand,  de- 
clared that  Napoleon  and  his  family  had  forfeited  the  throne. 

Napoleon,  hastening  to  the  relief  of  his  capital,  came  a  few  hours 
too  late.  His  marshals  having  refused  to  follow  him  in  a  foolhardy 
assault  upon  Paris,  he  abdicated  the  throne  in  favor  of  his  son 
(April  6)  at  Fontainebleau,  and,  when  this  reservation  was  rejected, 
unconditionally  (April  11).  Napoleon  made  a  futile  attempt  to  poi- 
son himself.  1 

He  received  from  the  allies  the  island  of  Elba  as  a  sovereign  prin- 
cipality, and  an  annual  income  of  two  million  francs  to  be  paid  by 
France.    His  wife  received  the  duchies  of  Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Gtias- 
tella  with  sovereign  power  ;  both  retained  the  imperial  title. 
1814.     "Wellington  defeated  Soult  in  the 
April  10.     Battle  of  Toulouse. 
May  4.     Arrival  of  Napoleon  at  Elba. 

Return  of  the  Bourbons.  Louis  XVI.'s  brother,  the  count  of 
Provence,  first  appointed  his  younger  brother,  the  count  of  Artois  as 
viceregent  {lieutenant  du  royaume),  and  then  returned  to  France,  as 

1814-1824.     Louis  XVIII. 

where  he  promulgated  a  constitution  which  was  an  imitation  of 
the  English  constitution,  but  with  many  limitations.     (Charte  octroi 
yee :  chamber  of  peers  and  chamber  of  deputies  without  the  initiative.) 
He  concluded  with  the  allies  the 
May  30.     (First)  Peace  of  Paris. 

1.  France  retained,  in  the  main,  the  boundaries  of  1792,  which 
embraced  3,280  square  miles  more  than  those  of  1790  :  Avignon,  the 

1  According  to  Thiers,  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  V Empire,  vol.  xviii.,  the 
truth  of  this  atterriDted  suicide  is  very  doubtful.  Cf.  V.  Helfert,  Nap.  I- 
Fahrt  von  Fontaintblenu  nach  Elba,  1874. 


482  Modern  History,  A.  d. 

Venaissirij  parts  of  Savoy,  of  the  German  empire,  and  of  Belgium.  2. 
France  recognized  the  independence  of  the  States  of  the  Netherlands, 
according  to  their  future  enlargement,  as  well  as  of  all  German  and 
Italian  states  and  of  Switzerland.  3.  England  restored  the  French 
colonies  excepting  Tobago,  Sta.  Lucia,  and  Isle  de  France.  England 
retained  Malta.  4.  The  allies  remitted  all  sum^  which  they  might 
have  claimed  for  supplies,  advances,  etc.  5.  France  promised  Eng- 
land to  abolish  the  slave  trade. 

After  the  peace  of  Paris  Pius  VII.  returned  to  Rom£,  the  king  of 
Sardinia,  Victor  Emmanuel,  to  Turin,  the  king  of  Spain,  Ferdinand 
VII.,  to  Madrid.  In  Spain  the  rejection  of  the  ultra-liberal  constitu- 
tion proposed  by  the  cortes  of  1812,  was  followed  by  the  immediate  out- 
break of  a  cruel  contest  of  arbitrary  power  against  the  liberal  party. 

Visit  of  Alexander  and  Frederic  William  III.  in  London  (June  7-22, 
1814),  accompanied  by  their  victorious  generals  (Blucher) ;  enthusiastic 
reception  by  the  English  nation.  For  the  purpose  of  restoring  and 
regulating  the  European  relations,  and  particularly  those  of  Germany, 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  military  supremacy  of  the  French  empire, 
the 

1814:>  Sept.-1815,  June.     Congress  of  Vienna 

was  assembled.  The  emperors  of  Austria  and  Russia,  the  kings 
of  Prussia,  Denmark,  Bavaria,  and  Wurtemberg,  and  a  great  number 
of  German  princes  were  present  in  person. 

Chief  negotiators  :  Austria,  Mettemich  ;  Prussia,  Hardenberg  and 
W.  V.  Humboldt ;  Russia,  Nesselrode  and  Rasoumoffsky ;  Great  Brit- 
ain, Wellington  and  Castlereagh  ;  France,  Talleyrand  and  Dalberg. 
(Baron  vom  Stein,  prince  of  Ligne.) 

The  five  powers,  which  had  concluded  the  peace  of  Paris,  and  which, 
to  avoid  quarrels  about  rank,  were  henceforward  named  in  the  order 
of  the  French  alphabet,  Autriche,  France,  Grande- Bretagne,  Prusse, 
Russie,  formed  a  closer  union  at  the  congress  of  Vienna  (hence  after- 
wards called  the  Pentarchy  of  the  Great  Powers).  For  special 
cases  this  union  was  joined  by  Spain,  Portugal,  Sweden.  These  eight 
powers,  after  long  negotiations  and  after  the  disputes  over  the  Saxon 
and  the  Polish  questions  had  for  a  moment  threatened  to  lead  to  war 
(Russia  and  Prussia  against  Austria,  France,  and  England),  and  after 
Napoleon's  return  from  Elba  (p.  483),  signed  the 

Act  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 

Principal  articles  : 
1.  Restoration  of  the  Austrian  and  Prussian  monarchies  :  a. 
Austria  received  besides  her  ancient  domain  of  Milan,  Venice, 
which  had  been  conferred  upon  her  by  the  treaty  of  Campo 
Formio  (these  were  now  called  the  Lombardo-Venetian  king- 
dom), the  Illyrian  provinces  (the  kingdoms  of  Illyria  and  Dal- 
matid),  Salzburg,  Tyrol  (from  Bavaria),  and  Galicia.  b.  Prus- 
sia received  a  part  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Warsaw  (Posen) 
with  Danzig ;  Swedish  hither  Pomerania  with  Riigen  in  re- 
turn for  Lauenburg,  which  was  ceded  to  Denmark  ;  its  old 
possessions  in  Westphalia,  somewhat  enlarged,  as  well  as  Neur- 


A.  D.  Napoleonic  Wars,  483 

chatel  and  the  grand  duchy  of  the  lower  Rhine^  and  the  greater 
part  of  Saxony  as  an  indemnification  for  the  loss  of  some 
former  possessions,  as  Anshach  and  Baireuth  ceded  to  Bavaria, 
East  Friesland  to  Hanover,  the  Polish  possessions  to  Russia. 

2.  Formation  of  a  kingdom  of  the   Netherlands,  comprising  the 

former  republic  of  Holland  and  Austrian  Belgium,  under  the 
former  hereditary  statthalter  as  King  William  I. 

3.  Creation  of  a  German  confederacy  to  take  the  place  of  the  old 

empire,  comprising  39  (at  its  dissolution  in  1866  only  34)  sover- 
eign states,  including  the  four  free  cities  ;  all  other  princes 
who  were  formerly  sovereign  were  mediatized. 
Act  of  confederation  signed  June  8,  1815,  supplemented  by 
the  final  act  of  Vienna,  May  15,  1820. 

4.  Russia  received  the  greater  part  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Warsaw  as 

the  kingdom  of  Poland.  Cracow  became  a  free  state  un- 
der the  protection  of  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia. 

B.  England  retained  Malta,  Heligoland,  a  portion  of  the  French  and 

Dutch  colonies,  and  the  protectorate  over  the  Republic  of  the 
Seven  Ionian  Islands  (the  latter  by  treaty  of  1815,  Nov.  5, 
which  was  made  an  integral  part  of  the  peace  of  Vienna.  See 
p.  482.  These  islands  were  given  to  Greece  by  the  treaties 
of  Nov.  14,  1863-Nov.  29,  1864.     See  p.  505). 

6.  Sweden  retained  Nonvay,  which  had  been  ceded  to  her  at  the 

peace  of  Kiel  (p.  479),  with  a  constitution  of  its  own  ;  Den- 
mark was  indenmified  with  Lauenburg. 

7.  The  nineteen  cantons  of  Switzerland  were  increased  to  twenty- 

two  by  the  accession  of  Geneva,  Wallis,  and  Neuchdtel  (at  once 
canton  and  ?i  principality). 

8.  Restoration  of  the  old  dynasties  in  Spain,  in  Sardinia,  which  re- 

ceived Genoa,  in   Tuscany,  Modena,  the  Papal  States.     Tlie 
Bourbons  were  not  reinstated  in  Naples  until  1815,  as  Murat 
had  secured  possession  of  that  state  for  the  present  by  his  de- 
sertion of  Napoleon. 
News  of  the  discontent  in  France  with  the  government  of  the  Bour- 
bons, and  of  the  discord  in  the  bosom  of  the  congress  of  Vienna,  as 
well  as  the  invitations  of  his  adherents,  encouraged  the  deposed  em- 
peror to  return  to  France. 

1815.    Landing  of  Napoleon  at  Cannes 
March  1.     with  1,500  men.     Forced  march  upon  Paris.     All  troops 
sent  against  him,  even  Ney  with  his  corps,  went  over  to  him. 

March  13.     Proclamation  of  the  ban  against  Napoleon 
by  the  monarchs  of  Austria,   Great  Britain,  Prussia,  Russiay 
France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Sweden. 
King  Louis  X  VIII.  fled  to  Ghent. 

March   20.      Napoleon   entered    Paris.      The  Hundred 
Days,  March  20  to  June  29,  1815. 
Austria,  Great  Britain,  Prussia  and  Russia,  concluded  a  new 
March  25.     Alliance  at  Vienna  against  Napoleon,  whereby  each 
power  engaged  to  furnish  an  army  of  180,000  men.     All  Eu- 


484  Modern  History,  A.  d. 

ropean  nations  were  invited  to  join  the  alliance.  One  after  another  all 
the  states  joined  it  except  Sweden,  which  was  occupied  in  crushing 
with  military  power  the  resistance  of  Norway  to  the  personal  miion. 
The  sum  of  the  contingents  furnished  against  Napoleon  amounted  to 
over  a  million  men. 

May.  Napoleon  found  himself  obliged  to  make  some  apparent  con- 
cessions to  the  liberal  party  in  France.  Champ  de  Mai  : 
Acte  additio7iel.  In  Belgium  concentration  of  a  Prussian  army  under 
Bliicher  and  an  English-German  under  "Wellington,  against  Napo- 
leon. 

Murat,  who  had  declared  for  Napoleon,  defeated  by  the  Austrians 
at  Tolentino  (May  3).  Naples  captured  May  22.  Murat  fled  to 
France.  Reinstallation  of  Ferdinand  as  king  of  Naples. 
June  14.  Napoleon  crossed  the  boundary  of  Belgium.  Engagement 
at  Charleroi ;  the  advance  guard  of  the  Prussians  under  Ziethen 
forced  back.  June  15,  Napoleon  defeated  Bliicher  in  the 
June  16.     Battle  of  Ligny, 

after  a  brave  resistance  (Bliicher  in  personal  danger),  and  drove 
him  back.     Bliicher  marched  upon    Wavre.      Ney  defeated  by  the 
prince  of  Orange  in  the 
June  16.     Battle  of  Quatre-Bras. 

The  duke  of  Brunswick  fell.  Meantime  concentration  of  the 
army  of  Wellington,  consisting  of  British,  Hanoverians,  Dutch,  and 
troops  from  Brunswick  and  Nassau.  Upon  this  force  Napoleon  hurled 
himself  with  superior  numbers. 

1815)  June  18.    Battle  of  Waterloo  and  Belle  Alliance, 
called  by  Napoleon  the  battle  of  Mont  St.  Jean. 
Napoleon  thought  he  had  insured  the  prevention  of  the  juncture  of 
the  Prussians  under  Bliicher  with  the  English  under  Wellington,  by 
directing  Grouchy  to  engage  the  former.     By  afternoon  Wellington's 
army,  though  still  unyielding,  had  suffered  so  heavily  that  the  day  was 
only  saved  by  the  arrival  of  the  Prussians  under  Bliicher.    Complete 
defeat  of  the  French,  whose  army,  pursued  by  Gneisenau,  was  entirely 
scattered.     Meanwhile  Grouchy,  on  whose  help  Napoleon  had  relied, 
was  engaged  at  Wavre  against  Thieleman,  whose  corps  he  by  some 
unexplained  error  took  for  the  whole  Prussian  army.^ 
June  22.     Abdication  of  Napoleon  in  favor  of  his  son. 
July  1.     Arrival  of  the  allies  before  Paris. 
July  7.     Second  capture  of  Paris. 

Entrance  of  Bliicher  and  Wellington.  Return  of  Louis  X  VIII, 
Arrival  of  the  two  emperors,  and  of  the  king  of  Prussia. 
Meantime  Napoleon  fled  to  Rochefort,  where,  after  futile  attempts 
to  escape  to  America,  he  surrendered  himself  to  the  British  admiral 
Hotham  on  the  ship-of-the-line  Bellerophon,  who  conveyed  him  to  Eng- 
land. Thence,  by  a  unanimous  resolve  of  the  allies,  he  was  transported 
as  prisoner  of  war  to  St.  Helena,  where  he  arrived  in  October  (f  May 
5,  1821). 

1  Thiers,  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  V  Empire,  xx.;  'Ropes,  Who  Lost  Wort 
tarloo  f  —  Atlantic  Monthly,     June,  1881. 


A.  D.  Napoleonic  Wars.  —  Modem  Inventions.  "485 

Sept.  26.  Foundation  of  the  Holy  Alliance  upon  the  suggestion  of 
Alexander,  comprising  at  first  Russia,  Austria,  Prussia,  theo- 
retically an  intimate  union  on  a  basis  of  morality  and  religion,  but 
practically  soon  degenerating  into  an  alliance  for  the  protection  of 
absolute  monarchy. 

Ney  made  his  escape,  but  was  captured,  condemned,  and  executed 
on  Dec.  7,  1815.  Murat  made  a  reckless  attempt  to  recover  his  throne 
by  landing  in  Calabria  ;  he  was  captured,  court-martialed,  and  shot 
Oct.  13,  1815. 

Nov.  20.     Second  Peace  of  Paris. 

1.  France  surrendered  the  four  fortresses  PhilippevUle,  Ma- 
rienburg  (also  Bouillon  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands),  Saarl&uis 
(and  Saarhrucken  to  Prussia),  Landau,  which  became  a  fortress  of  the 
German  confederation,  with  the  surrounding  region  as  far  as  the  Lau- 
ter  (to  Bavaria).  France  ceded  to  Sardinia  that  part  of  Savoy  which 
she  had  retained  in  the  first  peace  of  Paris.  She  was  therefore 
brought  back,  generally  speaking,  to  the  boundaries  of  1790,  instead 
of  to  those  of  1792,  which  she  had  retained  in  the  first  peace. 

2.  Demolition  of  Hilningens,  a  fortress  below  Basle. 

3.  Seventeen  fortresses  on  the  north  and  east  borders  of  France  were 
to  be  garrisoned  for  five  years  at  the  utmost,  by  troops  of  the  allies 
at  the  expense  of  France. 

4.  France  paid  700  million  franos  for  the  expenses  of  war.  Besides 
this  the  art  treasures  which  the  French  had  carried  away  from  various 
cities,  partly  by  treaties,  and  which  had  been  left  in  Paris  under  the 
first  peace,  were  now  reclaimed. 

The  desire  of  German  patriots  that  at  least  a  portion  of  the  ancient 
appanages  of  the  old  empire,  Lorraine,  Alsace,  and  Strashurg,  should 
be  taken  from  France,  which  would  thus  be  deprived  of  a  point  of  at- 
tack against  Germany,  was  not  gratified.  (JSeejp.  526.) 

FOURTH  PERIOD. 

FROM  THE  CONGRESS  OF  VIENNA  TO  THE  PRESENT  DAY- 
1815-x. 

§1.    INVENTIONS. 

The  universal  adoption  and  application  of  four  in- 
ventions which  had  been  made  at  an  earlier  period,  and  in 
comparison  with  whose  influence  upon  the  transformation  of  the 
world  that  of  all  political  events,  wars,  treaties,  revolutions, 
almost  disappears,  lends  the  modern  world  its  peculiar  character. 
[A  century  of  material,  intellectual,  social  development  of  the 
people  follows  a  century  of  diplomatic  intrigue  and  misgovern- 
ment.  (Compare  with  these  inventions  those  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  p.  279.)  ] 

1.  The  first  attempts  to  utilize  steam  for  the  production  of  motion 
were  made  in  the  seventeenth  century.     Nothing,  however,  is  cer- 


486"  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

tainly  known  about  either  the  exact  date  or  place  of  the  invention, 
or  the  person  of  the  true  discoverer.  The  French  ascribe  the  invention 
to  Denis  Papin,  of  Blois  (1647-1714),  the  English  to  the  Marquis  of 
Worcester  (1663)  and  Captain  Savery  (1698).  At  all  events  the 
first  steam  engine  which  deserves  the  name  seems  to  have  been  set 
up  in  England,  and  to  have  been  used  in  mining.  This  was  done  by 
Newcomen,  in  Devonshire  (1705).  The  man  who  did  the  most  to 
improve  the  steam  engine,  and  whose  inventions  first  made  it  possi- 
ble to  use  these  machines  in  the  most  various  industries,  was  James 
Watt  (1736-1819),  of  Greenock,  in  Scotland. 

2.  The  priority  of  the  idea  of  applying  steam  to  navigation  is 
disputed  between  the  French,  English,  and  Americans.  Tlie  French 
ascribe  the  invention  to  the  above-named  Papin.  In  1774  the  count 
of  Auxiron,  and  in  1775  Perier,  are  said  to  have  sailed  the  first  little 
steamboat  upon  the  Seine.  The  experiment  was  repeated  by  the 
marquis  of  Jouffroy  in  1775  on  the  Douhs,  and  in  1780  on  the  Saone 
at  Lyons  with  a  vessel  of  larger  dimensions.  In  England  the  inven- 
tion is  ascribed  to  the  marquis  of  Worcester  ;  it  would  seem,  however, 
that  the  first  steamboat  in  Great  Britain  was  built  in  1786  by  Sym- 
ington at  Edinburgh.  To  America,  however,  where  experiments  with 
small  steamboats  had  been  made  upon  the  Delaware  in  1783,  1785, 
belongs  the  honor  of  establishing  the  first  regular  steamboat  service. 
This  was  instituted  in  1807  by  Fulton,  who  had  already  made  an 
experiment  with  a  steamship  on  the  Seine  in  the  presence  of  the  first 
consul.  Napoleon,  and  had  in  vain  offered  to  apply  steam  to  the  French 
ships  of  war  (1803). 

3.  Railroads  were  without  doubt  an  English  invention.  In  the 
second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  wooden  railroads  were  used 
in  the  mines  at  Newcastle  on  the  Tyne,  in  imitation,  it  is  claimed,  of 
a  similar  arrangement  in  the  Harz  mines.  In  1716  the  rails  were 
covered  with  sheet  iron,  and  in  1767  the  wood  was  replaced  by  cast 
iron.  For  a  long  time  the  roads  were  used  only  for  securing  an 
easier  draught  for  horses.  The  first  application  of  steam  to  rail- 
roads was  made  in  1806  by  the  engineer  Trevithick.  Gradual  im- 
provement in  the  mechanical  construction  of  the  engines.  George 
Stephenson  in  1814  invented  the  locomotive  and  in  1829  an  im- 
proved locomotive,  which  in  1830  ran  upon  the  first  great  railroad 
for  passenger  traific  between  Liverpool  and  Manchester.  The 
first  road  of  this  kind  was  constructed  in  1825  between  Stockton  and 
Darlington.  First  railroad  in  Germany,  Furth  to  Nuremberg  (1835), 
at  first  a  horse  railroad  ;  the  first  larger  line  worked  by  locomotives 
was  constructed  between  Leipsic  and  Dresden  (1837).  First  railroad 
in  the  United  States,  1827,  at  Quincy,  Mass. ;  cars  drawn  by  horses. 
First  roads  to  use  locomotives  :  South  Carolina,  Baltimore  ^  Ohio* 
1830-31.  After  England  and  North  America  were  covered  with  an 
iron  network,  Germany,  and  much  later  France,  began  the  construc- 
tion of  railroads  upon  a  large  scale.  [Financial  disturbances  caused 
(especially  in  England)  by  the  withdrawal  of  capital  from  other  in- 
dustries to  be  sunk  in  construction  of  railroads,  and  by  stock  specula- 
tion.] 

4.  The  first  electric  telegraph  was  invented  in  1809  by  Sommering, 


A.  D.  Continental  Europe.  487 

a  German,  in  Munich.  The  invention  was  offered  to  Napoleon  I., 
who  dismissed  it  as  a  "  Grerman  notion."  After  the  Dane,  Orsted, 
had  discovered  electro-magnetism  in  1819,  the  Frenchmen  Ampere  and 
Ritschie  conceived  the  idea  of  applying  the  new  discovery  to  the  tele- 
graph. The  first  electro-magnetic  telegraph  which  was  actually  con- 
structed and  used  was  set  up  in  Gottingen  by  Gaxxss  and  Weber  in 
1833.  Somewhat  later  an  electro-magnetic  telegraph  was  invented 
in  Russia  by  a  German,  Schilling.  Schilling's  invention  was  carried 
to  England  by  Cooke,  an  Englishman.  There  it  was  improved  by 
Wheatstone,  and  this  perfected  telegraph  was  first  practically 
worked  in  London,  between  Euston  Square  and  Camden  Town.  After 
the  invention  had  undergone  many  improvements,  especially  in  Ger- 
many and  America  (Morse,  1844),  Great  Britain,  the  continent  of 
Europe,  and  North  America  were  covered  with  telegraph  wires.  The 
first  submarine  telegraph  was  laid  in  1851  between  England  and 
France  {Dover  to  Cape  Gris-nez).  Submarine  cables  were  then  laid 
from  England  to  Ireland  and  Belgium  (1851,  1853),  and  in  many 
other  locations.  The  gigantic  undertaking  of  connecting  Europe  and 
America  by  a  cable  failed  in  1857.  A  second  attempt  in  1858  was 
crowned  with  success,  but  only  for  a  time.  In  1866  the  undertaking 
was  again  renewed  and  brought  to  a  successful  close.  (  Valencia  in 
Ireland  to  Newfoundland y  1,650  English  miles.)  Since  that  time, 
many  others  have  been  laid.     In  1902  a  Pacific  cable  was  laid. 

§2.    CONTINENTAL  EUROPE.i 

1817-18S2. 

1817.  Jubilee  festival  for  the  300th  anniversary  of  the  Reformation. 
Festival  of  the  Wartburg.    Burning  of  a  number  of  absolut- 
ist writings  (Ancillon,  Schmalz,  Haller,  etc.). 

1818.  Congress  of  Ais-la-Chapelle.  The  great  powers  resolved, 
at  the  request  of  the  French  minister,  the  duke  of  Richelieu^ 
to  withdraw  the  army  of  occupation  from  France. 

1819.  "  Demagogic  machinations."  Murder  of  the  German  writer 
and  Russian  counselor,  Kotzebue  (Mar.  23),  by  the  fanatic 
Sand  in  Mannheim.  Secret  organization  among  German  stu- 
dents (Burschenscha  ft).  Reaction  in  Prussia.  W.i\  Humboldt, 
Beyme,  Boyen,  withdrew  from  the  service  of  the  state. 

Aug.  Congress  of  ministers  at  Carlsbad  controlled  by  Metternich. 
Censorship  of  the  press.  Supervision  of  the  universities  re- 
solved upon.  The  congress  continued  its  sittings  at  Vienna, 
where  the 

1820.  May.     Final  Act  of  Vienna  was  signed. 

In  Spain  rising  of  the  liberals  on  behalf  of  the  suspended 
constitution  of  1812,  which  was  restored. 
Oct.      Congress  at  Troppau,  ) 

1821.  Congress  at  Laybach,  \ 

assembled   to  consult  about  the  revolutionary  movements  in 
Naples  and  Piedmont. 
1821.     Victorious  campaign  of  the  Austrians  against  the  Liberals  in 

J  For  France  see  p.  526. 


488   .  Modern  Hutory.  A.  d. 

Naples  (Pepe,  Caracosa)  and  Sardinia  (Santa  Rosa,  battle  of 
No  vara).  In  both  countries  absolutism  in  its  severest  form 
was  restored. 

1822.  Congress  of  Verona  on  account  of  the,  Spanish  and  Grecian 
disturbances. 

1823.  French  intervention  in  Spain  under  the  lead  of  the  duke  of 
Angouleme.  The  French  entered  Madrid,  forced  Cadiz  to 
capitulate,  and  liberated  king  Ferdinand  VII.,  who  had  been 
detained  a  prisoner  there.  Cruel  reaction,  numerous  execu- 
tions (Riego). 

1810-1825.     Conversion  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  colonies 

in  Central  America  and  South  America  into  independent 

states. 

Colombia,  a  republic  since  1819  (Bolivar  dictator),  was  divided, 

in  1830,  into  three  republics  :  New  Granada  (now  Colombia  in  the 

narrower  sense),  Venezuela,  Ecuador.    Peru  a  free  state  in  1821; 

La  Plata,  too,  Uruguay,  Chili,  and  southern  Peru,  .under  the  name 

of  Bolivia,  became  independent.     In  the  Jesuit  state,  Paraguay,  Dr. 

(Joseph  Gaspard  Roderic  de)  Francia  (and  afterwards  Lopez)  long 

governed  with  dictatorial  power.     Mexico  freed  from  Spanish  rule 

1821  by  Iturhide,  who  became  emperor  in  1822,  but  was  obliged  to 

abdicate  and  leave  the  country.     Mexico  a  republic  1823  ;  Iturbide 

returned,  but  was  executed  1824. 

Brazil  an  independent  empire  since  1822. 
1820-1834.  Revolutions  and  civil  wars  in  Portugal.  Don  Miguel, 
the  younger  son  of  king  John  VI.  (f  1826),  after  a  long  civil 
war  and  unheard-of  barbarities,  was  conquered  by  his  elder 
brother,  Don  Pedro  (since  1822  emperor  of  Brazil).  Don 
Pedro  (t  1834)  delegated  the  government  of  Portugal  in 
1826  to  his  daughter,  Donna  Maria  ;  in  1831  he  delegated 
the  crown  of  Brazil  to  his  son,  Pedro  II. 

1821-1829.     War  of  Grecian  Independence. 

Secret  societies  (hetaries).  Prince  Alexander  Ypsilanti,  at 
the  head  of  a  Grecian  revolt  in  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  (March- 
June,  1821),  was  defeated  and  fled  to  Austria,  where  he  was  de- 
tained a  prisoner  in  Munkatsch  for  six  years.  Uprising  in  Morea 
{Mainots,  April,  1821).  Turkish  attacks  upon  the  Christians  in  Con- 
stantinople, Adrianople,  etc. ;  terrible  barbarities  in  Chios,  which  had 
revolted  ;  over  20,000  Greeks  murdered.  Canaris  burned  a  part  of 
the  Turkish  fleet  and  put  3,000  Turks  to  death  (1822).  Lord  Byron 
(t  Apr.  24,  1824),  Eynard  from  Geneva.  William  Milller  the  Ger- 
man poet.  German  Philohellenists.  [Philo-hellenists  in  England  and 
America  (Dr.  Howe)'].  Brave  defense  of  Missolonghi  (1825,  1826). 
1824-1830.     Charles  X.,  king  of  France  (p.  527). 

1825-1855-  Nicholas  I.,  emperor  of  Russia,  his  elder 
brother  Constantine  having  renounced  the  crown. 

1825-1827.  Ibrahim  Pasha,  Khedive  of  Egypt,  ravaged  Morea. 
England,  Russia,  and  France  interfered  in  behalf  of  the  Greeks, 
who  were  hard  pressed  and  at  variance  among  themselves. 


A.  D.  Continental  Europe.  489 

1826.  Massacre  of  the  Janizaries  in  Constantinople  by  Sultan  Mah- 
mud  II.,  after  a  mutiny.     The  troop  was  entirely  abolished. 

1827.  Battle  of  Navarino.     The  Turkish  fleet  was  destroyed  by 
Oct.  20.   the  English,  French,  and  Russian  fleets  ("  untoward  event "), 

and  Ibrahim  was  compelled  to  retreat  from  Morea. 
1828-1829.     Russo-Turkish  War. 

The  Russian  general,  Diebitch,  crossed  the  Balkans  (whence 
his  surname,  Sahalkanski),  and  took  Adrianople.  In  Asia  Kars  and 
Erzeroum  were  captured  by  Paskevitch,  who  had  captured  Erivan  in 
1827  in  a  war  with  Persia,  and  thereby  gained  the  name  of  Erivanski. 

1829.  Peace  of  Adrianople. 

Russia  restored  almost  all  her  conquests  to  Turkey,  the  latter 
power  recognizing,  in  advance,  the  resolves  of  the  London  Conference 
which    announced  in   1830  the    independence  of  Greece. 

Provisional  administration  of  the  count  Capo  d^  I  stria  as  president, 
who  in  1831  was  murdered  in  Napoli  di  Romania  (Nauplia),  the  seat 
of  government.    The  guardian  powers,  England,  France,  Russia,  raised 
to  the  Grecian  throne  the  Bavarian  prince, 
1832-1862.     Otto  I.,  f  1867. 

1830.  Capture  of  Algiers  by  the  French  (p.  527). 

1830>  July  27-29.     July  Revolution  at  Paris. 

Abdication  of  Charles  X.  ;  accession  of 
1830-1848.     Louis  Philippe  I. 

For  the  details  see  p.  529.  This  revolution  was  followed  by 
liberal  uprisings  throughout  Europe. 

1830-1837.     ^WiUiam  IV.  (heretofore  duke  of  Clarence)  king 
of  England.     "Whig  ministry. 

1830.     Revolution  in  Belgium.     Cause  : 

The  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  created  by  the  congress  of 
Vienna,  had  been  formed  by  the  enforced  union  of  two  utterly  differ- 
ent elements,  the  protestant  commercial  state  of  Holland,  which  was 
of  like  nationality  with  its  sovereign,  and  the  catholic  manufacturing 
country  of  Belgium,  which  was  divided  between  the  Flemish  and 
Walloon  nationalities,  but  was  pervaded  by  French  culture.  The  suc- 
cess of  the  July  revolution  in  Paris  inflamed  the  long  smouldering 
dissatisfaction  in  Brussels. 
1830,  Aug.  25.     Outbreak  in  Brussels  after  a  performance  of  the 

"  Masaniello.^'  The  mediation  of  prince  William  of  Orange, 
the  eldest  son  of  king  William  I.,  failed  of  success.  Prince  Frederic, 
the  king's  second  son,  who  had  occupied  a  part  of  Brussels  with  a 
division  of  the  army,  was  expelled  from  the  city  during  the  night  of 
Sept.  26-27.  On 
Nov.  18,  Declaration  of  Independence  passed  by  the  Belgian  congress. 

Provisional  government. 
The  London  Conference  between  the  great  powers  procured  a  cessa- 
tion of  hostilities  between  Holland  and  Belgium  and  recognized  the 
new  state  (Jan.,  1831),  which  in  February  adopted  a  liberal  monarch- 


490  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

ical  constitution.  After  Louis  Philippe  had  declined  the  honor  for  his 
second  son,  the  duke  of  Nemours,  upon  whom  the  first  choice  fell, 
1831-1865.  Leopold  I.,  of  Saxe-Coburg,  was  elected  king  of  the 
Belgians.  [A  man  of  ability  and  excellent  disposition,  he  ap- 
proved himself  an  admirable  constitutional  monarch.]  The  war  with 
Holland  lasted  until  1833.     Peace  was  established  in  1839. 

Results  of  the  July  Revolution  :  Revolutionary  movements  in 
Germany  (in  Saxony  and  Hesse-Cassel,  alteration  of  the  constitutions). 
In  Brunswick  duke  Charles  (f  1873)  was  expelled  ;  duke  William 
taking  his  place,  in  accordance  with  a  decree  of  the  diet  of  the  con- 
federacy.    Democratic  transformation  in  many  of  the  Swiss  cantons. 

1830-1832.     Revolution  in  Poland. 

1830,  Nov.  29.     Revolt  in  Warsaw.     The  attempted  assassination  of 

the  grand  duke  Constantine  foiled.  Provisional  government : 
Lubecki  (pron.  Lubetski),  Czartoryski  (pron.  Tshar  — ),  Chlopicki 
(Klopitzki),  regarded  with  suspicion  by  the  democrats  (Lelewel). 
General  Chlopicki  dictator  until  Jan.,  1831,  then  prince  Radzivil  com- 
mander-in-chief. The  emperor  Nicholas  deposed  by  the  diet  Jan., 
,1831.  Prince  Czartoryski  president.  The  Russians  advanced  under 
Diebitch.  Bloody  engagement  at  Groohow  (Feb.  19-25,  1831), 
where  the  Poles  with  45,000  men  offered  long  and  victorious  resis- 
tance to  the  superior  force  of  the  Russians  (70,000  men  with  more 
than  twice  as  many  cannon  as  the  Poles  possessed),  but  were  at  last 
forced  back  upon  Prague.  Skrzynecki  commander-in-chief  ;  defeat  of 
the  Russians  at  Waivar  and  Demhe  Wielski ;  the  insurrection  spread 
through  Lithuania  and  Podolia.  Diebitch  defeated  the  Poles  in  the 
bloody 

1831,  May  26.    Battle  of  Ostrolenka.    Diebitch  f  June  10.    Want 

of  harmony  among  the  Poles.  Massacres  by  the  Polish  demo- 
crats in  Warsaw.  Czartoryski  escaped  and  was  replaced  by  the  in- 
efficient Krukowiecki.  The  new  Russian  general  Paskevitch 
crossed  the  Vistula,  captured  Warsaw  (Sept.  6  and  7,  1831).  The 
Polish  insurrection  suppressed.     The  Organic  Statute  of  Feb.  26, 

1832,  deprived  Poland  of  its  constitution  and  reduced  it  to  a  province 
of  the  Russian  empire,  although  with  a  separate  administration. 
1831.      Uprisings   in  Modena,  Parma,  and   Romagna,  quickly   sup- 
pressed with  the  assistance  of  the  Austrians. 

1833-1840.  After  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  civil  war  in  Spain. 
Led  by  Espartero,  the  constitutional  party,  which  supported  the 
claims  of  Isabella  II.,  the  minor  daughter  of  the  king,  and  her  mother 
Maria  Christina,  after  a  bloody  contest,  defeated  the  absolutist 
party  (Don  Carlos,  brother  of  the  king,  f  1855  in  exile  ;  leaders  of 
the  Carlists  :  Zumalacarregui,  f  1835,  Cabrera,  Gormez).  Espartero 
overthrown  in  1843.     Banishment  of  the  queen  dowager,  Christina. 

1833,  The    Frankfort   uprising,  wherein   two   watches  were   over- 
powered   for   a   few   hours,   caused    a   vigorous    reactionary 

movement  throughout  Germany.  Frankfort  received  an  Anstro- 
Prussian  garrison.  Establishment  of  commissions  for  political  inves- 
tigations, arrests  and  condemnations.     Meeting  of  the  sovereigns  of 


A.  D.  Continental  Europe.  491 

Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia  at  Munchengrdtz ;  ministerial  conference 
in  Teplitz  (1833)  and  Vienna  (1834),  by  whose  resolutions  the  rights 
of  the  estates  in  Germany  were  still  further  curtailed. 
1833.  Foundation  of  the  German  Customs  Union  (ZoUverein) 
(Maassen,  Prussian  minister  of  finance),  which  had  been  zeal- 
ously advocated  by  Prussia  since  1818.  In  1830  the  union  already 
included  a  population  of  25,000,000  and  a  territory  of  80,600  square 
miles.  After  1854  it  embraced  98,000  square  nules  and  35,000,000 
inhabitants. 

1835-1848.     Ferdinand  I.,  emperor  of  Austria. 

The  chancellor  of  state,  Metternich,  was  still  the  actual  head 
of  the  govenmaent  and  the  soul  of  the  conservative  reactionary  policy 
throughout  Europe.     Censorship  of  the  press.     Strict  system  of  pass- 
ports.    Police  surveillance. 
1837.     Upon  the  death  of  William  IV.  of  England,  Hanover,  where 

the  salic  law^  regulated  the  descent  of  the  throne,  became 

separated  from  England. 
Partial  repeal  of  the  fundamental  statute  of  1833  by  the  king  of 
Hanover,  Ernst  August,  under  the  pretext  that  the  constitution  had 
been  adopted  without  his  consent,  he  being  at  the  time  heir  to  the 
throne.  The  true  reason  was  probably  that  the  constitution  had 
made  the  domains  public  property  and  had  established  a  civil  list. 
Dismissal  of  seven  professors  at  Gkittingen  (Jacob  and  William  Grimm^ 
Dahlmann,  Gervinus,  Ewald,  Albrecht  and  Weber),  for  refusal  to  take 
the  oath  of  homage. 

1837-1901.     Victoria,  queen  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

1837.  Arrest  of  the  archbishop  of  Cologne  (Droste  von  Vischering'), 
in  consequence  of  a  quarrel  with  the  Prussian  government 
about  marriages  between  persons  of  different  religious  beliefs. 

1840.     Death  of  Frederic  William  III.  of  Prussia.     His  son  and  suc- 

June  7.     cessor 

1840-1861.     Frederic  William  IV.  (see  p.  515). 

Mehemed  Ali,  viceroy  of  Egypt,  in  a  previous  victorious  war 
(1831-1833)  with  his  over-lord  the  sultan,  threatened  Constantinople. 
He  was,  however,  compelled  by  the  European  powers  to  make  peace, 
and  obliged  to  be  content  with  the  investiture  of  Syria  as  a  fief  from 
the  sultan.  The  attempt  of  the  Porte  (1839)  to  deprive  him  of  Syria, 
failed.  Ibrahim,  son  of  Mehemed  Ali,  defeated  the  Turks  at  Nisib  on 
the  Euphrates.  Through  treachery  the  Turkish  fleet  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  viceroy  of  Egypt.  Relying  on  the  support  of  France, 
Mehemed  Ali  demanded  from  the  young  sultan  Abdul-Medjid  (1839- 
1861)  the  hereditary  investiture  of  all  lands  under  his  government. 
To  oppose  these  demands,  England  (lord  Palmerston),  Austria^ 
Prussia,  and  Russia,  concluded  in  1840  a  treaty  of  alliance,  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  France,  which  for  a  moment  threatened  the  peace  of  Eu- 
rope.    After  the  fall  of  the  ministry  of  Thiers,  however,  and  after 

1  Cf.  p.  255,  uote. 


492  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

Guizot  became  president  of  the  ministry  in  October,  P°tance  sub- 
mitted and  deserted  the  viceroy  of  Egypt.  The  armed  intervention 
of  England  and  Austria  in  Syria  forced  the  viceroy  to  take  a  lower 
tone,  and  he  retained  only  the  hereditary  rule  over  Egypt  under  the 
over-lordship  of  the  Porte. 

1846.  Death  of  Pope  Gregory  X  VI.  Attempted  reforms  of  his  suc- 
cessor Pius  IX.  (Mastai-Ferretti). 

1847.  Convention  of  the  united  legislature  (Landtag)  in  Prussia. 
War  of  the  Sonderbund  (separate  confederacy)  in  Switzerland, 

against  seven  Catholic  cantons  (Jesuits).  General  Dufour  quickly 
overpowered  Freiburg  and  Luzerne.     Dissolution  of  the  Sonderbund. 

Transformation  of  the  Swiss  confederacy  from  a  close  alliance 
[Staatenbund]  of  sovereign  cantons  into  a  federal  nation  [Bundesstaat]. 
The  former  diet,  in  which  Zurich,  Berne,  and  Luzerne  had  in  turn  been 
the  chief  town,  was  now  succeeded  by  a  confederate  council  which 
sat  in  Berne  and  consisted  of  1.  a  council  of  estates  (representation 
of  the  governments  of  the  separate  cantons),  2.  a  national  council 
(representation  of  the  whole  Swiss  people  according  to  the  density 
of  the  population).  A  common,  system  of  coinage  ;  centralized  postal 
service  and  military  organization. 

1848.  Feb.  24.     February  Revolution  in  Paris  (p.  630). 

1848-1851  (1852).     France,  for  the  second  time,  a  republic. 

In  Switzerland,  complete  victory  of  the  radicals.  The  can- 
ton of  Neuchatel  tlirew  off  allegiance  to  its  prince,  the  king  of 
Prussia. 

1848.  Revolutionary  movements  in  Germany,  in  consequence 
of  the  French  revolution. 

Feb.  27.  Popular  assembly  at  Mannheim  under  the  lead  of  Itzlein, 
which  demanded  a  German  parliament,  jury  trials,  free  press, 
right  of  forming  organizations,  societies,  etc. 

March  11.    The  elector  of  Hesse  obliged  to  agree  to  these  demands. 

March  13-15.  Outbreak  in  Vienna.  Metternich  driven  from  the 
city,  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  burgher-guard  and  the 
students. 

March  18.  Conflicts  in  the  streets  of  Berlin.  The  troops,  tired  but 
not  conquered,  left  the  city  by  order  of  the  king  (March  19- 
20).  Formation  of  a  poorly  disciplined  burgher-guard.  Lib- 
eral ministers  frequently  changed.  Anarchy  in  the  capital. 
Call  of  a  constituent  assembly  at  Berlin. 

March  20.  After  disturbances  had  occurred  in  Munich  as  early  as 
March  6,  Louis  I.  (f  1868)  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son 
Maximilian  II.  Disturbances  in  Saxony,  Hanover,  Nassau, 
Mecklenburg,  etc. 

March  31.  Preliminary  parliament  in  Frankfort  opened  under  the 
presidency  of  Mittermaier.  Four  sessions.  Resolve  adopted 
to  call  a  national  German  constituent  assembly,  for  the  purpose 
of  making  a  constitution  for  the  German  empire. 

April.  A  republican  rising  in  Baden  {Hecker,  Struve),  supported  by 
the  arrival  of  refugees  (Herwegh)  and  foreign  republicans 
quickly  suppressed  by  the  troops  of  the  German  confederation. 


A.  D.  Continental  Europe.  493 

General  Frederic  von  Gagem  treacherously  shot  by  the  volun- 
teers (April  20). 

May  15.  Second  insurrection  in  Vienna,  which  compelled  the  con- 
vocation of  a  constituent  diet.  The  emperor  left  Vienna  and 
went  to  Innsbruck.  The  intended  dissolution  of  the  legion  oj 
students  caused  a 

May  26.  Third  insurrection  in  Vienna,  after  which  the  troops  left 
the  city  and  a  committee  of  public  safety  (citizens  and  students) 
controlled  the  city. 

1848-1849.   German  National  Assembly  (Parliament) 

May  18.    in  Frankfort  (Church  of  St.  Paul)  for  the  purpose  of  "  har- 
monizing" a  constitution   for  the  German  empire  with   the 
governments  of  the  various  states. 

The  national  assembly  elected  archduke  John  of  Austria  (66  years 
old)  administrator  of  the  empire.  He  entered  Frankfort  June  11.  The 
confederate  council  (Bimdestag)  dissolved  itself.  First  imperial 
ministry  (afterwards  made  more  complete):  Schmerling  (Austria), 
foreign  affairs,  and  interior;  Peuc^er  (Prussia),  war;  Heckscher  (Ham- 
burg), justice.  It  was  soon  evident,  however,  that  the  newly  cre- 
ated central  power  had  no  real  authority  either  as  regarded  foreign 
countries  or  the  separate  states. 

President  of  the  national  assembly,  Heinrich  von  Gagern.  Par- 
ties: right  (Radowitz,  Vincke,  prince  Lichnowsky),  holding  to  the  idea 
of  an  imperial  constitution  in  harmony  with  the  separate  governments; 
left  (Vogt,  Ruge,  Robert  Blum),  proclaiming  the  principle  of  the  sov- 
ereignty of  the  people,  and  endeavoring  to  establish  a  republican 
confederation  (Bundestaat)  by  revolutionary  means;  right  centre 
{Gagem,  Dahlmann,  Gervinus,  Amdt,  Beseler,  Bassermann,  J.  Grimm}, 
which  hoped  to  persuade  the  governments  to  recognize  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  constitutional  monarchy  for  Germany  ;  left  centrt? 
(Romer,  Fallmerayer,  Raveaux,  etc.),  which  insisted  upon  the  uncon- 
ditional subordination  of  the  separate  states  to  a  central  monarchy,  to 
be  created  on  the  basis  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  ;  it  recom- 
mended, however,  that  the  views  of  the  separate  governments  and 
such  particular  requirements  of  the  states  as  were  well  founded 
should  be  respected. 

1848.  In  Naples  grant  of  a  liberal  constitution,  followed  by  a  reac- 
Feb.  tion  after  the  victory  of  the  Swiss  troops  in  the  conflicts  m  the 
streets  (May).  War  with  Sicily,  which  was  in  revolt,  but  was 
subdued  by  Filangieri  with  great  severity.  After  the  murder  of  his 
minister,  Rossi,  Pius  IX.  fled  to  Ga'eta  (Nov.).  Rule  of  the  anarchists 
and  republicans  (Mazzini)  in  Rome.  After  a  two  months'  siege  Rome 
was  captured  by  the  French  (July,  1849),  and  the  papal  authority 
was  restored.  The  Pope  did  not  return  to  Rome,  however,  until 
1850.  (French  garrison  in  Rome,  1849-1866.) 
1848.     Slavonic  congress  in  Prague, 

June  2.     called  by  the  Czechs  (Palacki),  in  order  to  unite  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  Slavonic  people  of  Austria  against  the  growth  of 
German  culture   and   influence.      In  order  that  the   representatives 
of  the  different  Slavonic  nationalities  might  understand  one  another, 


494  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

the  proceedings  of  this  anti-German  congress  were  held  in  German. 

June  12-17.  Uprising  of  the  Czechs  in  Prague  suppressed  by  Wm- 
dischgrdtz. 

Oct.  31.  Capture  of  Vienna  by  imperial  troops  (  Windischgratz,  Jella- 
chich).  Robert  Blum  (member  of  the  parliament  of  Frankfort), 
Messenhauser  (commander  of  the  city),  and  many  others  were 
shot. 

Nov.  1.  Commencement  of  the  reaction  in  Prussia.  Ministry 
Brandenburg  -  Manteuffel.  General  Wrangel  entered  Berlin 
without  resistance  (Nov.  10).  Proclamation  of  a  state  of  siege. 
The  burgher-guard  disarmed. 

Nov.  27.  Transference  of  the  national  assembly  to  Brandenburg. 
As  a  quorum  failed  to  meet  there, 

Dec.  5.  Dissolution  of  the  national  assembly  and  imposition  of  a 
constitution  with  two  chambers,  the  second  elected  by  uni- 
versal (manhood)  and  equal  suffrage. 

Dec.  10.  Prince  Louis  Napoleon  elected  president  of  the  French 
Republic  (p.  531). 

1848-1849.     War  between  Austria  and  Sardinia. 

The  Austrians,  driven  from  Milan  by  a  revolt  (March,  1848), 
retired  to  Verona.  An  Italian  attack  at  St.  Lucia  repulsed.  Ra- 
detzki,  reinforced  by  Nugent  (engagements  at  Udine  and  Belluno)^ 
advanced  again.  The  troops  of  Charles  Albert,  king  of  Sardinia, 
victorious  at  Goito  (May),  were  completely  defeated  by  Radetzki  at 
July  25.  Custozza.  Milan  recaptured  by  the  Austrians.  Truce 
from  Aug.  9,  1848,  to  March  20,  1849.  Radetzki,  by  the  vic- 
tory of  Mortara  (March  21)  and  No  vara  (March  23),  compelled  the 
conclusion  of  peace.  Charles  Albert  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son, 
Victor  Emmanuel,  and  retired  to  Portugal  (f  July,  1849). 

Capture  of  Brescia  after  terrible  fighting  in  the  streets.  Cruelties 
exercised  upon  prisoners  (Haynau).  In  Venice,  after  the  withdrawal 
of  the  Austrian  garrison  (March,  1848),  a.  provisional  government  in 
the  name  of  the  king  of  Sardinia  was  succeeded,  after  the  defeat  of 
the  Italian  army,  by  a  republic  (president  Manhi).  Siege  and  cap- 
ture of  Venice  by  the  Austrians  (Aug.  1849).  The  whole  of  the 
Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom  subjected  anew  to  Austria. 

1848-1849.     Uprising  of  the  Hungarians  (Magyars). 

The  Hungarians  demanded  and  received  a  separate  ministry 
(April,  1848).  Count  Batthyanyi,  president  of  the  ministry;  Kossuth 
(pr.  Koshut),  minister  of  finance.  Diet  in  Pesth  under  the  presidency 
of  the  archduke  Stephen  as  palatine.  The  opposition  of  the  Slavonic 
population  and  the  appanages  of  the  crown  of  Hungary  (^Croatia, 
Transylvania)  to  the  supremacy  of  the  Magyars,  and  their  demand 
for  political  equality,  were  supported  by  the  court  of  Vienna.  Jella- 
chich  appointed  Ban  of  Croatia.  Kossuth  procured  from  the  diet  a 
levy  of  national  troops  (Honveds),  and  the  issue  of  Hungarian  paper 
money.  Jellachich  invaded  Hungary,  but  was  defeated  at  Velencze, 
The  archduke  palatine  Stephen  resigned  his  office.  Count  Lamberg^ 
created  imperial  governor  of  Hungary,  murdered  at  Pesth  (Sept.). 
The  emperor  dissolved  the  diet. 


A.  D.  Continental  Europe.  495 

After  the  abdication  of  Ferdinand  I.  (f  1875)  his  nephew  mounted 
the  throne  as 

1848  —  X.     Francis  Joseph  I.,  emperor  of  Austria. 

The  Hungarian  diet  refused  to  recognize  the  abdication  of 
Ferdinand  I.  and  the  accession  of  Francis  Joseph  I.  Prince  Win- 
dischgrdtz  led  an  Austrian  army  into  Hungary.  Kossuth  and  the 
Magyar  officials  retired  to  Debreczin.  Windischgratz  occupied  Pesth 
(Jan.,  1849).  The  Polish  general  Bern,  to  whom  Kossuth  had  given 
a  command,  defeated  the  Austrians  in  a  series  of  engagements. 
Other  troops,  under  the  Pole  Dembinski  and  the  Magyar  princes 
Gorgey  and  Klapka,  were  successful  against  the  Austrians.  Dembinski 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  Magyar  forces,  but  was  de- 
feated at  Kapolna  (Feb.  26,  1849)  and  resigned  his  command. 
Meanwhile  a  bloody  struggle  was  in  progress  in  Transylvania:  Bern, 
defeated  by  the  Austrian  general  Puchner  at  Hermanstadt  (Feb., 
1849),  after  having  received  reinforcements,  took  the  offensive  against 
the  Austrians  and  Russians,  whom  the  former  had  called  to  their  aid, 
with  success;  driving  the  Russians  out  of  Transylvania.  In  the  west, 
too,  fortune  smiled  upon  the  Hungarian  arms.  Gorgey  relieved  Ko- 
morn.  Windischgratz  was  driven  back  to  Pesth,  which  his  successor, 
Welden^  was  compelled  to  evacuate ;  an  Austrian  garrison  remained 
in  Ofen.     In  consequence  of  the 

1849.     Publication   of  the  general   constitution  for  Austria, 
March  4.     which  abolished  the  ancient  Hungarian  constitution,  the 

diet,  upon  Kossuth's  motion,  pronounced  the  deposition  of  the 
house  of  Hapsburg-Lorraine.  Kossuth  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Mag- 
yar government  with  the  title  of  governor.  Divisions  and  lack  of  de- 
cision among  the  Hungarians.  Instead  of  marching  upon  Vienna 
they  laid  siege  to  Ofen,  which  Gorgey  captured  May  21.  Kossuth  and 
the  diet  made  a  pompous  entrance  into  Pesth.  Meanwhile  at  a  meet- 
ing of  the  emperors  of  Austria  and  Russia,  Russian  intervention 
was  agreed  upon,  and  a  common  plan  of  operations  adopted  for  the 
subjugation  of  Hungary. 

Last  decisive  struggle  of  the  Hungarians.  Bern  defeated  at  Her^ 
mannstadt  in  Transylvania  by  the  Russians  (Luders),  who  outnum- 
bered him  three  to  one.  Dembinski  forced  to  retire  before  the  su- 
perior Russian  force  under  Paskevitch.  Gorgey  tried  in  vain  to  break 
through  the  main  Austrian  army  under  Haynau,  was  defeated  at 
Zsigard  and  Korhorn,  went  to  the  aid  of  Dembinski,  defeated  the  Rus- 
sians under  Riidiger  at  Waitzen,  but  was  obliged  to  retire  to  the 
mountains  upon  the  approach  of  Paskevitch,  escaping  the  Russians 
only  by  a  masterly  retreat.  Kossuth  fled  with  the  diet  to  Szegedin, 
whither  Haynau  marched.  Dembinski,  attacking  him,  was  defeated  at 
Szorek  (Aug.  5),  and  at  Temesvar  (Aug.  9),  where  his  army  was 
almost  entirely  scattered.  Confusion  and  discord  among  the  Hun- 
garians. Kossuth  laid  down  the  chief  power  ;  the  dictatorship  was 
conferred  upon  Gorgey.  Two  days  later  Gorgey  concluded  the 
1849,  Aug.  13.     Capitulation  of  Vilagos, 

in  which  about  25,000  men  laid  down  their  arms  (120  cannon 
surrendered)  before  the  Russian  general  Riidiger.    Most  of  the  other 


496  Modem  Hutory.  a.  d. 

corps  surrendered  unconditionally  ;  Klapka  alone,  who  defended  Ko- 
morn,  made  an  honorable  capitulation.  Kossuth,  Bern,  Demhinskiy 
found  refuge  in  Turkish  territory.  Haynau  administered  terrible 
punishment  to  the  captured  leaders  of  the  insurrection.  Numerous 
executions  (count  Batthyanyi  hanged),  imprisonments  and  confisca- 
tions. Abolition  of  the  Hmigarian  constitution.  Transylvania  and 
Croatia  separated  from  Hungary.  Abolition  of  the  general  constitution 
of  Austria,  Dec.  31,  1851. 

1848-1851.  Three  wars  of  Schleswig-Holstein  against 
Denmark. 
Cause:  "  Open  letter  "  of  the  king.  Christian  VIII.  (July  8, 1846), 
which  arbitrarily  decreed  the  continuance  of  the  union  of  the  duchies 
with  Denmark,  in  spite  of  the  different  laws  of  inheritance  in  the  two 
states.  A  revolutionary  movement  in  Copenhagen  (Casino  party) 
compelled  king  Frederic  VII.  to  pronounce  the  annexation  of 
Schleswig  to  Denmark  (1848).  Hence  insurrection  in  the  duchies 
(March,  1848),  and  formation  of  a,  provisional  government  of  the  coun- 
try (Beseler). 

1848,  First  "War.  Prussian  troops  and  those  of  the  German  con- 
April-Aug.     federacy  came  to  the  assistance  of  the  duchies,  which 

were  obliged  to  form  a  new  army.  General  Wrangel  defeated 
the  Danes  at  Schleswig  (April  23)  and  advanced  to  Jutland.  The 
losses  to  commerce  in  the  Baltic  by  the  Danish  blockade  and  the  in- 
fluence of  England' and  Russia  produced  the  not  very  honorable  truce 
of  Malmo  (26  Aug.  1848-26  March,  1849).  Establishment  of  "  com- 
mon government  "  for  the  duchies. 

Dissatisfaction  with  the  truce  throughout  Germany.  Angry  de- 
bates in  the  national  assembly  at  Frankfort  ;  contest  in  the  streets 
with  the  populace,  who  were  excited  by  the  democrats.  Murder  of 
prince  Lichnowsky  and  general  von  Auerswald  (Sept.). 

1849,  March-July.    Second  War.   Creation  of  a  governorship  {Bese- 

ler, Reventlow-Preetz)  by  the  central  government  of  Germany. 
At  Eckernforde  the  ship  of  the  line  Christian  VIII.  was  fired  by  can- 
nonade and  the  frigate  Gejion  captured  (April  5).  Storm  of  the  re- 
doubts of  Diippel  by  Bavarian  and  Saxon  troops  (April  13).  The 
Prussian  general  Bonin,  at  the  head  of  the  Schleswig-Holstein  army, 
defeated  the  Danes  at  Kolding  (April  20).  In  consequence  of  the 
threatening  attitude  of  England,  France,  and  Russia,  indifferent  con- 
duct of  Prussia  and  other  German  troops  in  the  war  (general  Pritt- 
witz).  Siege  of  Fredericia  by  the  Schleswig-Holstein  army,  which, 
however,  suffered  a  considerable  loss  through  a  successful  sortie  of 
the  Danes.  Truce  of  Berlin,  between  Prussia  and  Denmark  (1849, 
July  10),  whereby  Schleswig  was  to  be  occupied  by  Swedish  troops  in 
the  north,  in  the  south  by  Prussian  troops,  and  received  a  neiv  adminis- 
tration. The  truce  was  converted  into  a  peace  (in  the  name  of  the  Ger- 
man confederation  as  well).  Bonin  and  all  Prussian  officers  were 
recalled  from  the  Schleswig-Holstein  army. 

1850,  Jan.-1851,  July.   Third  "War,  conducted  by  Schlesivig-Holstein- 

ers  alone  without  the  aid  of  Germany.  General  Willisen,  for- 
merly in  the  Prussian  service,  assumed  command  of  the  army.     He 


i 


A..  D.  Continental  Europe.  497 

was  defeated  at  Idstedt  (July  24,  25).  Schleswig  occupied  by  the 
Danes.  In  the  engagement  at  Missunde  (Sept.  12)  the  Schleswig- 
Holstein  troops  were  again  defeated.  In  the  storm  of  Friedrichstadt 
(Oct.  4)  they  wer^  repulsed  with  great  loss.  The  chief  command 
was  transferred  from  Willisen  to  general  Horst.  The  German  con- 
federacy having  been  restored  meanwhile  (p.  498)  enforced  under 
Austrian  influence  the  cessation  of  hostilities  ;  Holstein  was  occupied 
by  Austrian  troops  with  the  consent  of  Prussia,  and  delivered  to  the 
Danes  upon  the  vague  promise  of  "  respecting  the  rights  of  the 
duchies  "  (1852). 

1849.     Completion   of  the   constitution   of   the   German 
Empire. 

Diet,  composed  of  a  chamber  of  state,  appointed  half  by  the  govern- 
ments, half  by  the  popular  representatives  of  the  separate  states,  and 
A  popular  chamber.  Monarchical  power  with  only  a  suspensive  veto. 
Formation  of  two  parties,  the  great  German  (^Grossdeutsche)  party, 
which  wished  to  retain  the  German  territory  of  Austria  in  Germany, 
and  the  smnll  German  (Kleindeutsche),  which  wished  to  exclude  Aus- 
tria and  form  a  narrower  confederacy  under  the  hegemony  of  Prussia. 
1849.  The  offer  of  the  crown  of  emperor  of  the  Germans,  by  a 
April  3.  deputation  of  the  national  assembly  at  Frankfort,  was  de- 
clined by  the  king.  Frederic  William  declared  that  he  coidd 
assume  the  imperial  dignity  only  with  the  consent  of  all  German  gov- 
ernments. 

May.     Uprising  in  Dresden  (Tzschimer,  Heuhner,  Todtf  Bakunin) 
suppressed  by  Prussian  assistance. 
Recall  and  withdrawal  of  a  great  number  of  representatives 

1849.  from  the  national  assembly  at  Frankfort.  The  Rump-Par- 
June,     liament  (president  Lowe-Kalbe)  in  Stuttgart  dissolved. 

The  administrator  superseded  by  a  central  power  to  be  executed 
hy  Austria  and  Prussia  alternately,  "for  the  German  confederacy" 
(The  interim).     Death  of  the  administrator,  Oct.  20,  1849. 
May.     Republican  uprising  in  the  county  palatine  and  in  the  grand 
duchy  of  Baden  (Struve,  Mieroslawski) ;  defection  of  the  army. 
Prussian  troops  under  the  prince  of  Prussia  entered  Baden,  de- 
feated the  Lusurgents  at    Waghduselj .  besieged  and  captured 
Rastadt. 
The  commander  Tiedemann  and  others  were  shot ;  many,  among 
(them  the  poet  Kinkel,  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life  with  hard 
labor  {Kinkel,  1850,  in  Spandau,  was  rescued  by  Karl  Schurz). 

1850,  Feb.  6.     In  Prussia  the  king  and  legislature  took  the  oath  of 

allegiance  to  the  revised  constitution. 
Exertions  of  Prussia  to  create  a  German  federal  state  (Bundesstaat), 
with  exclusion  of  Austria  (Radowitz),  actively  supported  by  the  old 
party  of  the  hereditary  empire  in  the  Frankfort  parliament,  the 
Gothas  (so  called  from  a  meeting  in  Gotha).  The  "alliance  of  the 
three  kings  "  (Prussia,  Hanover,  Saxony),  concluded  May  26,  1849, 
which  was  immediately  joined  by  most  of  the  smaller  German  states, 
was  soon  broken  up  by  the  withdrawal  ot  Hanover  and  Saxonyc 
Nevertheless  the 


498  Modern  History,  A.  D. 

1850,  March  20,     Parliament  of  Erfurt  was  opened,  whicli  on  the 

27th  April  concluded  the  discussion  of  a  new  German  Union. 
May  9-16.     Congress  of  princes  in  Berlin,  wherein  the  dislike  of 

electoral  Hesse   (Hassenpjlug)   for  the  u^ion  came  to  light. 

Creation  of  a  college  of  princes.     Austria  opposed  the  efforts 

of  Prussia  by  the 
Sept.  2.     Reopening  of  the  Frankfort  parliament. 

Contest  over  the  constitution  in  the  electorate  of  Hesse.  Re- 
peated dissolution  of  the  assembly  of  the  estates  by  Ha^senpjiug.  The 
whole  country  was  pronounced  in  a  state  of  war  (Sept.  7).  Resist- 
ance of  the  officials  and  the  courts.  The  prince  elector  left  the  coim- 
try  and  invited  the  intervention  of  the  diet,  which  had  been  restored 
by  Austria,  but  was  not  recognized  by  Prussia  and  her  confederates ; 
Hassenpjiug  ambassador  to  the  diet.  The  diet  granted  aid  to  the 
prince  elector,  Prussia  protesting.  General  Haynau  appointed  mili- 
tary dictator  in  electoral  Hesse  (Oct.  2).  Almost  the  entire  corps  of 
officers  in  electoral  Hesse  received  their  dismissal. 

Rupture  between  Prussia  and  Austria  ;  Nicholas  of  Russia  took 
sides  with  the  latter  (two  meetings  in  Warsaw).  Meeting  of  the 
emperor  of  Austria  and  the  kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg  at 
Bregenz,  directed  against  Prussia.  Execution  of  the  decree  of  the 
confederacy  by  Bavarian  and  Austrian  troops.  The  Prussian  gov- 
ernment sent  their  troops  (general  Groben)  into  electoral  Hesse,  and 
seemed  for  a  moment  about  to  oppose  the  execution  of  the  decree  of 
the  confederacy  (encounter  of  the  pickets  at  Bronnzell,  Nov.  8),  but 
were  finally  satisfied  with  occupying  the  military  roads  of  Prussia. 
Dismissal  of  the  minister  Radowitz,  and  thereby  complete  abandon- 
ment of  the  Prussian  exertions  for  union.     In  the  " 

1850.  Conference  at  Olmiitz  (Mardeuffel  and  Schwar- 
Nov.  29.     zenberg)  Prussia  yielded  to  all  the  demands  of  Austria  ; 

Schlesmg-Holstein  was  delivered  to  the  Danes,  the  unlimited 

authority  of  the  elector  was  restored  in  electoral  Hesse.     The  ques-- 

tion  of  the  German  constitution  was  settled  at  the 

1850-1851.     Conference  at  Dresden 

Dec.  23-May  15.  after  a  lengthy  discussion,  wherein  the  influence 
of  the  emperor  of  Russia  had  great  weight,  by  a  simple  re- 
turn to  the  diet  of  the  confederacy.  Prussia  herself  invited  the 
former  members  of  the  union  to  sfend  representatives  to  that 
body,  so  that  the 

1851.  German  confederation  of  1815  wa9  reestablished  in  its 
old  form. 

1851.  First  universal  industrial  exhibition  in  Lon- 
don. 

1851.  In  Paris,  coup  d'etat  of  Louis  Napoleon,  who  be- 
Dec.  2.     came  president  of  the  republic  for  ten  years  (p.  531). 

1852,  May  8.     Treaty  of  London   (protocol)  signed  by  the  five 
great  po"wer»  and  Svreden.     In  order  to  guarantee  the  in- 
tegrity of  the  Danish  monarchy,  a  successor  was  appointed  for  the 
crown  of  Denmark  and  for  the  duchies  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  with- 


A.  D.  Continental  Europe,  499 

out  consulting  the  estates  of  the  duchies.  The  female  line  next 
in  succession  having  renounced  its  rights,  Christian  of  Sonderburg- 
Gluckshurg  was  proclaimed  heir  of  the  childless  king  Frederic  VII. 
for  the  entire  monarchy.  This  treaty  was  recognized  by  Hanover, 
Saxony,  and  Wurtemberg,  but  not  by  the  German  confederation. 

1852,  Dec.  1.     Napoleon  III.,  emperor  of  the   French   (1852- 

1870). 
1853-1856.     War  of  Russia  against  Turkey  and 

1854-1856.     "War  of    the  western    powers  against 
Russia.     Crimean  War. 

Cause  :  Resuscitation  of  the  old  Russian  plans  of  conquest  (Catha- 
rine II.  p.  411)  against  Turkey  by  Nicholas  I.  Thinking  an 
alliance  between  England  and  France  impossible,  and  believing  that 
he  had  made  sure  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  he  pressed  forward  with- 
out hesitation.  He  developed  his  views,  concealing  but  little,  to  the 
English  ambassador  in  St.  Petersburg,  Seymour :  Servia,  Bosnia,  Bul- 
garia, and  the  principalities  of  the  Danube  should  become  independent 
states  under  Russian  protection.  Constantinople  should  be  occupied 
provisionally,  by  Russian  troops ;  the  prospect  of  the  acquisition  of 
Crete  and  Egypt  was  held  out  to  England.  In  spite  of  the  unfavor- 
able attitude  of  England,  the  emperor  pursued  his  plans.  Demand 
for  a  protectorate  over  all  Christians  of  the  Greek  church  in  the 
Turkish  empire,  urged  in  an  overbearing  manner,  by  the  Russian  am- 
bassador prince  Mentchikoff.  The  Porte  refused  to  listen  to  the  prop- 
osition.   Mentchikoff  left  Constantinople  with  threats  (May  21, 1853). 

1853,  A  united  French  and  English  fleet  was  placed  at  the  entrance 
to  the  Dardanelles,  afterwards  in  the  Bosphorus,  for  purposes 

of  observation.  80,000  Russians  crossed  the  Pruth  and  occupied  the 
principalities  of  the  Danube  (July).  Meeting  between  Nicholas  and  the 
emperor  of  Austria  and  the  king  of  Prussia  in  Olmiitz  (Sept.),  where 
however,  he  did  not  obtain  the  desired  alliance,  but  only  an  assur- 
ance of  neutrality  under  certain  conditions.  The  Porte  declared  war 
upon  Russia  (Oct.).  Omer  Pacha  crossed  the  Danube  and  held  his 
ground  against  the  Russians  at  Oltenitza  (Nov.  4).  The  Russian 
fleet  surprised  and  defeated  a  Turkish  squadron  at  Sinope,  Nov.  4. 
Upon  the  refusal  of  the  emperor  to  evacuate  the  principalities  of  the 
Danube, 

1854,  March  12.    Alliance  of  the  western  powers  with  Turkey,  and 
March  28.     declaration  of  war  by  England  and  France  upon  Rus- 
sia.   Paskevitch  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  the  Russian 

army  which  crossed  the  Danube,  but  besieged  Silistria  in  vain  (June). 
England  and  France  sent  troops  to  the  aid  of  Turkey,  which  concen- 
trated in  Gallipoli.  Alliance  between  Prussia  and  Aus^ia ;  these 
states  declared  the  passage  of  the  Balkans  by  the  Russians  an  act  of 
war,  and  soon  demanded  the  evacuation  of  the  principalities.  The 
emperor  Nicholas  ordered  the  evacuation  "  for  strategic  reasons " 
(July).  With  the  consent  of  the  Porte  the  principalities  were  pro- 
visionally occupied  by  the  Austrians. 


500  Modern  History.  A.  d 

A  second  French  and  English  fleet  (^Napier)  appeared  in  the  Baltic, 
but  could  make  no  impression  upon  the  fortress  of  Kronstadt  and  cap- 
tiu'ed  only  the  small  fortress  of  Bomarsundf  upon  one  of  the  Aland 
Islands. 

At  the  southern  seat  of  war,  the  allies  landed  at  Varna,  on  the 
Black  Sea  (June).  Marshal  St.  Arnavd  and  lard  Raglan  command- 
ers-in-chief. The  French  invasion  of  the  Dobrudsha  was  followed  by 
great  losses  through  sickness.  At  Varna  the  expedition  to  the 
Crimea  was  resolved  upon,  in  order  to  destroy  Sebastopol  and  an- 
nihilate the  Russian  naval  power  in  the  Black  Sea.  The  French  and 
English  (50,000  men  together)  and  6,000  Turks  landed  at  Eupatoriay 
on  the  west  coast  of  the  Crimea,  Sept.  14,  and  defeated  the  Russians 
in  the 
1854,  Sept.  20.     Battle  of  the  Alma. 

Marshal  St.  Arnaud  died  of  the  cholera.  The  command  of 
the  French  given  to  Canrobert.  After  the  English  had  established 
themselves  on  the  bay  of  BalaJdavaf  and  the  French  on  the  bay  of 
Kamieschy  the 

1854-1855.     Siege  of  Sebastopol 

Oct.  Nov.  began.  The  city  was  surrounded  by  new  fortresses  by 
Mentchikoff,  under  the  superintendence  of  Toilehen,  and  the 
harbor  closed  by  sunken  ships  of  war.  An  attack  of  the  allies  upon 
Sebastopol  failed  (Oct.  17).  The  Russian  general  Liprandi  attacked 
the  English  at  Balaklava  (Oct.  25)  and  inflicted  a  severe  loss  upon 
them  (charge  of  the  Light  Brigade).  Aiter  Mentckikojff' ha,d  received 
reinforcements,  he  attacked  the  allies  anew,  but  was  defeated  in  the 
bloody 

1854,  Nov.  5.     Battle  of  Inkermann. 

Slow  progress  of  the  siege  works  during  the  winter.  After 
the  emperor  of  Russia  had  rejected  the  conditions  of  peace  which 
were  supported  by  Prussia  and  Austria,  the  latter  power  joined  the 
alliance  of  the  western  powers  (Dec.  1854),  and  placed  a  consider- 
able force  upon  the  Russian  boundary  without,  however,  commencing 
actual  operations  of  war.  Prussia  persisted  in  her  neutral  attitude. 
Victor  Emmanuel  of  Sardinia  concluded  an  alliance  with  the  western 
powers  and  sent  15,000  men  under  La  Marmora  to  the  Crimea.  A 
Russian  attack  upon  Eupatoria  was  repulsed  by  the  Turks. 

1855,  March  2.     Death  of  Nicholas  I.     His  son 

1855-1881.  Alexander  II.  (abolition  of  serfdom  1858- 
1863). 
Prince  Gortchakoff  receiyed  the  chief  command  in  Sebastopol.  After 
fruitless  negotiations  in  Vienna,  Austria  again  assumed  an  attitude 
of  waiting  and  withdrew  a  portion  of  the  troops  on  the  Russian  border. 
Enormous  losses  among  the  besiegers,  from  sickness  (Florence  Night- 
ingale). Privations  and  daily  skirmishes.  At  the  request  of  Canro- 
bert the  command  of  the  French  forces  was  transferred  to  general 
Pelissier  (May  16).  A  general  storm  was  repulsed,  with  great  loss 
to  the  allies  (June  18).  Lord  Raglan  died  June  28,  and  Simpson  be* 
came  commander-in-chief  of  the  English  army. 


A.  D.  Continental  Europe.  501 

After  a  continuous  bombardment  and  many  bloody  engagements 

1855.  Storm  of  the  Malakoff  tower  by  the  French,  and  of  the 
Sept  8.     Redan  by  the  English,  who  were,  however,  soon  driven  out 

again  by  the  Russians. 

Sept.  11.  The  Russians,  by  means  of  a  pontoon  bridge,  withdrew  into 
the  northern  part  of  the  fortress.  Occupation  of  the  dty  of 
Sehastopol  by  the  allies. 

!Nov.  28.     In  Asia,  capture  of  the  fortress  of  Kars  by  the  Russians. 
At  the  congress  of  Paris  {France,  England,  Russia,  Turkey,  Sar- 
dinia, Austria,  and  at  the  last  Prussia),  the 

1856,  March  30.     Peace  of  Paris  was  agreed  upon. 

1.  Russia  ceded  the  mouths  of  the  Danube  and  a  small  portion  of 
Bessarabia  on  the  left  bank  of  the  lower  Danube.  2.  Russia  re- 
nounced the  one-sided  protectorate  over  the  Christians  in  Turkey 
(whose  elevation  to  equality  with  the  Mohammedan  population  was 
promised  by  the  Porte),  and  over  the  principalities  of  the  Danube, 
whose  relations  were  to  be  settled  later.  3.  Russia  restored  Kars, 
and  promised  not  to  establish  any  arsenals  upon  the  Black  Sea,  nor  to 
maintain  there  more  ships  than  the  Porte.  4.  The  western  powers 
restored  Sehastopol  to  Russia,  after  having  destroyed  the  docks,  the 
constructions  in  the  harbor,  and  the  fortifications.  [5.  Adoption  of 
the  four  rules  :  1.  Privateering  is  and  remains  abolished.  2.  The 
neutral  flag  covers  an  enemy's  goods,  except  contraband  of  war.  3. 
Neutral  goods,  except  contraband  of  war,  not  liable  to  capture  under 
an  enemy's  flag.  4.  Blockades,  to  be  binding,  must  be  effective.] 
1856-1857.     Dispute  between  the  king  of  Prussia  and  Switzerland,  in 

consequence  of  a  hasty  suppression  of  a  royalistic  outbreak  in 
Neuchdtel  (Neuenburg),  settled  by  the  release  of  the  royalistic  pris- 
oners by  the  Swiss,  and  the  renunciation  of  Neuchdtel  by  the  king  of 
Prussia. 
1857-1860.     French  and  English  e:spedition  against  China. 

Cause  :  infractions  of  the  treaty  with  the  English  (of  1842) 
by  the  Chinese  led  to  hostilities  in  Oct.,  1856,  between  the  English 
and  the  Chinese  officials  of  Canton.  The  French  government,  which 
purposed  an  alteration  of  the  commercial  treaty  with  China,  joined  in 
supporting  the  English  demands. 

1857,  Dec.     Occupation  of  Canton  by  the  allies. 

1858.  Treaty  of  Tien-  Tsin,  which  opened  to  European  trade  and  the 
June,     missionaries  entrance  to  the  interior  of  China,  and  allowed 

standmg  embassies  to  be  established  in  the  capital,  Pekin. 

1859,  June.     Infraction  of  the  treaty  of   Tien-Tsin.     The  English, 

French,  and  American  ambassadors,  who  were  on  their  way  to 
Pekin,  were  turned  back  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pei-ho. 
The  attempt  of  the  English  and  French  to  force  their  passage 

failed;  an  attack  upon  the  forts,  undertaken  with  bit  few  troops,  was 

repulsed  with  great  loss. 

1860.  Landing  of  a  French  (general  Montauhan')  and  English  (gen- 
May,     eral  Grant)  corps  at  Shang-hai;  storm  of  the  fortified  camp, 

while  the  flotilla  of  the  allies  proceeded  up  the  Pei-ho. 
Negotiations  commenced  by  the  Chinese.     In  consequence  of  their 


502  Modem  History.  A.  D. 

dubious  and  faithless  conduct  the  allies  made  a  new  advance,  defeated 
a  Tatar  army  of  25,000  men  in  the 

1860.     Battle  of  Palikao,  and  marched  upon  PeTdn.     Destruction  of 
Sept.  21.     the  summer  palace  of  the  emperor  as  punishment  for  the 
cruel  mutilation  and  execution  of  several  persons  whom  the 
Chinese  had  treacherously  captured.     In  affright  prince  Kong, 
the  emperor's  brother,  concluded  the 
1860.    Peace  of  Pekin,  which  ratified  the  treaty  of  Tien-Tsin  and 
Oct.  24,  25.     imposed  upon  the  Chinese  the  payment  of  a  large  in- 
demnity. 
1857.     Illness  of  Frederic  William  IV.    The  prince  of  Prussia  as- 
Oct.     sumed  the  vice-regency,  and  later  (Oct.  7,  1858)  the  regency 
as  provided  by  the  constitution  of  Prussia.     The  prince  re- 
gent replaced  the  ministry  of  Manteuffel  by  an  old  liberal  ministry 
(prince  of  Hohenzollem,  Auerswald,  Schleinitz,  Boning  Bethmarm-Holl- 
weg,  and  afterwards  count  Schwerin). 

1859.     War  of  France  and  Sardinia  with  Austria. 

April-July.      An  Austrian  ultimatum  having  been  rejected,  field- 
marshal  Gyulay  crossed  the   Ticino,  but  his  inactivity  gave 
the  French  time  to  come  to  the  assistance  of  the  Piedmontese. 
Napoleon  III.  assumed  the  chief  command. 
An  extensive  reconnoitring  expedition  of  Gyulay^s  led  to  the 

May  20.     Engagement  of  Montebello  ;  the  Austrians,  after  obsti- 
nate resistance,  driven  back.     Garibaldi  and  his  volunteers  in- 
vaded Lombardy.     The  allies  assuming  the  offensive,  Gyiday  retired 

across  the  Ticino  and  was  defeated  in  the 

June  4.     Battle  of  Magenta 

(Napoleon  III.,  Canrobert,  MacMahon). 

Napoleon  III.  and  Victor  Emmanuel  entered  Milan,  'the  em- 
peror Francis  Joseph  took  the  chief  command  in  person.  The 
Austrian  army  was  defeated  by  the  allies  in  the 

June  24.     Battle  of  Solferino. 

The  emperor  Francis  Joseph  in  a  meeting  with  Napoleon  III. 

July  11,  in  Villafranca  was  induced  to  accept  preliminaries  of  peace 
(exchanged  July  8)  which  were  ratified  and  ccmpleted  in  the 

1859,  Nov.  10.     Peace  of  Zurich. 

1,  The  emperor  Francis  Joseph  ceded  Lombardy  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  Mantua  and  Peschiera)  to  Napoleon  III.,  who  surrendered 
it  to  Sardinia.  2.  Italy  was  to  form  a  confederation  (Staatenbund) 
under  the  honorary  presidency  of  the  Pope.  3.  The  sovereigns  of 
Tmcany  and  Modena,  who  had  been  expelled  in  April  and  July,  were 
to  be  reinstated;  the  revolted  legations  (Bologna,  etc.),  were  to  be 
given  back  to  the  Pope,  but  "without  foreign  intervention." 
Despite  these  enactments  of  the  peace  of  Zurich 

1860.  Tuscany,  Parma  (whose  sovereigns  had  likewise  been  expelled), 
Spring.     Modena,  and  the  papal  legations  were  united  with  the  mon- 
archy of  Victor  Emmanuel,  who,  in  return,  was  obliged  to  sur" 
render  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France. 

Descent  of  Garibaldi  with  1,000  volunteers  (soon  4,000,  May  11) 


A.  D.  Continental  Europe.  503 

upon  Sicily.  He  marched  upon  Palermo.  Bombardment  of  the  city 
by  the  Neapolitan  general  Lanza,  whereupon  the  city  capitulated  on 
condition  of  the  free  withdrawal  of  25,000  Neapolitan  troops  (June 
6),  Messina  evacuated  by  the  Neapolitans,  with  the  exception  of 
the  citadel  (June  28).  Garibaldi  landed  on  the  mainland  (Aug. 
20).  Surrender  of  Reggio,  triumphal  progress  through  the  southern 
half  of  the  peninsula.  King  Francis  II.  left  his  capital,  Naples,  and 
retired  behind  the  VoUurno  with  40,000  men,  retreating  to  the  for- 
tresses of  Gaeta  and  Capua  (Sept.).  Meanwhile  the  Piedmontese 
troops  under  Fanti  and  Cialdini  had  entered  Umbria  and  the  Marches, 
where  the  desire  for  annexation  had  long  since  made  itself  manifest. 
The  French  general  Lamoricieref  who  had  entered  the  papal  service, 
was  defeated  in  the 

1860.  Engagement  at  Castelfldardo  by  Cialdini.  The  Papal 
Sept.  18.     States  (excepting  the  Patrimonium  Petri)  were  annexed  by 

Victor  Emmanuel,  who  thereupon  invaded  the  Neapolitan  terri- 
tory (Oct.)  and  joined  Garibaldi.  The  Neapolitan  army  retreated 
behind  the  Garigliano,  Capua  was  taken.  Francis  II.  and  his  troops 
retired  to  Gaeta. 

1860-1861.  Siege  of  Gaeta.  Francis  II.  capitulated  after  a  brave 
Nov.  12-Feb.  13.     defence  and  went  to  Rome. 

1861,  March  17.     Victor  Emmanuel  king  of  Italy. 
With  the  exception  of  Venice  and  the  Patrimonium  Petri  the 

whole  peninsula  was  united  under  one  sceptre.  Death  of  Cavour, 
June  6,  1861.  New  expedition  of  Garibaldi,  with  volunteer  bands,  to 
liberate  Rome,  against  the  wishes  of  the  government.  He  was 
wounded  and  captured  at  Aspromonte,  the  southern  point  of  Italy, 
Aug.  29,  1862.  Treaty  between.  France  and  Italy  (Sept.  15,  1864), 
whereby  the  duration  of  the  French  occupation  of  Rome  was  limited 
to  two  years,  and  the  Italian  government  undertook  to  protect  the 
Patrimonium  Petri  against  any  foreign  invasion.  Florence  nlade  th'* 
capital  of  Italy. 
1861,  Jan  2.      Death  of  Frederic   William  IV.     The  prince  regent 

mounted  the  throne  as 
1861-1888.     William  I.,  king  of  Prussia. 
1861-1867.    Mexican  Expedition,  undertaken,  at  first,  by  France, 

England,  and  Spain  in  common. 
1861.     Treaty  of  London  between  these  three  powers.     The  purpose 
Oct.  31.     of  the  expedition  was  to  force  the  republic  of  Mexico  to 

fulfill  certain  treaty  obligations  towards  these  nations. 

1861,  Dec.-1862,  Jan.     Occupation  of  La  Vera  Cruz  and  the  fort  of 

San  Juan  c?'  Ulloa  by  the  allies. 

1862.  Treaty  of  La  Soledad  with  Juarez,  president  of  Mexico,  who 
Feb.  19.     promised  to  pay  the  indemnity  and  the  arrears  of  debt,  as 

required.  Juarez  did  not  fulfill  the  obligations  incurred,  and 
demanded  the  delivery  of  his  opponent,  Almonte,  who  had  come  to  the 
French  camp  from  Paris. 

England  and  Spain  withdrew  from  the  expedition.  Napoleon  III., 
acting  on  the  expectation  that  the  republic  of  the  United  States  oj 
America  would  be  broken  up  by  the  war  between  the  North  and  the 


504  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

South,  resolved  to  create  a  monarchy  in  Mexico.  Magnificent  plan  to 
check  the  spread  of  the  Anglo-Germanic  race  by  this  expedition,  and 
induce  a  regeneration  of  the  Latin  race. 

1862.  An  attack  upon  Puebla  by  5,000  French  repulsed.     Retreat  to 
May.     Orizaba.    The  emperor  sent  25,000  men  as  reinforcements,  fol- 
lowed by  more  considerable  numbers,  to  Mexico.    After  a  long 
and  bloody  contest 

1863.  Puebla,  bravely  defended  by  Ortega,  was  captured  by  the 
May.     French  general   Forey,  who   entered   Mexico.     The   French 

called  an  assembly  of  notables,  composed  of  opponents  of 
Juarez,  caused  the  monarchy  to  be  proclaimed  by  this  body,  and  the 
imperial  crown  of  Mexico  to  be  offered  to  the  archduke  Maximilian, 
brother  of  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph  of  Austria.  This  young  and 
ambitious  prince,  gifted  with  excellent  abilities,  suffered  himself  to  be 
inveigled  by  Napoleon  III.  into  accepting  the  crown. 

1864.  June.     Arrival  of  Maximilian  in  Mexico.     Prolonged  contest 

with  the  republican  armies.  The  new  monarchy  constantly  in 
financial  difficulties.  Impossibility  of  establishing  a  settled  state  of 
affairs  in  a  land  so  torn  with  party  feuds. 

Meanwhile  the  end  of  the  civil  war  in  the  United  States  had  com- 
pletely altered  the  political  relations.  The  decisive  demand  of  the 
United  States  government  that  the  French  troops  should  be  with- 
drawn from  Mexico,  put  a  sudden  end  to  the  magnificent  plans  of  the 
French  emperor.  He  submitted  at  once  to  the  request  of  the  United 
States. 

1867.  Withdrawal  of  the  French  troops  from  Mexico.  The  emperor 
Spring.     Maximilian,  who  refused  to  leave  with  the  French,  continued 

the  war  alone.  After  a  brave  resistance  he  was  surrounded  in 
Queretaro,  captured  by  treachery  (Lopez  f),  brought  to  trial  before  a 
court-martial  at  Juarez^  command,  and  shot  (June  19,  1867). 

In  Austria,  in  spite  of  the  vehement  opposition  of  the  nobility  and 
the  clergy, 

1861.  Publication  of  a  new,  liberal  constitution  for  the  united 
Feb.  26.     monarchy  with  a  close  diet  for  the   Germano-Slavonic 

lands,  and  a  wider  diet  (only  projected,  however)  which  by  the 
participation  of  Hungarian  members  was  to  represent  the  united  mon- 
archy, with  the  exception  of  Venice,  for  which  the  introduction  of  a 
special  constitution  was  promised.  Resistance  to  the  February  consti- 
tution, not  only  by  the  Hungarians,  who  demanded  the  restoration  of 
their  separate  constitution  with  a  special  ministry,  but  also  by  the 
national  parties  of  the  other  non-Germanic  peoples  of  the  empire. 
1861.  Coronation  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  William  I.  in  Konigsberg; 
Oct.  18.  soon  after  there  broke  out  a  constitutional  conflict  in  conse- 
quence of  a  reorganization  of  the  army  which  the  government  had  carried 
out.  Dissolution  of  the  house  of  representatives  (March,  1862).  Res- 
ignation of  the  Schwerin  ministry.  Heydt  ministry.  The  opposi- 
tion majority  returned  from  the  new  elections  (May)  with  increased 
strength  {party  of  progress  (Fortschritt),  and  the  left  centre). 

Von  Bismarck  (Otto  Edward  Leopold,  prince  of  Bismarck-Schon- 
liausen,  born  1815,  1848  member  of  the  united  Prussian  legislature, 


A.  D.  Continental  Europe.  505 

1851  member  of  the  diet  of  the  confederation  at  Frankfort,  after- 
wards ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg  and  at  Paris)  became  president 
of  the  ministry.  The  ministry  governed  without  the  passage  of  a 
money  bill.  [Especial  care  bestowed  upon  the  army,  in  which,  accord- 
ing to  Bismarck,  the  hope  of  Prussia  and  Germany  rested  ("  Blood 
and  Iron  ")]. 

1862.  Revolution  in  Greece.     King  Otto  (f  1867)  compelled  to 
leave  the  country  by  an  insurrection.    Provisional  government. 

After  a  long  search  the  Greeks  found  in  George  of  Denmark  a  prince 
who  accepted  their  throne  (1863).  England  ceded  to  Greece  the 
Ionian  Islands  (p.  483). 

1863,  Jan.     Uprising  in  Poland  and  Lithuania   suppressed  in  the 

spring  of  1864. 
1863.     Congress  of  German  princes  at  Frankfort  o.  M.,  under 
Aug.     the  presidency  of  Francis  Joseph,  emperor  of  Austria,  to  con- 
sider a  reorganization  of  Germany.     The  meeting  was  without 
result,  Prussia  refusing  to  take  any  part  in  the  deliberations. 
The  "  Eider-Danes  "  in  Copenhagen  having  brought  about  the 
1863.     Incorporation  of  Schles-wig  with  Denmark,  the  patience  of 
March  30.     the  diet  of  the  German  confederation,  so  well  preserved 
in  face  of  the  encroachments  of  the  Danes  since  1852,  was  ex- 
hausted, and  an  immediate  execution  of  the  decree  of  the 
confederation  was  decreed  (Oct.  1). 

1863,  Nov.  15.     Death  of  Frederic  VII.,  king  of  Denmark. 
According  to  the  London  Protocol  (p.  498),  Christian  IX.  suc- 
ceeded for  the  entire  monarchy.     In  spite  of  this  and  regardless  of 
his  father's  renunciation,  the  hereditary  prince  of  Augustenburg  pro- 
claimed himself  duke  of  Schleswig-Holstein  as  Frederic  VIII. 

Yielding  to  the  pressure  of  the  influential  party  of  the  Eider-Danes 
in  Copenhagen,  Christian  IX.  accepted  the  new  Danish  constitution 
which  incorporated  Schleswig  with  Denmark.  Great  excitement  in 
Germany.  Public  opinion  decidedly  favored  the  complete  separation 
of  Schleswig-Holstein  from  Denmark,  and  demanded  of  the  German 
confederation  at  least  a  preliminary  occupation  of  the  duchies.  On 
the  motion  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  however,  who  were  bound  by  the 
London  Protocol,  the  confederation  undertook  nothing  but  the  execu- 
tion of  its  decree,  and  caused  Hanoverians  and  Saxons  (general  Hake) 
to  enter  the  duchies  of  Holstein  and  Lauenburg,  which  belonged  to  the 
confederation.    Frederic  VIII.  proclaimed  duke  throughout  Holstein. 

1864,  Feb.-Oct.     War   of   Austria   and  Prussia  with 
Denmark. 

Cause:  Austria  and  Prussia  demanded  the  repeal  of  the  No- 
vember constitution  as  being  inconsistent  with  former  agreements. 
(Denmark  in  1852,  when  the  two  powers  handed  over  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein to  her,  had  promised  "  to  respect  the  rights  of  the  duchies," 
which  clearly  excluded  an  incorporation  of  Schleswig.)  Refusal  of 
Denmark,  Advance  of  the  Austro-Prussian  army  (Feb.  1,  field-mar- 
shal V.  Wrangel,  prince  Frederic  Charles  ;  Austrian  general  v.  Gah- 
lenz)  into  Schleswig.  {Holstein  continued  in  possession  of  the  troops  of 
the  confederation.)     The  Austrians  advanced   upon  the  Danewerk, 


506  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

under  heavy  fighting;  the  Prussians,  after  an  unsuccessful  cannonade  at 
Missunde,  crossed  the  Schlei  at  Amis.  The  Danish  commander  De 
Meza  surrendered  the  Danewerk  Feb.  5,  6.  He  was  replaced  by  gen- 
eral Gerlach.  The  Austrians  under  Gablenz  undertook  to  clear  North 
Schleswig  of  the  Danes.  (Brilliant  engagement  of  the  Austrian  ad- 
vance at  Oversee,  Feb.  6.)  The  Prussians  under  prince  Frederic 
Charles  undertook  the  difficult  operation  against  the  entrenchments 
of  Duppel,  which  had  been  transformed  to  a  veritable  fortress. 
1864.  Skirmishes  and  preliminary  operations  until  the  arrival  of  the 
Feb.  22-March  12.     siege  artillery. 

March  15- April  18.     Actual  siege  of  the  entrenchments  of  Duppel. 
April  18.     Brilliant  storming  of  Duppel  by  the  Prussians.     Cap- 
ture of  all  the  entrenchments.     The  Danes  retreated  to  Alsen, 
evacuating  the  fortress  of  Fredericia.     A  part  of  Jutland  occu- 
pied by  the  allies,  as  a  ransom. 
May  12-June  26.    Truce,  and  meanwhile  peace   conference  at 
London. 
Prussia  and  Austria  seceded  from  the  London  Protocol.     As  no 
agreement  could  be  reached  either  in  regard  to  a  personal  union  of  the 
duchies  with  the  crown  of  Deiunark  (Beust  objecting  as  representa- 
tive of  the  confederation),  or  in  regard  to  the  division  of  Schleswig 
according  to  nationality,  the  war  broke  out  anew.     The  Prussians 
under  prince  Frederic  Charles  (who  had  received  the  chief  com- 
mand) accomplished  the 

June  28-29.    Passage  to  the  island  of  Alsen,  defeated  the  Danes 
at  all  points,  and  took  a  large  number  of  prisoners.     All  Jut- 
land occupied  by  the  allies. 

At  sea  a  Prussian  squadron  under  Jachmam  had  fought  success- 
fully at  Jasmund,  March  17,  while  an  Austro-Prussian  fleet  under 
Tegeihoff  had  won  a  victory  at  Heligoland,  and  after  the  truce  had 
captured  the  islands  oflP  Friesland.  These  misfortunes  induced  Chris- 
tian IX.  to  make  direct  applications  for  peace,  which  led  to  the 

1864,  Oct.  30.     Peace  of  Vienna. 

1.  The  king  of  Denmark  renounced  all  his  rights  to  the 
duchies  of  Schleswig,  Holstein,  and  Lauenburg  in  favor  of  the  emperor 
of  Austria  and  the  king  of  Prussia.  2.  He  agreed  to  recognize  what- 
ever disposition  the  monarchs  should  make  of  these  three  states. 

Upon  the  motion  of  the  two  great  powers,  the  execution  against 
Holstein  was  declared  by  the  confederation  to  be  completed  ;  the 
troops  of  the  confederation  (Hanoverians  and  Saxons)  evacuated  the 
country.  Prussia  and  Austria  established  a  common  government  in  the 
city  of  Schlesvng. 

While  the  question  of  the  succession  was  zealously  discussed  in  the 
diet  of  the  confederation,  in  diplomatic  negotiations,  and  in  the  press, 
and  the  cause  of  the  hereditary  prince  was  agitated  in  both  duchies, 
the  Austrian  and  Prussian  commissioners  became  involved  in  a 
wretched  conflict.  In  order  to  put  an  end  to  this,  the  final  decision 
in  regard  to  the  duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  was  postponed  and 
the 

1865.  Treaty  of  Gastein  was  concluded  between  Prussia  and  Aus- 
Aug.  14.     tria. 


A.  D.  Austro- Prussian  War.  507 

1.  Both  powers  retained  the  sovereignty  of  hoth  duchies,  in  com- 
mon ;  Austria  assuming  the  provisional  administration  of  Holstein, 
Prussia  that  of  Schleswig. 

2.  Rendsburg  to  be  a  fortress  of  the  confederation,  Kiel  a  harbor  of 
the  confederation  ;  the  use  of  this  harbor  was  to  be  in  common,  but 
Prussia  received  the  chief  command  there;  a  military  road,  a  tele- 
graph and  postal  line  tlirough  Holstein  were  guaranteed  to  Prussia. 

3.  The  emperor  of  Austria  surrendered  all  his  rights  to  the  duchy 
of  Lauenburg  to  the  king  of  Prussia  for  two  and  a  half  million  rix  dol- 
lars. 

In  execution  of  this  treaty  Prussia  occupied  the  duchy  of  Schleswig 
(governor,  v.  Manteuffel)  and  Austria  the  duchy  of  Holstein  (governor, 
V,  Gablenz).  The  duchy  of  Lauenburg,  after  the  consent  of  the  estates 
had  been  obtained,  was  joined  in  personal  union  to  the  crown  of  Prus- 
sia. 

Deep  dissatisfaction  with  this  treaty  in  the  rest  of  Germany.  Be- 
tween the  two  great  powers  new  disputes  soon  broke  out.  Austria, 
being  determined  not  to  agree,  under  any  circumstances,  to  a  real  in- 
crease of  Prussian  power,  returned  to  the  attitude  of  the  confed- 
eration upon  this  point,  and  entered  into  agreement  with  the  middle 
states  of  Germany.  Prussia,  regarding  the  decision  of  the  German 
question  by  war  as  unavoidable,  entered  into  negotiations  with  Italy. 

1866.     The  Austro-Prussian  "War.^ 

June  16-July  22.     The  war  proper  lasted  one  month  :  June  22  to 

(Aug.  23).     July  22. 

AUies  of  Prussia :  the  smaller  North  German  states  and 
Italy. 

Allies  of  Austria :  Bavaria,  WUrtemherg,  Saxony,  Hano- 
ver, Baden,  the  two  Hesses. 

Cause  of  the  war  :  the  desire  of  the  German  people  for  greater 
unity,  and  the  impossibility  of  reaching  a  re-organization  of  Germany 
with  a  strong  central  government  as  long  as  two  great  powers  con- 
fronted one  another  in  the  German  confederation,  one  having  a  pop- 
ulation largely  non-Germanic,  with  non-Germanic  interests. 

Special  cause  :  the  quarrel  about  the  future  of  the  North  Al- 
bingian  duchies.  Austria  wished  that  the  crown  prince  of  Augusten- 
burg  should  be  recognized  as  duke  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  and  join  the 
confederation  as  a  sovereign  prince.  Prussia  demanded  (note  of  Feb. 
22,  1865)  that  in  case  a  new  small  state,  Schleswig-Holstein,  was  cre- 
ated :  1.  its  whole  military/  force  should  become  an  integral  part  of 
the  Prussian  army  and  fleet,  and  its  postal  and  telegraph  systems  be 
united  with  those  of  Prussia  ;  2.  that  several  important  military  posts 
(Friedrichsort,  Sonderburg,  etc.)  should  be  given  to  Prussia,  to  enable 
her  to  undertake  the  necessary  protection  of  the  new  state  against 
Denmark. 

Reason  for  the  participation  of  Italy  in  the  war:  the  favorable  op- 
portunity of  acquiring  Venice. 

1  Der  Feldzug  von  1866  in  Deutschland  (by  the  Prussian  General  Staff) 
and  Oesterreichs  Kampf  im  Jahre  1866  (by  the  Austrian  General  Staff). 


608  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

Arming  of  the  three  powers,  each  claiming  to  be  driven  to  that 
step  by  the  preparations  of  its  opponent. 

The  chief  command  of  the  Austrian  armies  in  Bohemia  and  Mo- 
ravia (northern  army)  given  to  general  Benedek  (240,000  men), 
who  made  liis  headquarters  at  Olmiltz.  The  command  of  the  army 
m  Venice  (southern  army)  given  to  archduke  Albert. 

Prussia  placed  five  armies  in  the  field  :  — 

1.  First  army  in  Lusatia  (93,000)  under  prince  Frederic  Charles. 

2.  Second  (Silesian)  army  (115,000)  under  the  crovsrn  prince, 
Frederic  "William. 

3.  The  army  of  the  Elbe  (46,000)  in  Thuringia  under  general 
Herwarth  von  Bittenfeld. 

4.  The  reserve  army  at  Berlin  under  general  v.  Miilhe  (24,000). 

5.  The  army  of  the  Main  not  formed  until  later,  at  first  divided 
into  three  corps,  Vogel  v.  Falckenstein  at  Minden,  Manteuffel  at  Schles- 
wig,  Beyer  at  Wetzlar  (in  all  48,000  men).  Commander-in-chief  of 
all  forces,  king  "William  I.  ;  chief  of  the  great  general  staff,  gen- 
eral V.  Moltke. 

The  mediation  of  France,  England,  and  Russia,  proffered  at  Frank- 
fort, May  27,  28,  was  frustrated  by  the  demand  of  Austria  that  at 
any  peace  conference  which  might  be  held  there  should  be  no  refer- 
ence to  an  alteration  of  boundaries. 

The  convocation  of  the  Holstein  assembly  of  estates  (Jime  2)  by 
the  Austrian  governor,  v.  Gablenz,  led  to  an  open  rupture.  Prussia 
declared  that  the  treaty  of  Gastein  was  broken,  and  general  v.  Man- 
teuffel entered  Holstein  (June  7)  ;  v.  Gablenz,  under  protest,  retreated 
to  Altona  with  the  Austrian  brigade,  and  thence  to  Hanoverian  terri- 
tory. 

On  the  motion  of  Austria,  which  declared  the  peace  of  the  confed- 
eration broken  by  the  action  of  Prussia  in  Holstein, 
1866.  The  diet  decreed  the  mobilization  of  the  whole  army  of 
June  14.  the  confederation,  with  exception  of  the  three  Prussian 
corps.  Secession  of  Prussia,  and  dissolution  of  the  German 
confederation. 
June  15.  Prussia  called  upon  Saxony,  Hanover,  and  Hesse  to  disre- 
gard the  resolve  of  the  confederacy,  to  replace  their  troops 
upon  a  peace  footing,  and  join  a  new  confederation  under  the  lead  of 
Prussia.  Upon  the  rejection  of  these  demands,  the  Prussians  in- 
vaded Hanover  and  Electoral  Hesse.  King  George  retreated  to 
the  south  ;  the  elector,  Frederic  William,  was  carried  to  Stettin  a  pris- 
oner. The  Prussians  mvaded  Saxony  (Herwarth)  ;  the  Saxon  army, 
king,  and  government  retreating  to  Bohemia.  Dresden  occupied 
(June  18)  ;  all  Saxony,  excepting  Konigstein,  in  the  hands  of  the 
Prussians  (June  20). 

Prussia  resolved  upon  an  offensive  war.  The  occupation  of  Saxony 
opened  the  way  for  a  strategic  march  of  the  army  of  the  Elbe  and  the 
first  army  along  the  line  of  Bautzen-Dresden.  The  concentration  of 
the  Austrian  power  about  Olmiitz  threatened  the  province  of  Silesia, 
but  the  Austrian  army  not  being  completely  ready,  the  Prussians  de- 
termined to  forestall  the  enemy  by  an  invasion  of  Bohemia. 


A.  D.  Austro- Prussian    War.  609 


A.   Principal  Scene  of  "War  in  Bohemia. 

June  22-25.     Prussian  invasion  of  Bohemia. 

June  26,  27.     Prussian  victories  (under  prince  Frederic  Carl  and  the 
crown  prince)  at  Huhnerwasser,  Nachod  (June  27)  ;  victory  of 
the  Austrians  at  Trautenau  (June  27). 
June  28.    Prince  Frederic  Charles  at  Miinchengratz  forced  back  the 
Austrians  and  Saxons. 

Meantime  the  Silesian  army  defeated  v.  Gablentz  at  Soor  (June 
28),  and  the  crown  prince  occupied  Trautenau.  Prussian  victories  of 
Skalitz  (June  28,  heavy  losses)  and  Gitschin  (June  29).  Capture  of 
Koniginhof. 

The  engagement  at  Schweinschddel  completed  the  purposed  ap- 
proach of  the  two  Prussian  armies  to  one  another.  They  were  pur- 
posely not  united,  but  kept  asunder  in  a  manner  "  which,  being 
without  danger  strategically  considered,  secured  great  tactical  ad- 
vantages." Hitherto  the  chief  movements  of  both  armies  had  been 
directed  by  telegraph  from  Berlin. 

June  30.     Eang  William  I.  and  general  Von  Moltke,  chief  of  the 
general  staff,  left  Berlin  for  the  seat  of  war. 

On  July  2  it  was  decided  to  attack  the  Austrians  with  the  whole 
force  on  the  next  day,  they  being  stationed  behind  the  Bistritz  brook, 
with  the  fortress  of  Koniggrdtz  and  the  Elbe  in  their  rear. 
1866.   July  3.     Battle  of  Konigratz  or  Sadowa. 

The  first  Prussian  army,  united  with  that  of  the  Elbe  {king  William 
/.,  prince  Frederic  Charles^  v.  HerwartK),  had  a  severe  contest  with  the 
northern  army  of  Austria,  in  an  advantageous  position,  under  Benedek  ; 
in  the  afternoon  the  second  (Silesian  army),  under  the  crown  prince, 
gained  the  flank  and  rear  of  the  Austrians,  after  a  fatiguing  march, 
and  in  combination  with  the  first  army  secured  the  complete  vic- 
tory of  the  Prussians.  Pursuit  was  stopped  by  the  Elbe  and  by  the 
exhaustion  of  the  troops.      Retreat  of  the  Austrians  toward  Olmiitz. 

Francis  Joseph  appealed  to  the  mediation  of  France,  and  ceded 
Venetia  to  Napoleon  III.,  but  the  truce  desired  by  France  was  re- 
jected by  Prussia  and  Italy.  Two  thirds  of  the  Austrian  southern 
army  was  transferred  to  the  northern  seat  of  war. 

Occupation  of  Prague  by  the  Prussians  (July  8),  of  Brunn  (July 
12).     March  of  the  main  Prussian  army  upon  Vienna. 

Benedek  advanced  to  the  defence  of  the  capital,  but  was  cut  off 
from  the  direct  way  by  the  rapid  advance  of  prince  Frederic  Charles, 
and  forced  to  attempt  the  circuitous  route  by  way  of  the  Little  Carpa- 
thians.    A  Prussian  corps  invaded  Hungary. 

July  22.     The  engagement  of  Blumenau  was  broken  off  by  the  an- 
nouncement of  the  conclusion  of  a  truce  for  five  days,  which 
was  converted  into 
July  26.      The   truce  of  Nikolsburg,  after  the   preliminaries  of 
peace  had  been  signed  under  French  mediation  (p.  610). 

B.  Western  Seat  of  War. 

The  entire  army  of  the  confederation  was  under  the  command  of 
prince  Charles  of  Bavaria. 


510  Modern  History.  A.  d, 

1866.     Victory   of   16,000   Hanoverians   over   8,000  Prussians  and 

June  27.  troops  of  Cohurg-Gotha,  at  Langensalza  ;  the  junction  of 
the  Hanoverians  with  their  southern  allies  was,  however, 
prevented. 

June  29.     Capitulation  of  the  Hanoverians  at  Lagensalza. 

July  4-14.  Victories  of  the  Prussians  at  Dermbach  (July  4),  and  in 
five  battles  on  the  Frankish  Saale,  over  the  south  German 
troops  (Hammelhurg^  Kissingen,  Friedrichshall,  Hamen,  Wal- 
daschach)  July  10,  thus  forcing  the  passage  of  tlie  river. 

July  14.  Engagement  at  AschaflEenburg  ;  victory  over  the  united 
Hessian,  Austrian,  and  Darmstadt  troops.  Occupation  of  Frank- 
fort (July  16)  and  Darmstadt  (July  17).  Occupation  of  Wiirz^ 
burg  and  Nuremberg. 

Aug.  2.     Truce. 

C.   Seat  of  War  in  Italy. 

1866.  Battle  of  Custozza  ;  victory  of  the  Austrians  (archduke 
Jime  24.  Albert)  over  the  Italians  (king  Victor  Emmanuel).  The 
Italian  army  retreated  across  the  Mincio,  but  after  the  Aus- 
trian army  was  transferred,  m  large  part,  to  the  seat  of  war  in  the 
north,  the  Italians  again  advanced. 
July  20.  Naval  victory  of  the  Austrians  (Tegeihoff)  at  Lissa  over 

the  Italians  (Persano). 
1866.     Peace  of  Prague 
Aug.  23.     between  Prussia  and  Austria. 

1.  The  emperor  of  Austria  recognized  the  dissoluti(m  of  the 
German  confederation,  and  consented  to  a  reorganization  of  Germany 
without  Austria,  and  agreed  to  the  annexations  contemplated  by  Prussia. 
A  special  condition  secured  Saxony  (as  a  member  of  the  new  north 
German  confederation)  from  an  alteration  of  her  boundary.  2.  Aus- 
tria transferred  to  Prussia  her  rights  in  Schleswig-Holstein,  with  the 
reservation  that  the  northern  districts  of  Schleswig  should  be  reunited 
with  Denmark,  should  the  inhabitants  express  a  desire  for  such  re- 
union by  a  free  popular  vote  (rescinded,  1878).  3.  Austria  paid 
twenty  million  rix  dollars  ($15,000,000)  for  the  costs  of  the  war. 
4.  At  the  request  of  Prussia  Venice  was  ceded  to  Italy. 

Schleswig-Holstein,  Hanover,  Electoral  Hesse,  Nassau,  and 
the  free  city  of  Frankfort  were  definitively  incorporated  with  Prussia, 
so  that  by  this  successful  war  the  extent  of  the  monarchy  was  in- 
creased from  111,000  square  miles  (over  nineteen  million  inhabitants) 
to  140,000  square  miles  (twenty-tliree  and  a  half  million  inhabitants). 

Peace  between  Prussia  and  Wurtemberg  (Aug,  13),  Baden  (Aug. 
17),  Bavaria  (Aug.  22),  Hesse  (Sept.  3),  Saxony  (Oct.  21). 

The  proposed  cessions  of  territory  in  the  southern  states  were  in 
the  main  given  up,  inasmuch  as  Napoleon  III.  showed  a  desire  for  a 
rectification  of  boundaries  as  regarded  Germany  ;  conclusion  of  an 
offensive  and  defensive  alliance  between  Prussia  and  the  southern 
states.  Reciprocal  guarantee  of  territorial  integrity.  The  southern 
states  placed  their  entire  military  force  under  the  command  of  the 
king  of  Prussia  in  the  event  of  war.  The  demand  of  Napoleon  ILL 
rejected. 


A.  D.  Aastro-Prussian  War,  511 

1866.    Peace  of  Vienna 

Oct.  3.     between  Austria  and  Italy.    Austria  recognized  the  king- 
dom of  Italy,  with  which  Venice  was  united.     Prussia  hav- 
ing concluded  an  alliance  with  the  North  German  states  in  August, 

1866,  elections  for  a  North  German  diet  were  prescribed  on  a  basis  of 
manhood  and  direct  suffrage. 

1867.  First  diet  of  the  North  German  Confederation. 

Feb.  24.  After  a  short  discussion  the  diet  agreed  with  the  govern- 
ments upon  a  constitution  for  the  North  German  Confed- 
eration :  presidency  of  the  league  united  with  the  crown  of 
Prussia,  which  represented  the  confederation  in  its  international  re- 
lations, declared  war,  concluded  peace  and  treaties,  and  accredited 
ambassadors  in  its  name.  The  governments  were  represented  in  the 
council  of  the  confederation  (Bundesrath) ,  in  which  Prussia  had 
seventeen  votes,  and  the  other  twenty-one  members  twenty-six  votes 
altogether.  Imperial  diet  (Reichstag)  originating  from  direct  man- 
hood suffrage.  Centralized  military  system,  under  the  command  of  the 
king  of  Prussia.  Universal  compulsory  military  service.  United 
customs,  postal,  and  telegraph  service.  Count  Bismarck,  chancellor 
of  the  confederation. 

1867.  In  Austria  a  reorganization  of  the  state  in  a  liberal  sense 
was  undertaken,  in  consequence  of  the  unsuccessful  war.  The 
former  Saxon  minister,  von  Beust,  president  of  the  ministry,  a,fter- 
wards  (until  1871)  chancellor  of  the  empire.  Agreement  with 
Hungary.  Restoration  of  the  Hungarian  constitution.  Solemn  corona- 
tion of  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph  in  Pesth  as  king  of  Hungary. 
Reunion  of  the  dependent  lands  (Croatia,  Transylvania)  with  Hun- 
gary. Establishment  of  a  liberal  constitution  in  that  part  of  the 
monarchy  tliis  side  of  the  Leith  (Cisleithania) .  (The  constitution  of 
1861,  p.  504,  was  suspended  in  1865.)     Germano-Slavonic  Reichstag. 

1867.     Luxemburg  question. 

Napoleon  III.  wished  to  secretly  indemnify  the  French  nation 
for  the  increased  power  of  Prussia  by  a  new  annexation.     His  nego- 
tiations with  the  king  of  Holland  in  regard  to  the  purchase  of  the 
grand  duchy  of  Luxemburg  were  broken  off  in  consequence  of  the 
objection  of  Prussia,  whereupon  Napoleon  III.  demanded  that  the 
Prussian  garrison  of  Luxemburg  should  evacuate  the  fortress.     Un- 
der the  excitement  which  the  dispute  aroused  in  Germany  and  France, 
the  outbreak  of  war  seemed  unavoidable,  when  the 
1867.     London  Conference  (Italy  recognized  as  the  sixth  great 
May  7-11.     power)   succeeded  in  establishing  the  following  agree- 
ments :  1.  The  neutrality  of  the  grand  duchy  was  guaranteed 
by  the  great  powers  in  common.     2.  The  Prussian  garrison 
evacuated  Luxemburg,  and  the  fortifications  were  razed. 
1867.     Italian  volunteers,  with  the  tacit  favor  of  the  Italian  govern- 
Sept.-Nov.     ment,  made  an  attack  upon  the  papal  territory.     Napo- 
leon III.  declared  the  former  treaty  (p.  503)  broken,  and  sent 
assistance  to  the  Pope.     The  free  troops  were  defeated  at  Mentana. 
Rome  received  a  new  French  garrison. 


612  Modem  History.  A.  IX 

1868,  April.     First  customs  parliament  in  Germany. 

1868.  Outbreak  of  the  Spanish  Revolution  in  Cadiz.  The  royal- 
Sept,     ist  troops  under  Novaliches  were  defeated  by  the  insurgent 

troops  under  Serrano  at  Alcolea.  Queen  Isabella  fled  to  France; 
the  whole  country  declared  in  favor  of  the  revolution.  Provisional 
government.  The  Bourbons  deposed  from  the  throne.  Summons  of 
a  constitutional  cortes.  The  majority  of  the  cortes  established,  in 
spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  numerous  republican  members,  a  new 
constitutional  monarchy.  Serrano  provisional  regent.  After  many 
negotiations  with  foreign  princes,  conducted  by  Prim  (murdered 
1870),  without  result,  the  prince  of  Hohenzollern  (1870,  p.  513)  ac- 
cepted the  Spanish  crown.  After  his  withdrawal,  during  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war,  the  duke  of  Aosta,  the  second  son  of  Victor  Emmanuel, 
king  of  Italy,  was  elected  by  the  cortes,  and  ascended  the  throne  as 
1870-1873.     Amadeus  I.,  king  of  Spain. 

1869.  In  France  general  election  for  the  corps  le'gislatif;  for  the  first 
time  during  the  second  empire,  strong  manifestation  of  party 

spirit,  and  a  large  number  of  votes  cast.  The  departments,  espe- 
cially the  country  population,  gave  the  government  a  good  majority, 
though  weaker  than  formerly.  In  Paris  and  Lyons  victory  of  the 
ultra  radical  party,  and  election  of  candidates  opposed  to  the  govern- 
ment and  the  dynasty. 

1869,  Nov.  16.  Formal  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  which 
was  completed  by  the  indomitable  perseverance  of  its  projec- 
tor, the  Frenchman,  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps. 

1869,  Dec.  8.     Opening  of  the  Vatican  Council.     Proclamation  of 

the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility  July  18,  1870,  by  a  vote  of 
547  to  2.  Adjournment  of  the  council,  Oct.  20,  1870. 
Vacillating  and  indecisive  conduct  of  the  emperor  Napoleon  III. 
in  face  of  the  daily  increasing  dissatisfaction  in  the  country  with  the 
arbitrary  character  of  the  government,  which  was  no  longer  offset  by 
any  brilliant  achievements  outside.  Dismissal  of  the  "  vice  emperor  " 
Rouher  (July).  Formation  of  a  new  cabinet,  composed  of  similar  re- 
actionary elements  ;  then,  as  the  different  factions  of  the  opposition 
( Thiers,  Ollivier,  Favre,  Gambetta,  Rochefort}  grew  more  bold,  forma- 
tion of  the 

1870,  Jan.     Ministry  of  Ollivier  from  the  ranks  of  the  moderate 

liberals.  Dismissal  of  the  prefect  of  the  Seine,  Hausmann. 
The  death  of  a  radical  journalist  at  the  hands  of  Pierre  Bonaparte,  a 
cousin  of  the  emperor  (self-defence  or  murder  ?),  produced  an  ex- 
traordinary excitement  in  Paris.  Riots.  Condemnation  and  imprison- 
ment of  Rochefort,  in  consequence  of  his  incendiary  newspaper  arti- 
cles. New  riots.  Arrest  of  many  radicals.  Prince  Pierre  Bo7iaparte 
declared  not  guilty  by  the  court  in  Tours. 
April.     A  new  liberal  constitution,  introduced  by  the  government, 

was  accepted  by  a  decree  of  the  senate,  whereupon  a  vote  of 
confidence  was  demanded  from  the  people  by  a  '^plebiscite  "  (May), 
which  resulted,  thanks  to  the  application  of  well-known  methods,  in  a 
majority  of  more  than  seven  million  yeas  to  one  and  a  half  million 
nays,  the  latter  being  cast  in  Paris  auu   the  larger  cities.  '  In  the 


A.  D.  Franco- German    War.  513 

army  and  the  fleet  more  than  50,000  voted  "  no."  In  view  of  this 
grave  dissatisfaction  in  the  army,  and  of  the  constant  agitation  of  the 
parties,  which  were  in  no  wise  quieted  by  the  liberal  concessions  whicn 
had  been  made,  a  diversion,  to  be  induced  by  involving  the  country  in 
foreign  disputes,  such  as  had  often  been  tried  in  France,  seemed  to 
be  the  best  means  of  extrication.  To  the  adoption  of  this  means  the 
emperor,  who  was  anxious  for  the  future  of  his  dynasty,  was  more 
and  more  strongly  urged  by  his  intimate  councillors  (the  empress^ 
marshal  Lehoeufy  duke  of  Gramont,  minister  of  foreign  affairs). 

1870,  July  19-1871,  March  3.     Franco-Prussian  War.^ 

General  Causes  :  1.  The  idea  entertained  by  a  great  part  of  the 
French  nation,  and  kept  alive  by  historians,  poets,  and  the  daily 
press,  of  the  reconquest  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  (les  frontieres 
naturelles  2).  2.  The  French,  not  understanding  the  long  struggle 
of  the  German  nation  for  political  unity,  saw  in  the  consummation 
of  this  union  only  a  forcible  aggrandizement  of  Prussia,  and  in  the 
victory  of  the  latter  state  over  Austria  an  unpermissible  encroach- 
ment upon  their  own  military  fame. 

Special  causes  :  1.  The  internal  troubles  of  the  government  of 
Napoleon  III.  (p.  512).  2»  The  rejection  of  the  "  compensation  "  de- 
manded, since  1866,  from  the  cabinet  of  Berlin,  for  the  growth  of 
Prussia  in  extent  and  population.  3.  News  of  the  approaching  in- 
troduction of  an  improved  weapon  for  the  north  German  infantry, 
which  threatened  to  put  in  question  the  superiority  of  the  French 
chassspot. 

Immediate  cause :  The  election  of  the  prince  of  Hohenzollem  to 
the  throne  of  Spain  (512),  which  was  represented  in  Paris  as  a  Prus- 
sian intrigue  endangering  the  safety  of  France.  The  request  made 
by  the  French  ambassador  Benedetti  in  Ems  of  kmg  William  I.  in 
person,  that  he  should  forbid  the  prince  of  HohenzoUern  to  accept  the 
(Spanish  crown,  was  refused.  After  the  voluntary  withdrawal  of  the 
prince,  the  French  government  looked  to  the  king  of  Prussia  for  a 
distinct  announcement  "  that  he  would  never  again  permit  the  candi- 
dacy of  the  prince  for  the  Spanish  crown."  King  William  refused  to 
discuss  the  matter,  and  referred  Benedetti  to  the  regular  method  of 
communication  through  the  ministry  at  Berlin.  This  and  the  tele- 
graphic announcement  of  the  proceeding  was  represented  by  the  duke 
of  Gramont  as  an  insult  to  France.  Tremendous  excitement  in  Paris, 
artificially  fermented  (cries  of  "a  Berlin  !  ").  In  the  corps  legislatif 
(July  15),  opposition  of  a  small  minority  (Thiers:  "because  France 
is  not  prepared  for  war  ")  to  the  declaration  of  war,  which  the  imperial 
government  declared  was  forced  upon  them  by  Prussia  ("  La  France 
accepte  la  guerre  que  la  Prusse  lui  offre  "). 

1  Der  deutsch-franz.  Krieg  1870-71,  edited  by  the  division  of  the  Prus^ 
sian  General  Staff  on  military  history.  Niemann,  Derfranz.  Feldzug  von 
1870-71,  2  vols.  An  English  rendering  of  the  French  view  of  the  war  will  be 
found  in  Jerrold's  Life  of  Napoleon  III.,  vol.  iv. 

2  The  tirst  use  of  this  idea,  which  can  be  established,  was  by  king  Charles 
VII..  1444.  f 


514  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

In  Germany  quiet  but  decided  attitude  of  the  government  and  the 
people.      William  I.  on  his  return  to  Berlin  enthusiastically  received 
(July  15).     The  same  evening  mobilization  of  the  north  German 
army  and  convention  of  the  Reichstag  ordered. 
July  19.     Delivery  of  the  French  declaration  of  war. 

Opening  of  the  north  German  Reichstag,  which  unanimously 
voted  a  war  credit  (July  23). 

South  Germany  understood  that  the  French  attack,  although  ap- 
parently directed  against  Prussia  alone,  was  in  reality  an  attack  upon 
the  German  nation,  and  that  Napoleon's  purpose  was  the  conquest  of 
German  territory  and  the  estabhshment  of  a  new  confederation  of 
the  Rhine.  The  patriotic  attitude  of  Louis  II.  of  Bavaria,  who  on 
July  16  had  declared  that  the  case  of  war  contemplated  in  the  con- 
federation was  at  hand,  and  had  ordered  the  mobilization  of  the  Ba- 
varian army,  had  a  decisive  influence  upon  Wiirtemberg.  Patriotic 
attitude  of  Baden. 

The  French  cabinet,  which  had  counted  on  the  neutrality  of  south 
Germany,  at  the  least,  undeceived.  Hence  a  new  military  plan.  The 
grand  army  was  to  be  divided  into  three  groups,  the  two  former 
(250,000)  of  which  were  to  force  neutrality  upon  the  south  Germans, 
and  hasten  the  hoped-for  alliance  with  Austria  and  Italy.  This  should 
be  followed  by  an  attack  upon  the  north  German  army,  while  expedi- 
tions to  the  coasts  of  the  German  ocean  should  instigate  an  uprising 
in  Hanover  and  secure  the  assistance  of  Denmark.  In  reality  the 
strategic  advance  of  the  French  army  took  place  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Corps  under  marshal  MacMahon,  at  Strasburg. 

2.  Corps  under  general  De  Failly  at  Bitsch. 

3.  Corps  under  Marshal  Bazaine  at  Metz. 

4.  Corps  under  general  Ladmirault  at  Thionville  (Diedenhofen'). 
The  corps  of  marshal  Canrobert  at  Chalons,  of  general  F.  Douay 

at  Belfort,  and  the  Garde  under  general  Bourbaki  at  Nancy  formed 
the  reserve  (320,000).  Commander-in-chief,  Napoleon  III. ;  chief 
of  the  general  staff,  marshal  Leboeuf. 

It  appearing  that  most  of  the  corps  were  not  in  readiness  for  war 
the  plan  of  attack  was  exchanged  for  a  defensive  plan. 

The  German  forces  moved  in  three  great  armies. 

I.  Army,  right  wing,  Steinmetz  at  Coblentz  (60,000). 

II.  Army,  centre,  prince  Frederic  Charles,  Mainz  (134,000, 
with  the  reserve  194,000). 

in.  Army,  left  wing,  crown  prince  Frederic  William  at  Mann- 
heim (130,000). 

The  total  strength  of  the  north  German  army  750,000  (of  which 
198,000  were  Landwehr) ;  of  the  south  German  100,000.  Commander- 
in-chief,  king  William  I. ;  chief  of  the  general  staff,  general  Von 
Moltke. 

The  strategic  movement  of  the  German  armies  was  at  first  planned 
for  defense  simply,  but  as  the  enemy's  delay  gave  a  chance  for  an 
attack  an  advance  of  all  three  armies  towards  the  boundary,  from 
Trier  to  Landau,  began  in  the  latter  part  of  July.  Before  the  Ger- 
mans could  take  the  off^sive  the  French  made  an 


A.  D. 


Franco-German   War. 


515 


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i|- 


616  Modern  History.  a.  p. 

1870.     Attack  upon  Saarbriicken.     The  repulse  of  a  single  bat- 
Aug.  2.     talion  by  three  divisions  was  represented  in  the  French  re- 
ports as  an  important  victory. 
Aug.  4.     Engagement  at  Weissenburg.     MacMahon  after  a  most 

courageous  defense  defeated  in  the 
Aug.  6.     Battle  of  Worth  (Reichshofen)  by  the  army  of  the  croum 

prince,  which  was  numerically  greatly  his  superior. 
Aug.  6.     German  victory  at  Spicheren  (Saarbriicken). 

In  consequence  of  these  defeats  the  French  army  commenced 
its  retreat  to  the  Moselle.  The  crown  prince  detached  a  corps  to 
besiege  Strashury  and  other  Alsatian  fortresses,  and  advanced  upon 
Nancy  ;  the  I.  army  marched  upon  Metz  •  the  II.  army  upon  Pont  a 
Mousson,  with  the  intention  of  surrounding  the  main  force  of  the 
French  about  Metz  and  cutting  them  ofP  from  Paris. 

To  prevent  this  Bazaine,  upon  whom  the  emperor  had  conferred 
the  chief  command,  resolved,  after  some  indecision,  to  retreat  upon 
Chdlons-sur-Marne  and  join  there  the  remnants  of  MacMahon's  com- 
mand and  a  newly  formed  army.     To  prevent  such  juncture  the  ad- 
vance guard  of  the  I.  army  attacked  Bazaine  and  in  the 
Aug.  14.     Battle  of  Colombey-Nouilly  and  the 
Aug.  16.     Battle  of  Vionville   (drawn  battle),  with  great  losses, 
prevented  the  retreat  of  the  French  to  Verdun. 
Upon  the  arrival  of  the  delayed  corps  of  the  I.  and  II.  army  on  the 
next  day,  the  French  were  again  attacked  in  their  excellently  chosen 
and  partially  strongly  fortified  positions.     In  the 

Aug.  18.     Battle  of  Gravelotte  and  St.  Privat  {Rezon- 
ville)  the  Germans  under  command  of  king  William  I.  gained 

an  advantageous  position  after  eight  hours'  hot  fighting,  in  spite  of  the 

desperate  resistance  of  the  French. 

Aug.  19.     Retreat  of  the  French  under  the  guns  of  Metz. 

The  result  of  these  three  bloody  battles  near  Metz  was  to 

separate  the  French  force  into  two  parts,  and  to  surround  their  main 

army  in  and  about  a  fortress  which  was  not  provisioned  for  so  large 

a  body  of  troops. 

1870,  Aug.  19-Oct.  27.     Siege  of  Metz. 

Aug.   14:-Sept.  27.     Siege  of  Strasburg  by  general 
Von  Werder. 

After  the  battles  near  Metz,  advance  upon  Chalons.  MacMahon 
evacuated  Chalons,  but  instead  of  retreating  to  Paris,  as  was  expected 
at  the  German  headquarters,  he  attempted  to  reach  Metz  and  liberate 
Bazaine  by  a  circuitous  flank  march  to  the  northeast.  Napoleon  III. 
accompanied  the  army.  On  learning  of  this  manceuvre  the  Germans 
made  a  detour  toward  the  right  (north). 

Bazaine's  attempt  to  break  through  the  German  lines  and  join  Mac- 
Mahon frustrated  by  the 
Aug.  31  and  Sept.  1.     Engagements  at  Noisseville. 

MacMahon  saw  the  impossibility  of  reaching  Metz,  and  con- 
centrated his  forces  at  Sedan.  The  Germans  (240,000)  far  outnum- 
bering the  French   (about  100,000)  decided  to  send  a  part  of  their 


A.  D.  Franco- German    War,  517 

troops  over  the  Meuse  and  surround  the  French  army.    This  was 
accomplished  by  the 

Sept.  1.    Battle  of  Sedan. 

MacMahon,  wounded  in  the  morning,  gave  up  the  command  to 
Ducrot,  who  afterwards  transferred  it  to  the  older  general  Wimpffen. 
The  victorious  advance  of  the  Germans  on  all  sides  was  not  checked 
by  the  brilliant  charges  of  the  French  cavalry.  At  three  o'clock  the 
French  army  was  surrounded.  Napoleon  IH.  delivered  his  sword 
to  William  I.  and  acknowledged  himself  a  prisoner.  Negotiations 
between  Vvn  Moltke  and  Wimpffen,  and  between  Napoleon  III.  and 
Bismarck.  The  following  forenoon  the 
1870»  Sept.  2.    Capitulation  of  Sedan 

was  signed. 

The  entire  French  army  prisoners  of  war  :  39  generals,  2,300  offi- 
cers, 83,000  men,  20,000  having  been  captured  during  the  battle 
(3,000  escaped  to  Belgium).  Napoleon  III.  conducted  to  Wilhelms- 
hbhe. 

In  Paris  the  news  of  the  first  defeats,  which  had  been  long  con- 
cealed, produced  great  excitement  and  the  fall  of  the  ministry  of 
Ollivier  (Aug.  10).  Montauban-Palikao,  the  minister  of  war,  formed 
a  new  ministry  composed  of  ultra-Bonapartists.  Falsification  of  war 
news.  Paris  in  a  state  of  siege.  The  receipt  of  the  news  of  the  ca- 
pitulation of  Sedan  caused  the 

1870.     Fall  of  the  Empire  and  Proclamation  of  the 
Sept.  4.     (third)  Republic. 

Flight  of  the  empress  Eugenie  to  England.  Provisional  gov- 
ernment of  the  "  National  defense."  Trochu  (president  and  gover- 
nor of  Paris),  Favre  (foreign  affairs),  Gambetta  (interior),  Cre'mieux 
(justice),  Simon  (religion  and  education),  Lejio  (war),  Fourichon 
(navy), 
Sept.  4-16.     March  of  the  German  armies  upon  Paris, 

Defenses  of  Paris  :  continuous  line  of  bastions  and  trenches,  sur- 
rounding the  suburbs  ;  aroimd  this  on  the  inside  a  belt  railroad  ;  six- 
teen detached  forts,  two  of  which,  Mont  Valerien  in  the  west  and  St. 
Denis  in  the  north,  were  actual  fortresses,  all  connected  by  continu- 
ous entrenchments  and  liberally  provided  with  heavy  artillery  and 
military  stores.  Including  the  sailors  and  garrison,  about  72,000 
veterans  ;  with  the  mobilized  guards  from  the  provinces,  the  guard 
mobile  and  national  guard  of  Paris,  over  300,000  men.  Extensive 
accumulation  of  provisions. 

The  negotiations  between  Bismarck  and  Favre  leading  to  no  result 
(refusal  of  any  cession  of  territory),  the  great  city  was  invested  by 
the  IV,  ^  army  on  the  north  and  east,  by  the  III.  army  on  the  S.  and 
W.     Headquarters  at  Versailles. 

1870,  Sept.  19-187L  Jan.  28.     Siege  of  Paris. 

After  the  capitulation  of  Sedan  the  whole  war  was  a  struggle 
for  Paris.     Excepting  the  conquest  of  Alsace  and  German  Lorraine, 

*  The  IV.  army  was  formed,  after  Gravelotte,  from  corps  of  the  I.  and  !!• 


618  Modern  History,  A.  d. 

which  Germany  had  regarded  as  the  prize  of  victory,  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  war,  all  the  military  operations  of  the  Germans  had 
the  object  of  preserving  the  positions  and  the  lines  of  connection  of 
the  armies  about  Paris,  and  of  preventing  any  attempt  to  raise  the 
siege  ;  the  raising  of  the  siege  was,  on  the  contrary,  the  object  of  all 
the  French  operations. 

1870.  In  consequence  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  garrison 
Sept.  20.     from  Rome,  capture  of  that  city  by  the  Italian  army 

and  abolition  of  the  secular  power  of  the  Pope. 
Sept.  23.     Capture  of  Toul. 
Sept.  27.     Capitulation  of  Strasburg. 

The  delegation  of  the  French  government  in  Tours,  since  Oct. 
9,  under  the  dictatorship  of  Gambetta,  who  had  left  Paris  in  a  bal- 
loon, formed  two  armies  for  the  relief  of  Paris  :  a.  army  of  the  Loire 
(not  30,000) ;  h.  northern  army.  The  former  defeated  by  the  Ba- 
varian general  Von  der  Tann  in  the 
1870,  Oct.  10.     Engagement  at  Artenay.    Occupation  of  Orleans. 

While  Gambetta  with  the  greatest  energy  was  strengthening  and 
arming  forces  for  relief,  Bazaine,  who,  as  leader  of  the  largest  regu- 
lar army  in  France,  had  thought  to  play  a  political  role,  by  means 
of  negotiations,  was  forced,  after  several  unsuccessful  sorties,  to  the 

1870,  Oct.  27.     Capitulation  of  Metz. 

(3  marshals,  6,000  officers,  187,000  men,  622  field  artillery, 
876  fortress  cannon).  A  part  of  the  besieging  army  was  sent 
to  reinforce  the  armies  before  Paris  ;  a  part  was  dispatched 
under  Manteuffel  against  the  French  army  of  the  north  ;  the 
largest  part,  under  prince  Frederic  Charles,  was  sent  against 
the  army  of  the  Loire. 

Nov.  28.  Defeat  of  the  army  of  the  Loire  at  Beaune  la  Rolande 
(by  prince  Frederic  Charles),  whereby  the  purpose  of  the 
French  commander  to  force  his  passage  to  Paris  was  frus- 
trated. 

Nov.  27.  Defeat  of  the  army  of  the  north  at  Amiens  by  Man^ 
teuffel. 

Nov.  30.  At  Paris,  sortie  under  Trochu  and  Ducrot,  in  coopera- 
tion with  the  intended  advance  of  the  Loire  army.  Storm  and 
capture  of  Champigny  and  Brie.  Successful  defense  of  Vil- 
liers  and  Cceuily  by  Wiirtemberg  troops.  Further  French  ad- 
vance was  checked,  but  they  kept  Brie.  After  great  losses  in 
the  fight  and  through  cold  the  French  troops  returned  to 
Paris  (Dec.  3). 

Dec.  2-4.    Battle  of  Orleans, 

the  name  given  to  a  number  of  engagements  in  which  the 
Germans  defeated  the  army  of  the  Loire,  with  the  following 
results  :  1.  Capture  of  the  strong  French  entrenchments  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Loire,  and  re-occupation  of  Orleans.  2.  Sep- 
aration of  the  army  of  the  Loire  into  two  parts.  Flight  of  the 
delegation  of  the  government  to  Bordeaux  (Dec.  9). 
The  larger  part  of  the  Loire  army  driven  behind  Vendome  ,* 
Frederic  Charles,  at  Orleans,  covered  the  besieging  armies  be- 
fore Paris  from  the  south. 


A.  D.  Franco- German   War.  519 

Dec.  27.     Opening  of  the  bombaxdment  of  the  forts  of  Paris,  after 
the  transportation  of  heavy  artillery  and  munitions  had  been 
accomplished  with  the  greatest  difficulty.     Bombardment  of 
the  city,  Jan.  8,  1871. 
1871,  Jan.  12.     Battle  of  Le  Mans. 

Defeat  of  Chanzy  by  Frederic  Charles.      The  French  army  al- 
most annihilated. 
Jan.  6-12.     Sortie  from  Paris  against  Meudon  and  Clamart,  and  one 
against  Le  Bourget  repulsed. 
In  the  south,  Bourhaki  with  150,000  men  forced  von  Werder,  who 
was  besieging  Belf ort,  without  giving  up  the  siege,  to  take  up  a  favor- 
able position  along  the  Lisaine  by  a  masterly  retreat.     In  the  three 
days 
Jan.  15-17.    Battle  of  Belfort, 

Von  Werder  successfully  defended  his  position,  and  forced 
Bourhaki  to  retreat. 

Jan.  18.  Renewal  of  the  title  and  oflace  of  German 
Emperor  in  the  palace  of  Louis  XIV.  at  Versailles,  all  the 
sovereign  princes  and  the  three  free  cities  having  offered  the 
crown  to  king  William  I. 

Jan.  19.  Last  great  sortie  from  Paris,  with  100,000  men,  under 
Trochu,  repulsed  after  severe  fighting.     On  the  same  day, 

Jan.  19.     Battle  of  St.  Quentin, 

in  which  general  Von  Goben  completely  defeated  and  scattered 
the  French  army  of  the  north.  In  the  south  Manteuffel  forced 
the  French  to  take  refuge  in  the  neutral  territory  of  Switzer- 
land, where  they  were  disarmed. 

1871,  Jan.  28.     Capitulation  of  Paris  by  the 

convention  of  Versailles  :  1.  surrender  of  all  the  forts 
with  munitions  of  war,  disarmament  of  the  city  wall ;  2.  all  French 
soldiers  in  Paris  considered  as  prisoners  of  war,  with  exception  of 
12,000  men,  which,  with  the  national  guard,  preserved  order ;  the 
French  officials  to  provision  the  city  ;  3.  the  city  of  Paris  paid  200 
million  francs  ;  4.  truce  (excepting  the  departments  of  Doubs,  Jura, 
and  Cote  d'or)  for  three  weeks,  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  a  free  elec- 
tion for  a  national  assembly,  which  was  to  meet  in  Bordeaux,  and  de- 
cide between  peace  and  war. 

Gambetta's  resistance  to  this  agreement  was  soon  broken  ;  his 
resignation  (Feb.  6).  Elections  throughout  France  (Feb.  8).  The 
national  assembly  formed  in  Bordeaux  (Feb.  12).  Truce  prolonged 
to  24th  Feb.,  and  afterwards  to  March  3.  Thiers,  elected  head  of 
the  executive  department,  conducted  the  negotiations  with  Bismarck 
which  resulted  in  the 

Feb.  26.     Preliminaries  of  peace  at  Versailles. 

1.  France  ceded  to  the  German  Empire  :  Alsace  (except 
Belfort  and  territory)  and  German  Lorraine,  with  Metz  and  Die- 
denhofen  {TMonville),  in  all  4,700  square  miles,  with  one  and  a  half 
million  inhabitants  ;  2.  France  agreed  to  pay  five  milliards  of  francs 
for  indemnification  in  three  years,  which  were  secured  by  an  occupa- 
tion of  French  territory. 


520  Modem  History >  .A.  d. 

March  1.  Entrance  of  30,000  German  troops  into  Paris  (addi- 
tional article),  and  temporary  occupation  of  a  small  part  of  the  city  ; 
evacuated  again  on  March  3d.  The  preliminaries  of  peace  were  rati- 
fied, and  the  details  settled  in  the  definitive 

1871,  May  lO.     Peace  of  Frankfort  on  Main. 

The  results  of  the  war  were  :  1.  destruction  of  the  military 
power  of  France  ;  2.  acquisition  of  a  secure  military  boundary  for 
Germany  on  the  west  ;  3.  the  realization  of  the  political  unity  of  the 
German  nation. 

March  21-June  16.     First  imperial  Parliament 

of  the  new  German  federal  state  {Bundestaat),  which  on  April 
14  almost  unanimously  adopted  the  following  constitution  for  the  em- 
pire :  presidency  hereditarily  connected  with  the  crown  of  Prussia, 
whose  king  bore  the  title  of  German  emperor,  and  represented  the 
empire  in  international  relations,  declared  war  and  peace  (with  the 
consent  of  the  BundesratK),  concluded  alliances,  and  had  the  chief 
command  of  the  army  and  navy.  The  representatives  of  the  25  gov- 
ernments formed  the  federal  council  (Bundesrath)  under  the  pres- 
idency of  the  chancellor  of  the  empire  (the  first :  prince  Bis- 
marck). (In  all,  58  votes  :  Prussia  17,  Bavaria  6,  Saxony  and  Wiir- 
temberg  each  4,  Baden  and  Hesse  each  3,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  and 
Brunswick  each  2,  the  rest  each  1.)  The  representatives  of  the  people 
formed  the  imperial  parliament  {Reichstag)^  consisting  of  382  mem- 
bers, chosen  by  direct  manhood  suffrage.  Centralized  military  sys- 
tem ;  universal  compulsory  service  (3  years  in  standing  army,  4  years 
in  reserve,  5  years  in  the  Landwekr)y  uniform  postal  and  telegraph 
service,  uniform  system  of  coinage,  weights  and  measures. 

The  new  German  empire  comprised  216,770  sq.  miles,  and  more 
than  41,000,000  inhabitants. 

1871,  July  1.      Rome  became  seat  of  the  government  and  capital  of 

Italy,  now  completely  united  under  the  sceptre  of  Victor  Em- 
manuel (guarantee  for  the  Pope). 
Sept.     Opening  of  the  Mt.   Cenis  timnel  across  the  Alps  (begun 
1859  ;  7.6  miles  long). 

1872,  June   29.     New  agreement  between  Germany  and  Prance, 
which  fixed  the  payment  of  the  fourth  milliard  for  March  1, 

1874  ;  the  fifth,  March  1,  1875  ;  and  permitted  the  substitution  of  a 
financial  security  for  this  last  milliard,  for  the  occupation  of  French 
territory. 

1873,  Jan.  9.     Death  of  Napdeon  III.  in  Chiselhurst  (England). 
Feb.     Amadeus  I.  resigned   the  Spanish   crown.     Spain  a  republic. 

Anarchy.  Civil  war  against  the  Federalists  in  Cartagena  (cap- 
tured 1874),  and  against  Don  Carlos  in  the  north. 
July-Sept.     The  German  troops,  after  an  anticipation  of  the  indem- 
nity, leave  the  French  territory. 
In  Italy^  in  Smtzerland,  and  in  Prussia,  struggle  between  the  state 
and  the  Roman  catholic  hierarchy.     In  Italy,  dissolution  of  all  mon- 
asteries in  Rome  and  the  former  papal  states  (May,  1873).   In  Swit- 
zerland, complete  rupture  with  the  Roman  chair  and  establishment 


A.  D.  Franco- German    War.  52 1 

of  a  catholic  clergy  elected  by  the  people.  In  Prussia,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  May  laws  (afterwards  extended),  which  the  catholic 
clergy  openly  resisted,  numerous  arrests  and  removals  of  ecclesias- 
tics.    This  contest  led  to  the 

1874.  Introduction  of  compulsory  civil  marriage  and  the  civil 
Oct.  1.     registration  of  births  and  deaths,  which  afterwards  became 

an  imperial  law  (Jan,  1,  1876). 
Oct.     International  Postal  Congress  in  Bern. 

The  regulations  agreed  upon  went  into  force  July  1,  1875 

(for  France,  Jan.  1,  1876). 
Dec.  29-31.     Military  " pronunciamientos  "  for  Alfonso,  prince  of  As- 

turia,  son  of  queen  Isabella,  led  to  the 

1875,  Jan.     Restoration  of  monarchy  in  Spain. 
1875-1885.     Alfonso  XII.,  king  of  Spain.     In  the  north,  in  spite 

of  some  successes  of  the  royal  troops,  the  civil  war  continued 
against  Don  Carlos,  whom  the  new  king  declared  to  be  an 
usurper. 

1875.  Revolt  against  Turkish  government  in  Herzegovina,  sup- 
July,     ported  by  Montenegro  and  Servia. 

March.  End  of  the  civil  war  in  Spain.  Don  Carlos  was  obliged  to 
leave  the  country,  and  went  to  England. 

May.  The  Turks  proved  unable  to  suppress  the  revolt  in  Herzego- 
vina. Murder  of  the  German  and  French  consuls  in  Salonica. 
The  three  northern  great  powers  invited  the  other  three  to 
join  in  making  a  common  representation  to  the  Porte  (memo- 
randum of  Berlin).  Great  Britain  refused  to  join.  Before  the 
memorandum  could  be  presented  a 

May  29.  Palace  Revolution  occurred  in  Constantinople.  Deposi- 
tion of  the  Sultan  Abdul- Aziz,  who  died  shortly  afterwards. 
Murad  V.  succeeded. 

1876,  July.  Servia  (prince  Milan)  and  Montenegro  (prince 
Nikita)  declared  war  upon  the  Porte. 

A  revolt  which  had  broken  out  in  Bulgaria  bloodily  suppressed  by 
the  Turks.  The  Turkish  troops  and  the  Turkish  militia  exercised 
shameful  cruelties,  which  produced  the  greatest  indignation  through- 
out Europe,  particularly  in  Russia,  thereby  giving  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment a  welcome  excuse  to  proclaim  itself  the  protector  of  the 
oppressed  Christians,  and  especially  of  the  Slavonic  population  in 
Turkey.     Military  preparations  in  Russia. 

Meanwhile  the  war  was  waged  unsuccessfully  by  Servia,  in  spite  oi 
the  open  Russian  assistance,  and  the  presence  of  Russian  volunteers 
in  the  Servian  army,  which  obtained  a  Russian  commander  m  Tsher- 
najeff,  while  the  Montenegrins  were  several  times  victorious. 
1876.  New,  bloodless  palace  revolution  in  Constantinople.  Murad 
Aug.  v.,  who  suffered  from  an  incurable  mental  disorder,  deposed. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Abdul  Hamid  II.  Tlie 
Turkish  army  crossed  the  Servian  frontier,  and  was  prevented  from 
marching  further  only  by  an  ultimatum  of  the  Russian  government. 
The  Porte  agreed  to  a  truce  for  two  months  at  first,  and  afterward 
for  six  months. 

Russia  being  unable  to  induce  any  other  power  to  join  her  in  an 


522  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

armed  interference  with  Turkey,  and  feeing  herself  unprepared  for 
war  and  hindered  by  the  winter  season,  diplomatic  negotiations  were 
prolonged.  Finally  a  conference  of  ambassadors  of  all  the  great 
powers  was  arranged  to  meet  in  Constantinople. 

Dec.  24.  Meeting  of  the  conference.  Promulgation  of  a  constitu- 
tion for  the  whole  Ottoman  empire,  which  gave  the  Christians 
equal  rights  with  Muhammedans  and  which  the  Porte  hoped  would 
make  unnecessary  any  special  provisions  in  favor  of  his  Christian  sub- 
jects, to  be  guaranteed  by  the  powers. 

1877.  The  guarantees  which  were  still  demanded  by  the  conference 
in  spite  of  the  Turkish  constitution,  but  which  had  been  grad- 
ually reduced  in  extent,  were  rejected  by  the  Porte,  after  consulta- 
tion with  an  imperial  councU  summoned  for  the  occasion.  The  am- 
bassadors of  all  the  great  powers  left  Constantinople. 

Peace  concluded  between  the  Porte  and  Servia  on  the  basis  of  the 
status  quo  ante  helium.     Montenegro  continued  in  arms. 

After  further  negotiations  with  the  European  powers,  which  had  no 
result,  and  after  completion  of  its  preparations,  the  Russian  govern- 
ment concluded  to  take  up  arms  alone  against  Turkey,  making  a 
formal  declaration  that  it   had  no  conquests  in  view. 

1877>  April-1878,  March.     Turco-Russian  War. 

A.  Seat  of  war  in  Europe  :  A  Russian  army  under  the 
grand  duke  Nicholas  crossed  the  Pruth,  an  understanding  with  Roume- 
lia  having  been  previously  reached,  and  advanced  to  the  Danube, 
which  was  first  crossed  June  22  by  a  corps  under  Zimmermann,  which 
occupied  the  Dobrudsha  ;  the  main  army,  which  Alexander  II.  had 
meanwhile  joined,  forced  the 
1877.     Passage  of  the  Danube  at  Shistova. 

June  27.  A  flying  corps  under  Gurko  crossed  the  Balkan  by  an  im- 
guarded  pass,  and  drove  the  Turkish  garrison  from  the  impor- 
tant Shipka  Pass,  by  an  attack  from  the  south  (July  17-19),  while 
one  division  of  the  main  army,  under  the  crown  prince,  fronted  east 
and  by  hard  fighting,  prolonged  for  months  about  the  rivers  Jantra 
and  Lorn,  held  in  check  the  Turkish  army  unAev  Ahdul  Kerim  (after- 
wards under  Mehemed  Ali,  and  finally  under  Suleiman). 

The  other  division  of  the  Russian  army  captured  Nicopolis  (July 
15),  but  suffered  repeated  repulses  with  heavy  loss  before  Plevna 
(S.  W.  from  Nicopolis),  where  Osman  Pasha  had  collected  Turkish 
troops  and  thrown  up  strong  fortifications  (July  20  and  30),  and  was 
forced  to  wait  for  reinforcements. 

Meantime  Suleiman  Pasha  attempted  in  vain  to  storm  the  Shipka 
Pass  from  the  south  with  superior  numbers  (Aug.  23,  Sept.  17).  He 
was  now  appointed  commander  of  the  Turkish  army  in  the  east  on 
the  Lorn,  where  his  troops  had  been  sadly  missed. 

Arrival  of  Roumanian  troops  and  Russian  reinforcements  before 
Plevna.  After  the  failure  of  an  attempted  storm  (Sept.  7-12),  a  reg- 
ular siege  was  undertaken  (gen.  Totleben),  and 

Dec.  10.     Plevna  captured.    Osman  Pasha,  with  44,000  men,  obliged 
to  surrender  after  a  futile  attempt  to  break  through  the  Rus- 
sian lines.     Return  of  the  Roumanians  to  their  country,  of  Alexander 


A.  D.  TurcO'Russian  War.  523 

//.  to  St.  Petersburg.     Servia  (Dec.  14)  declared  war  upon  the  Porte 
anew. 

Dec-Jan.  A  Russian  division  under  Gurko  crossed  the  western  Bal- 
kans and  occupied  Sophia  ;  a  second  under  Radetzki  and  Sko- 
beleff"  poured  through  the  Shipka  Pass.  Both  divisions,  in  conjunction 
with  the  portions  of  the  eastern  army  which  had  also  crossed  the 
Balkans,  advanced  by  way  of  Philippopolis  (victory  of  Gurko  over 
remnants  of  the  Turkish  army,  Jan.  16  and  17,  1878)  and  Adrianople 
(occupied  Jan.  20),  close  upon  Constantinople. 

B.  Seat  of  -war  in  Asia  (Russian  commander-in-chief  grand 
duke  Michael).  While  the  operations  of  a  Russian  division  against 
Batoum,  as  well  as  an  expedition  of  the  Turkish  fleet  to  the  Caucas- 
ian coasts,  were  without  result,  the  main  column  of  the  Russian  army 
(^Loris-Melikoff)  forced  its  way  to  Kars,  which  it  invested  (May, 
1877).  Two  other  divisions  occupied  Ardaghan  and  Bajasid.  The 
reverses  suffered  from  MvJchtar  Pasha,  who  advanced  to  the  relief  of 
Kars  from  Erzeroum  (June),  compelled  the  Russians  to  retreat  across 
the  frontier,  abandoning  almost  all  their  conquests. 

In  October  the  Russians  advanced  again,  and  after  the 

1877.  Storm  of  Kars 

Nov.  8.     pushed  on  victoriously  to  Erzeroum. 

The  success  of  the  Russian  arms  created  lively  apprehensions 
in  the  west,  particularly  in  England^  to  whom  Turkey  appealed  for 
mediation.  Angry  negotiations  between  England  and  Russia.  Mean- 
while the  Porte  was  obliged  to  sisk  for  peace  directly  of  Russia,  which 
in  the 

1878.  Agreement  of  Adrianople 

Jan.  31.     granted  a  preliminary  truce,  and  sketched  the  plan  of  a 

future  peace. 
1878,  Feb.  1.     Greece  sent  her  troops  into  Thessaly,  but  was  induced 

to  withdraw  them  after  a  few  days. 
After  the  Russians  had  drawn  their  lines  closer  and  closer  about 
Constantinople  and  had  occupied  Erzeroum  in  Armenia,  and  a  part  of 
the  English  fleet  which  was  lying  before  the  Dardanelles  had  entered 
the  Sea  of  Marmora,  the 

March  3.  Peace  of  San  Stefano  (near  Constantinople) 
was  concluded  between  Russia  and  Turkey:  1.  Montenegro 
and  Servia  received  considerable  additions  from  Turkish  territory, 
and  were  recognized  as  independent ;  likewise,  Roumania.  2.  Bul- 
garia, i.  e.  the  larger  part  of  ancient  Mcesia,  Thrace,  and  Macedonia 
(boundaries  :  Danube,  the  Black  Sea  and  ^gean  Sea,  Albania  and 
Servia)  remained  tributary  to  the  Porte,  but  received  a  Christian 
prince,  separate  administration  and  militia  ;  a  Russian  commissary 
with  50,000  men  was  to  remain  two  years  in  the  country.  3.  The 
Porte  was  to  introduce  certain  reforms  in  the  small  portion  of  his 
European  possessions  which  remained  to  liim,  4.  Turkey  paid  Rus- 
sia 300  million  rubles,  and  ceded  large  parts  of  Armenia  in  Asia 
and  the  Dobrudsha  in  Europe,  Russia  agreeing  to  give  the  latter  to 
Roumania  in  return  for  the  part  of  Bessarabia  (p.  501)  which  she 
had  ceded  in  1856. 


524  Modern  History.  A.  l>. 

This  peace  aroused  great  opposition  in  the  west,  especially  in  Eng- 
land, which  showed  herself  ready  to  go  to  war  with  Russia  m  case  the 
latter  insisted  on  the  execution  of  the  above  conditions,  Austria  also 
began  to  arm. 

June  4.  The  Porte  concluded  a  treaty  with  England  (at  first  secret), 
wherein  the  latter  undertook  to  protect  Turkey  in  Asia  against 
Russian  conquest.  The  Porte,  however,  promised  to  introduce  reforms 
in  these  parts>  and  gave  up  the  island  of  Cyprus  to  England  (Cyprus 
occupied  July  11). 

Germany  having  mediated  between  Russia  and  England,  to  prevent 
war,  and  three  powers  having  come  to  a  preliminary  understanding, 
the 

1878»  June  13-July  13.  Congress  of  Berlin 
met  under  the  presidency  of  prince  Bismarck. 
Principal  conditions:  1.  Montenegro,  Servia,  Romnania,  became 
independent,  but  the  cessions  to  be  made  to  the  two  former  states 
were  somewhat  reduced,  while  the  territory  which  Roumania  was  to 
receive  in  exchange  for  Bessarabia  was  somewhat  enlarged.  2.  The 
principality  of  Bulgaria  was  limited  to  the  country  between  the 
Danube  and  the  BalkanSy  including,  however,  Sophia  and  its  territory. 
(An  assembly  of  notables  elected  prince  Alexander  of  Battenberg 
(Hesse),  a  nephew  of  the  Russian  emperor,  April,  1879.)  3.  The 
southern  portion  of  Bulgaria,  with  its  boundaries  considerably  nar- 
rowed toward  the  south  and  west,  was  left  mider  the  immediate  rule 
of  the  sultans,  with  the  title  Province  of  Bast  Roumelia,  but  received 
a  separate  militia,  and  administration  under  a  Christian  governor-gen- 
eral /  only  in  specified  cases  could  it  be  occupied  by  regular  Turkish 
troops.  4.  The  Russian  troops  were  to  evacuate  Ea^  Roumelia  and 
Bulgaria  inside  of  nine  months,  Roumania  inside  of  a  year.  5.  The 
Porte  ceded  to  Austria  the  military  occupation  and  administration 
of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  as  well  as  the  military  occupation  of  the 
Sandshak  of  Novi  Bazar.  6.  The  Porte  was  advised  to  cede  a  part  of 
Epii'us  and  Thessaly  to  Greece.  7.  Russia  received  in  Asia  Batoum 
(as  a  free  harbor),  Kars,  Ardaghan,  and  some  border  territories. 
8.  In  Turkey,  and  all  the  states  which  had  been  separated  from  her, 
there  should  be  political  equality  of  all  confessions. 
1878.  Death  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  king  of  Italy  (p.  503). 
Jan.  9.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Umberto  {Humbert)  I. 
Feb.  7.     Death  of  pope  Pius  IX.     He  was  succeeded  by  Leo  XIH. 

(Pecci). 
May  11  and  June  2.     Attempted  assassination  of  the  German  em- 
peror William  /.,  who  at  the  second  attempt  was  somewhat 
dangerously  wounded.      In  consequence,  law  against  the  ex- 
cesses of  the  social  democrats. 

1878.  Entrance  of  the   Austrians  into  Bosnia  and  Herzego- 
July  29.     Vina,  where  part  of  the  inhabitants  offered  armed  resist- 
ance until  autumn  (1879,  occupation  of  the  Lim  territory). 

1879.  In  the  German  empire  excited  discussion  of  changes  advocated 
by  prince  Bismarck  in  the  tariff  and  economical  policy  (new 
tarrff,  July).     Attempted  reconciliation  with  the  Pope.     The 


A.  D.  TurcO'Russian  War.  525 

Prussian  minister  of  reUgion  (Falk  since  1872)  retired  ;  his 
successor,  Von  Puttkamer  (July  14). 
Russia  assuming  a  hostile  attitude,  and  attempting  to  form  an  al- 
liance with  France  against  Germany, 
Sept.  21-24.    Bismarck  visited  Vienna,  and  a  defensive  alliance  was 

concluded  between  Prussia  and  Austria. 
Oct.  1.     The  new  system  of  jurisprudence  for  the  entire  German  em- 
pire went  in  force  (supreme  court  in  Leipzig). 

1880.  The  boldness  of  the  Nihilists  in  Russia  continuing  to  increase 
Feb.     in  spite  of  the  severe  measures  of  the  government  (three  des- 
perate attempts  upon  the  life  of  Alexander  II.  inside  of  ten 

months),  general  Loris- Melikoff  wsis  clothed  with  a  sort  of  dictatorial 
power,  but  endeavored  to  prevent  the  imminent  dangers  by  conces- 
sions. 

Conflict  with  the  papacy  in  regard  to  ecclesiastical  orders  and  new 
laws  relating  to  education  in  France,  and  still  more  sharply  in  Bel- 
gium (liberal  ministry  of  Frere  Orban  since  1878). 

In  Prussia,  all  negotiations  with  the  papacy  proving  vain,  certain 
limitations  of  the  existing  laws  relating  to  the  church  (p.  520)  were 
introduced  as  an  attempt  to  reach  the  desired  result  by  political  leg- 
islation. 

The  resolutions  of  the  congress  of  Berlin  had  never  been  com- 
pletely carried  into  execution,  in  part  because  of  the  resistance  of  the 
Albanian  league  (secretly  aided  by  the  Porte  ?)  to  the  cessions  made 
to  Montenegro,  and  also  because  the  negotiations  relative  to  a  sur- 
render of  territory  to  Greece  had  been  without  result.  Hence  the 
June  16-July  1.     Conference  of  Berlin 

was  called,  which  delivered  to  the  Porte  certain  distinct  propo- 
sitions in  regard  to  these  questions  {Thessaly  and  Epirus  with  Janina 
to  be  given  to  Greece),  which  should  eventually  be  enforced  by  armed 
interference.  The  Porte  still  delaying,  a  squadron  of  vessels  of  all 
the  great  powers  assembled  at  Ragusa  (Sept.).  This  demonstration 
produced  the 
Nov.     Surrender  of  Dulcigno  and  territory  to  Montenegro. 

1881.  March  13.     Alexander  II.  murdered  in  St.  Petersburg.   He  was 

succeeded  by  his  son, 

1881-1894.     Alexander  III. 

Roumania  made  a  kingdom. 
March-April.     Conference  of  ambassadors  at  Constantinople.     The 

Porte  decided  to  carry  out  the  surrender  of  territory  to  Greece, 

though  to  a  somewhat  smaller  extent  than  was  indicated  by  the 

Berlin  conference. 
Sept.  8.     Meeting  of  William  I.  of  Germany  and  Alexander  III.  of 

Russia  at  Danzig. 

1882.  Disturbances  in  southern  Dalmatia,  Herzegovina,  and  Bosnia. 
Jan.     Dispatch  of  Austrian  troops  to  these  points. 

Jan.  7.  Excitement  created  in  Prussia  by  the  publication  of  a  royal 
rescript,  attacking  the  theory  of  responsible  ministers,  and  an- 
nouncing that  all  persons  in  government  service  were  expected 
to  support  the  government  at  elections. 


626  Modern  History,  A.  D. 

1881,  Jan.  21.  Passage  of  the  electoral  reform  bill  in  Italy. 
Suffrage  conferred  on  all  male  Italians  over  twenty-one  years 
of  age,  who  possessed  either  (1)  a  certain  amount  of  property 
or  (2)  a  certain  amount  of  education.  Adoption  of  the  scrutin 
de  liste ;  minority  representation  in  districts  returning  five  or 
more  deputies. 

Feb.  11.  Lectures  in  the  Czechish  (Bohemian)  language  established 
in  the  university  of  Prague. 

Feb.  21.  Trial  of  persons  accused  of  being  concerned  in  the  murder 
of  the  czar  of  Russia.  In  spite  of  some  concessions  to  the 
peasants,  and  of  the  continuance  of  vigorous  repressive  meas- 
ures, undaunted  activity  of  the  nihilists. 

March  6.     Servia  made  a  kingdom  ;  prince  Milan  king  as  Milan  L 

March  10.    Suppression  of  the  disturbances  in  Herzegovina  and  south- 
ern Dalmatia  by  the  Austrians. 
Tendency  in  the  German  Reichstag  and  the  Prussian  Landtag 
to  come  to  terms  with  Rome  and  the  clerical  party  (autumn). 
Approaching  end  of  the  Kulturkampf. 

April  10.  Retirement  of  Gortsohako£f,  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in 
Russia  ;  he  was  succeeded  by  De  Giers  ;  this  change,  regarded 
as  an  assurance  of  peaceful  intentions,  quieted  the  apprehen- 
sions which  had  been  aroused  by  the  anti-Teutonic  invectives 
of  Skoheleffm  Paris  and  elsewhere  (Skobeleff,  f  July  7). 

May  22.  Opening  of  the  St.  Gothard  radlroad  across  the  Alps. 
(Begun  1872,  tunnel  9^  miles  long.) 

June  2.  Death  of  Giuseppe  Garibaldi  (b.  1807,  at  Nice  ;  conspira- 
tor in  1833  ;  in  Montevideo,  in  South  America,  1835  ;  defense 
of  Rome,  1849  ;  in  North  America,  1854  ;  service  against  Aus- 
tria, 1859,  1860  ;  unsuccessful  attempts  upon  Rome,  1862, 
1867  ;  participation  in  the  Franco- Prussian  war,  1870,  1871  ; 
member  of  the  Italian  chamber  of  deputies,  1875). 
Rejection  of  the  tobacco  monopoly  advocated  by  Bismarck,  in 
the  German  Reichstag. 

1882,  June  21.    Expiration  of  the  Storthing  in  Norway.    Violent  royal 

speech  rebuking  the  opposition.  Constitutional  struggle  over 
the  royal  veto,  and  presence  of  ministers  in  the  Storthing. 

Sept.     Anti-Jewish  riots,  especially  at  Pressburg  (Sept.  27-30). 

Sept.-Nov.  New  elections  in  Norway.  Return  of  an  increased 
radical  majority.  {Seep.  573.) 

§  3.     FRANCE.  {Seep.  4S5.) 

1815-1882. 

1814  (1815)-1824.     Louis  XVIII. 

First  restoration,  Apr.  6.  Royal  proclamation  of  a  liberal 
constitution  (charte  constitutionelle),  June  4,  1814  :  hereditary  mon- 
archy ;  two  chambers  (peers  nominated  by  the  king,  lower  house 
elected  by  the  people) ;  freedom  of  the  press  ;  religious  liberty  ;  re- 
sponsible ministers  ;  judges  not  removable.  Return  of  Napoleon. 
The  Hundred  Days  (Mar.  20-June  22),  see  page  483.  Fall  of 
Napoleon. 


A  D.  France,  627 

1815,  July  8.     Second  restoration. 

1815,  Sept.  25-1818,  Dec.  29.  Ministry  of  the  duke  of  Richelieu. 
Nov.  20.  Second  peace  of  Paris  (p.  485). 
An  nltra-royalist  chamber  {chambre  introuvahle  ;  compare  the  "  Cav- 
alier "  parliament  of  Charles  II.  of  England,  p.  378).  La  terreur 
Blanche.  Parties  :  court  (Richelieu)  ^  advocating  return  to  the  old 
monarchy  ;  legitimists  {Decazes);  doctrinaires  {Guizot),  advocates  of 
constitutional  monarchy  with  strong  administration  ;  liberals  (inde- 
pendents, Pe'rier,  Lafayette)  ;  Bonaparti<its  ;  republicans.  Gravitation 
towards  a  monarchy  resting  on  the  middle  classes  (bourgeoisie). 

Ministry  of  Dessoles-Decazes  (1818,  Dec.  29-1819,  Nov.)  ;  of 
Decazes  (1819,  Nov.  10-1820,  Feb.). 

1820,  Feb.  13.     Murder  of  the  duke  of  Berry,  the  second  nephew  of 

Louis  XVIII.,  by  Louvel.     Ultra-royalist  ministry.     Laws  re- 
stricting freedom  of  the  press  and  of  elections. 
Sept.  29.     Birth  of  the  duke  of  Bordeaux,  posthumous  son  of  the 
duke  of  Berry  ;  "  Henry  V.  ;  "   "  Europe's  child."     Presenta- 
tion of  the  castle  of  Chambord  by  national  subscription. 

1821,  May  5.     Death  of  Napoleon  I.  at  St.  Helena. 

1821,  Dec.  13-1828,  Jan.  4.     Ministry  of  Villdle  (ultra-royalist). 

1823,  French  mtervention  in  Spain  ;  capture  of  Madrid  and  Cadiz  ; 
liberation  of  Ferdinand  VIL,  by  the  duke  of  Angouleme. 
Cruel  reaction.  Numerous  executions  (Riego).  Septennial 
election  law  (violation  of  the  charter).  New  chamber  of  ul- 
tra-royalists (chambre  retrouvc'e,  1824). 

1824,  Sept.  16.     Death  of  Louis  XVIH. 

1824-1830.     Charles  X. 

1825,  March.    Grant  of  a  milliard  ($200,000,000)  to  returned  refugees 

as  compensation  for  their  confiscated  estates.^ 
Growth  of  the  liberal  party  :   Collaud,  Constant,  Perier,  Broglie^ 
Chateaubriand.     Outcry  against  the  Jesuits. 

1827,  April  30.     National  guard  disbanded. 

1828,  Jan.     Fall  of  the  Villele  ministry  in  consequence  of  the  return 

of  a  liberal  majority  at  the  election. 

1828,  Jan.  4-1829,  Aug.  8.     Martignac  ministry  ("  too  liberal  for 

the  royalists,  too  reactionary  for  the  liberals"). 

1829,  Aug.-1830,  July.     Polignac  ministry  ;   reactionary,  ultra-roy- 

alist.    "  No  more  concessions  !  " 

1830,  March  18.     Address  of  the  221,  in  reply  to  the  king's  speech  ; 

vote  of  want  of  confidence.     Dissolution  May  16. 
July  5.     Capture  of  Algiers  by  the  French. 

Reasons  for  the  expedition  :  1.  An  insult  offered  the  French 
ambassadors  by  the  Dey,  Husseyn.  2,  The  desire  of  the  French  gov- 
ernment to  quiet  the  agitation  and  dissatisfaction  which  prevailed  in 
France,  by  some  outside  success. 

Algeria  (Afrique  Frangaise)  subjugated  by  a  tedious  war  with  the 
Arabs  and  Kabyls,  constantly  breaking  out  anew.  Abdel-Kader 
(1827,  captured  by  Lamoriciere  and  the  duke  of  Aumale,  fourth  son  of 

1  The  ruined  cavaliers  in  England  got  $3,000,000  iu  1661. 


628 


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A.  D.  France.  529 

Louis  Philippe  ;  1852,  released  and  sent  to  Asia  Minor  by  Louis  Na- 
poleon). 

New  elections.  Return  of  an  increased  liberal  majority  ;  202  of 
the  221  reelected  ("  aide  toi"). 

1830,  July  27-29.     The  July  Revolution.     The  Three 
Days  of  July.     The  Great  Week. 

Cause  :  publication  of  the  three  (five)  ordinances  on  July  26, 
professedly  founded  on  article  14.  1.  The  recent  elections  declared 
illegal.  2.  The  electoral  system  arbitrarily  changed  so  as  to  restrict 
the  suffrage  to  rich  land-owners.  3.  Prohibition  of  the  publication  of 
newspapers  and  pamphlets  without  a  royal  permit.  This  violation  of 
the  charter  produced  a  revolt  in  Paris  July  27.  Protests  {Thiers^ 
Mignet).  Barricade  fights.  July  28,  rising  of  the  bourgeoisie  ;  imper- 
fect military  preparations,  bad  leadership  and  care  of  the  troops,  who 
in  part  deserted,  resulted  in  the  victory  of  the  populace.  Capture  of 
the  Hotel  de  Ville.  July  29,  capture  of  the  Louvre.  Retreat  of  the 
troops.  Provisional  government :  Lajitte,  Perier,  Barrot.  Lafayette 
commander  of  the  national  guard.  Futile  repeal  of  the  ordinances. 
Duke  of  Orleans  lieutenant  general  of  France  ("  the  charter  hence- 
forward to  be  a  reality  "). 

Charles  X.  (f  in  Gorz,  in  Styria,  1836),  and  his  son,  the  duke  of 
Angouleme,  abdicated  in  favor  of  their  grandson  and  nephew,  the  duke 
of  Bordeaux  (who  subsequently  called  himself  count  of  Chambord,  p. 
527).  The  claims  of  this  pretender  being  set  aside,  the  younger  line 
of  Bourbon  (Orleans,  see  genealogical,  table,  p.  528)  was  raised  to  the 
throne  in  the  person  of 

1830-1848.  Louis  Philippe,  the  king  of  the  French  {le 
roi  bourgeoise  ;  monarchy  of  July).  Alteration  of  the  charter  in 
a  liberal  spirit.  Abolition  of  art.  14.  Prohibition  of  the  censure. 
The  king  to  share  the  initiative  with  the  chamber.  Ministry  of  Bro- 
glie,  Guizot,  Lafayette  (1830,  Aug.  11-Nov.)  ;  of  Lafitte  (1830, 
Nov.  2-1831,  March  13)  ;  of  Casimir  P6rier  (1831,  Mar.  13-1832, 
May).    Trial  and  condemnation  of  four  ex-ministers  of  Charles  X. 

Rebellion  of  the  duchess  of  Berry  (1832). 
1832,  Oct.  11-1836,  Feb.     Ministry  of  Thiers,  Guizot,  Broglie. 

Insurrection  in  Lyons  (1834,  April). 

1835,  July  28.     FieschVs  infernal  machine. 

By  this  attempt  upon  the  life  of  Louis  Philippe  twelve  persons 
were  killed  and  forty  wounded.  It  was  followed  by  the  adoption  of 
laws  limiting  the  freedom  of  the  press  (laws  of  September).  Re- 
tirement of  Guizot,  Broglie  (doctrinaires) ;  ministry  of  Feb.  22,  1836 
(Thiers,  progressionists).  Ministry  of  Sept.  6  {Mole,  Guizot;  Thiers 
out). 

1836,  Oct.  30.     Louis  Napoleon  (nephew  of  Napoleon  I.,  see  the 

genealogical  table,  p.  466)  made  an  adventurous  attempt  to 
get  himself  proclaimed  emperor  at  Strasburg.  He  was  captured 
without  difficulty,  his  accomplices  brought  to  trial,  he  himself  sent  to 
America  by  the  French  government  on  a  ship  of  war  (with  an  annuity 
of  15,000  francs  from  Louis  Philippe's  privy  purse). ^ 

.  1  Ouizot,  Memoires,  vol.  iv.  chap.  24. 
34 


630  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

Ministry  of  April  15  (1837),  Mol6  without  Guizot.  Union  of 
Guizot  and  Thiers  in  opposition.  Republican  insurrection  in  Paris 
(May  12,  1839).  Ministry  of  Soult  (1839,  May  12-1840,  Mar.  1), 
without  Guizot,  Thiers,  Odilon-Barrot.  Ministry  of  Thiers  (1840, 
Mar.  1-Oct.  29).  Diplomatic  complications  consequent  on  the  revolt 
of  Mehemet  AH  (p.  491). 
1840.     Second  adventurous  attempt  of  Louis  Napoleon. 

He  sailed  from  Margate  with  only  fifty  adherents  to  Bologne, 
where  he  was  captured  by  the  national  guard,  tried  by  the  court  of 
peers,  and  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life  (escaped  from  Ham 
mider  the  name  and  in  the  dress  of  a  mason,  Badinguet,  1846). 

The  remains  of  Napoleon  I.,  brought  from  St.  Helena  by  the 
prince  of  Joinville,  the  third  son  of  Louis  Philippe,  were  solemnly 
entombed  under  the  dome  of  the  Invalides  at  Paris  (1840,  Dec.  15). 
Fortification  of  Paris.  Quadruple  treaty  of  London  (1840,  July  15) ; 
anger  of  France.  Fall  of  Thiers. 
1840,  Oct.  29-1848,  Feb.  24.     Ministry  of  Soult  and  Guizot. 

Death  of  the  duke  of  Orleans  (1842,  July  13).  Trouble  with 
England  :  Tahiti  {Pritchard)  ;  Spanish  marriages  (1843-44).  De- 
mand for  electoral  reform  and  exclusion  of  place-men  from  the 
chamber  of  deputies  rejected  by  the  government  (pensee  immuahle). 
During  this  reign  development  of  the  parties  :  Legitimists  (count 
of  Chambord) ;  Orleanists  ;  Bonapartists  ;  Republicans. 

1848,  Feb.  22-24.     The  Revolution  of  February. 

Barricade  fights  with  the  troops,  conducted  principally  by 
members  of  the  secret  (socialistic)  societies,  assisted  by  a  section  of 
the  national  guard,  which  was  dissatisfied  with  the  reactionary  policy 
of  the  government.  Partial  defection  of  the  troops.  Guizot  resigned 
(Feb.  23).  Louis  Philippe  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  grandson,  the 
Count  of  Paris,  son  of  the  duke  of  Orleans  (f  1842)  and  the 
princess  Helena  of  Mecklenburg.  Duchess  of  Orleans  in  the  chamber 
of  deputies.  (^Uemeute  etait  devenue  une  revolution.^  Provisional 
government  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville  {Dupont  de  VEure,  Lamartine, 
Ledru  Rollin,  Marie,  Cremieux,  Arago,  Gamier-Pages,  the  elder). 
Republic  proclaimed  (Feb.  24),  to  the  disagreeable  surprise  of  the 
bourgeoisie  of  Paris.  The  socialist  Louis  Blanc  became  the  head  of  a 
commission  of  laborers  (afterwards  called  ministry  of  progress)  with 
a  view  to  the  "  organization  of  labor,"  but  accomplished  nothing  prac- 
tical. Call  of  a  national  assembly  at  Paris  to  adopt  a  constitution 
for  the  new  democratic  republic.  Establishment  of  costly  public 
workshops  (ateliers  nationaux)  and  recognition  of  the  "  right  to  work."  ^ 
Establishment  of  the  garde  mobile. 

1848-1851  (1852).    Prance  (for  the  second  time)  a  repub- 
lic. 
June  23-26.     Terrible  insurrection  (the  days  of  June)  in  Paris  in  con- 
sequence of  the  closing  of  the  ateliers.     Bloody  fights  in  the 
1  It  is  claimed  that  Louis  Blanc  was  deceived  by  the  government,  who  wished 
his  support,  but  distrusted  his  theories.     The  workshops,  predestined  to  failure, 
were  neither  conceived  nor  carried  on  in  accordance  with  the  design  of  their  pro- 
jector.    See  Ely,  French  and  German  Socialism  in  Modern  Times,  p.  113,  where 
authorities  are  quoted. 


A.  D.  France,  531 

streets.     Murder  of  archbishop  Affre  and  of  general  Bre'a.     General 
Cavaignac  clothed  with  dictatorial  power.     The  continued  efforts  of 
the  troops  and  the  national  guard  subdued  the  insurrection  of  the 
laborers.     Nov.  4,  constitution  of  1848. 
Dec.  20.    Proclamation  of  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte  as  president 

of  the  republic  (5,327,345  to  1,879,298  votes). 
1849,  Apr.-Aug.     Expedition  to  Rome. 

Legislative  assembly  (one  house)  with  a  monarchical  majority. 
Death  of  Louis  Philippe  at  Claremont  (1850,  Aug.  26). 

1851,  Dec.  2.     Coup  d*]6tat  of  Louis  Napoleon,  who,  in 

complicity  with  St.  Arnaud,  Maupas,  Momy,  etc.,  caused  the 
leaders  of  the  republicans  and  Orleanists  {Cavaignac,  Charras,  Chan- 
gamier,  Lamoriciere,  Bedeau,  Thiers,  Victor  Hugo,  and  others)  to  be 
surprised  in  their  dwellings  at  night  and  imprisoned,  dissolved  the 
(second)  national  assembly  (1849-1851),  annulled  the  constitution 
which  he  had  sworn  to  defend,  crushed  (with  some  shedding  of  blood) 
the  revolt  which  broke  out  in  the  streets  of  Paris  on  Dec.  3  and  4 
in  consequence  of  these  measures,  and  summoned  the  whole  people  to 
a  general  election  (plebiscite).  This  resulted  in  the  election  of 
Dec.  20,  21.     Louis  Napoleon  as  president  for  ten  years 

by  a  majority,  it  was  asserted,  of  more  than  six  million  votes. 
The  president  was  clothed  with  monarchical  power,  and  permitted  to 
issue  a  constitution.  By  a  decree  of  Jan.  9,  1852,  the  president  arbi- 
trarily banished  his  most  important  opponents  ;  hy  a  decree  of  Jan. 
14  he  established  a  constitution  like  that  of  the  first  empire  (senate 
corps  legislatif,  see  p.  464).  A  third  decree  confiscated  the  appanages 
of  the  house  of  Orleans,  and  compelled  the  members  of  this  house  to 
sell  their  whole  private  property  in  land  in  France  within  a  year. 
Freedom  of  the  press  restricted. 

1852,  Deo.    2-1870.       Napoleon    III.,    emperor   of    the 

French.  Proclaimed  by  a  senatus  consultum,  Nov.  7,  and  rati- 
fied hj  2i plebiscite  (Nov.  21,  22),  with 7,824,189  votes  against  253,145. 
Napoleon  recognized  by  all  European  powers.  Assertions  of  peace- 
ful intentions  with  regard  to  Europe,  particularly  m  an  address  at 
Bordeaux  {^^U Empire  c'est  la  paix  ").  Napoleon  III.  married  (Jan. 
29,  1853)  the  Spaniard  Eugenie  Montijo,  countess  of  Teba.  Birth  of 
the  prince  imperial,  1856,  Mar.  16. 
1854-1856.     Crimean  war  (p.  499)  ended  by  the 

1856,  May  30.    Peace  of  Paris  (p.  501).   The  empire  at  its  height 

of  power  and  respect. 

1857,  French  expedition  to  China  (p.  501). 

1858,  Jan.  14.     OrsinVs   attempt   upon   the   life    of   Napoleon   III. 

Bombs.  Orsini,  under  sentence  of  death,  urged  Napoleon  to 
undertake  the  liberation  of  Italy  (Orsini's  "  Testament,"  published  in 
the  Moniteur).  Loi  de  surete  generate,  allowing  the  government  to  ar- 
rest and  banish,  in  certain  cases,  without  trial  (Feb.  19).  Meeting  of 
Napoleon  III.  and  the  Sardinian  minister  Cavour.  Marriage  of  the 
prince  Napoleon  Bonaparte  (geneal.  table,  p.  466)  with  Clotilde, 
daughter  of  Victor  Emmanuel. 


532  Modern  History,  A.  d. 

1859.  Austro-Sardinian  war  (p.  502). 

1860.  Nov.  24.     Decree  allowing  the  address  to  the  throne,  and  cre- 

ating ministers  without  portfolios. 

1861.  Debates  permitted  to  be  inserted  in  full  in  the  Journal  Officiel 
1861-1867.     Mexican  expedition  (p.  503). 

1867.     Great  Exposition  at  Paris. 

1867.     Luxembourg  question  (p.  511). 

1867.     Expedition  to  Rome  (p.  511). 

1869,  May.     New  elections  ;  for  the  first  time  during  the  second  em- 

pire active  participation  of  the  parties  and  a  large  vote.  The 
government  received  a  good  majority.  In  Paris  and  Lyons ^  victory 
of  the  ultra-radical  party. 

1870,  Jan.  2.     Ministry  Ollivier.     Repeal  of  the  hi  de  surete.     Al- 

teration of  the  constitution  by  senatus  consultum  and  plebiscite, 
Apr.  20,  May  8.     (5,679,000  majority  for  the  government, 
large  vote  of  no  in  the  army.) 
1870-1871.     Franco-German  war,  p.  513  fol. 

1871  —  X.  Prance  (for  the  third  time)  a  Republic. 

During  the  siege  of  Paris  the  numerous  socialist  party  had 
made  several  attempts  to  seize  the  supreme  power,  which  had  been 
frustrated  by  the  troops  and  the  national  guard.  After  the  capitula- 
tion the  workingmen  had,  under  various  pretexts,  got  possession  of 
several  hundred  cannon,  and  converted  the  northeastern  part  of  the 
city  (Montmartre  and  Belleville)  almost  into  fortresses.  The  attempt 
of  general  Vinoy,  commander  of  the  city,  to  repossess  himself  of  these 
arms  led  to  a  general 

1871,  March  18.  Uprising  of  the  Commune  (murder  of  generals 
Lecomte  and  Thomas),  and,  after  the  defection  of  several  regi- 
ments, to  the 

March  28-May  22.     Rule  of  the  Socialistic  Commune 

(^Blanqui,  Pyat,  Flourens,  Delescluze,  Cluseret,  Rossel,  etc.). 
Seat  of  the  regular  government,  Versailles.  The  comite  des  interna- 
tionalistes  held  a  reign  of  terror  in  Paris.  Spoliation  of  the  churches. 
Several  million  "  advances  "  exacted  from  the  Bank  for  the  payment 
of  the  armed  mob  called  the  National  Guard,  whose  ranks  were 
swollen  by  socialists  of  all  nations.  The  march  upon  Versailles  ended 
in  a  shameful  retreat,  the  insurgents  being  fired  upon  from  Mont 
Valerien.  Arrest  of  archbishop  Darboy  and  other  "  hostages"  after- 
wards murdered.  Proclamation  resolving  France  into  a  number  of 
municipal  republics. 

April  6-May  22.     Second  siege  of  Paris 

by  marshal  MacMahon,  commander  of  the  troops  of  the  na- 
tional assembly,  on  the  south  and  west  sides,  the  German  troops  pre- 
serving a  strict  neutrality  in  the  forts  which  they  occupied  on  the 
northeast. 

Bombardment  of  the  southern  forts,  and  the  city  itself,  by  the  Ver- 
sailles troops  from  the  parallels  which  the  Germans  had  constructed. 
Meantime  socialistic  violence  in  Paris.  Destruction  of  the  house  of 
Thiers,  and  overthrow  of  the  Colonne  Vendome,  May  16,  1871  (re- 
erected  1874). 


A.  D.  .    France.  533 

May  21.  The  Versailles  troops  entered  the  city  through  the  Porte 
St.  Cloudy  of  whose  unguarded  condition  they  were  apprised  by  a 
Parisian.  Bloody  contest  against  barricades  (May  21-28)  in  the 
heart  of  Paris.  The  commune  caused  the  principal  buildings  of  Paris 
to  be  set  on  fire.  (The  Tuileries,  a  part  of  the  Palais  Royal,  the  li- 
brary of  the  Louvre,  the  whole  of  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  the  palace  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  the  building  of  the  ministry  of  finance,  etc.,  actu- 
ally destroyed.) 

1871,  May  28.     Bloody  suppression  of  the  insurrection  ;  executions 
en  masse;  40,000  or  50,000  socialists  captured,  or  afterwards 
arrested.    The  leaders  court-martialed,  many  shot,  many  trans- 
ported to  New  Caledonia. 
1871,  Aug.  31.      Thiers  elected  president  of  the  republic  for  the 

session  of  the  national  assembly. 
May  10.     Definitive  treaty  of  Frankfort  (p.  520). 
1873,  Jan.  9.     Death  of  Napoleon  III.  at  Chiselhurst,  in  England. 
May  24.     Thiers  forced  to  resign  by  a  parliamentary  coalition  of  the 
laonarciAcaX  parties  (Legitimists,  Orleanlsts,  Bcmapartists).  Mar- 
shal MacMahon  elected  president  by  the  national  assembly. 
Nov.  19.     After  the  attempt  at  a  restoration  of  the  monarchy  under 
Henry  V.  (count  of  Chambord)  had  failed,  marshal  Mac- 
Mahon was  entrusted  with  the  regency  for  seven  years  (seo- 
tennat)  under  the  title  "  President  of  the  Republic." 
1873,  Oct.-Dec.     Trial  of  Bazaine  in  the  Trianon  at  Versailles  before 
a  court-martial,  the  duke  of  Aum^ile  (fourth  son  of  Louis  Phi- 
lippe) presiding.     Bazaine  was  condemned  to  degradation  and  death, 
but  the  sentence  was  remitted  to  twenty  years'  imprisonment.     Ba- 
zaine conveyed  to  the  island  of  Ste.  Marguerite,  near  Cannes,  whence 
he  escaped  in  the  summer  of  1874. 

1875,  Feb.  After  a  long  struggle  between  the  parties  in  the 
national  assembly  a  republican  constitution  was  finally  agreed 
upon. 
The  legislative  power  was  exercised  by  two  chambers  :  the 
chamber  of  deputies,  which  was  elected  by  direct  elections  and 
manhood  suffrage  for  four  years,  and  the  senate  (300  senators  :  75 
for  life,  elected  by  the  national  assembly,  and  afterwards  by  the  sen- 
ate itself  ;  and  225  elected  for  nine  years  by  electoral  colleges,  com- 
posed of  deputies,  councils  of  the  departments  and  districts,  and  dele- 
gates of  the  communes).  The  executive  pcwrer  was  entrusted  to  a 
president,  who,  after  the  expiration  of  the  septennat  (above),  was 
to  be  elected  by  the  senate  and  chamber  of  deputies  united  in  a  na- 
tional assembly  for  this  purpose,  for  seven  years,  and  at  the  expira- 
tion of  his  term  of  office  should  be  again  eligible.  The  president, 
who  governed  by  a  responsible  ministry,  exercised  almost  all  the 
rights  of  a  constitutional  monarchy,  but  could  be  impeached  by  the 
chamber  of  deputies  before  the  senate  for  high  treason. 
1875,  Dec.     After  the  adoption  of  a  new  electoral  law  (scrutin  ^  d^ar- 

1  By  the  scrutin  d^ arrondissement,  the  vomers  in  each  district  voted  for  one 
delegate  only;  by  the  scrutin  de  liste  (favored  by  Gamhetta),  the  voters  of  each 
department  A'oted  for  the  whole  list  of  delegates  from  that  department.  —  MuL<- 
liEK,  Political  History  of  Recent  Times. 


634  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

rondissement),  the  national  assembly,  which  had  been  in  ses- 
sion since  1871,  separated. 

1876,  Jan.,  Feb.  The  new  elections  resulted  in  a  senate  composed 
half  of  republicans  and  half  of  the  three  monarchical  parties, 
while  in  the  chamber  of  deputies  the  republicans  had  a  de- 
cisive majority.  Dufaure  ministry  (March),  Simon  ministry 
(Dec). 

1877,  May  16.  Simon  ministry  displaced  by  the  arbitrary  act  of 
MacMahon  ("coup  d'etat").  Broglie  ministry.  Protest  of 
363  members  of  the  lower  house  against  the  action  of  the  pres- 
ident. 

Sept.  4.     Death  of  Thiers  (1797-1877). 

1877,  Oct.     New  elections.     Maintenance  of  the  republic.     In  spite 

of  the  return  of  a  republican  majority,  MacMahon  formed  a 
royalist  ministry  (Rochebouet).  As  the  house  refused  to  deal 
with  such  a  ministry,  formation  of  the  ministry  Dufaure  (re- 
publican). 

1878,  International  Exhibition. 

1879,  Jan.  16.     Pardon  of  over  2,000  communists. 

1879,  Jan.  30.   MacMahon,  involved  in  inextricable  conflict  with  the 
chamber  of  deputies,  resigned  his  office,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Gr6vy. 
1879-1887.     Jules    Gr^vy     president    of   the    republic.     Gam- 
betta  succeeded  him  as  speaker  of  the  house.     Ministry  of 
Waddington.     Amnesty  for  communists.     Removal  of  the  legislature 
from  Versailles  to  Paris.     Secularization  of  education  ;   debate  and 
agitation  over  the  bill  introduced  by  Jules  Ferry,  minister  of  public 
instruction,  limiting   the   influence  of  religious  orders  in   education 
(§  7  :  total  exclusion  of  unauthorized  religious  orders  from  giving  in- 
struction).    Ministry  of  Freycinet  (1879,  Dec). 

1879,  June  1.     Death  of  prince  Louis  Napoleon  in  South  Africa.     In 

spite  of  the  nomination  in  his  will  of  prince  Victor^  son  of 
Jerome  (son  of  the  king  of  Westphalia),  the  latter  (^^  Plon- 
Plon  ")  was  generally  recognized  by  the  Bonapartists. 

1880,  Mar.  30.     Proclamation  disbanding  the  order  of  Jesuits. 
Juns.     General  amnesty  for  convicted  communists.    (Rochefort.) 
Sept.  19.     Ministry  of  Jules  Ferry. 

Nov.     Expulsion  of  unauthorized  orders  from  their  religious  houses. 

1881,  Expedition  to  Tunis,  ostensibly  to  punish  marauding  border 
tribes,  and  to  uphold  the  claims  of  the  Sodete  Marseillaise  to 
certain  lands  in  Tunis,  resulting  in  an  attempt  to  establish  a 
protectorate  over  Tunis.  Complications  with  Great  Britain, 
Italy,  Spain. 

Nov.  13.  Ministry  of  Gambetta  (Foreign  Affairs)  ;  M.  Paul  Bert, 
minister  of  public  worship. 

1882,  Jan.  30.     Ministry  of  M.  Freycinet  (Foreign  Affairs)  ;  Leon 

Say  (Finance)  ;  Jules  Ferry  (Public  Instruction).    Gambetta, 
having  been  defeated  on  a  motion  to  adopt  the  scrutin  de  liste, 
had  resigned  Jan  27. 
Jan.     Failure  of  the  Union  Ge'nerale  (founded  1881). 


A.  D.  Great  Britain.  535 

July  29.     Resignation  of  the  ministry  Freycinet  after  defeat  upon 
a   question  of  supplies  for  protecting  the  Suez  canal.     Min- 
istry Duclerc  (Gambettist). 
French  claims  upon  Madagascar,  especially  to  a  protectorate  over 
the  northwest  coast,  opposed  by  the  native  Hovas,  and  discussed  be- 
tween France  and  England. 

The  French  protectorate  over  Annam  (1874)  being  threatened  by 
the  presence  of  Taiping  refugees  ("  Black  Flags,"  p.  462)  in  Ton- 
quin,  the  government  resolved  upon  energetic  measures  for  the  as- 
sertion of  the  rights  of  France. 
Dec.  31.     Death  of  Leon  Gambetta  (b.  1838,  Oct.  30).  {Seep.  573.) 

§  4.  GREAT  BRITAIN.  {See  p.  44^.) 

1783-1882. 

1783,  Nov.  Fox  brought  forward  a  bill  to  reform  the  government  of 
India,  which  was  thrown  out  in  the  lords.  The  kiug,4;hereupon, 
dismissed  the  coalition  ministry,  and  William  Pitt  became 

1783,  Dec.  26-1801,  March  17.  First  lord  of  the  treasury  and 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  He  introduced  an  India  bill, 
which  was  rejected,  and 

1784,  March  25.     Parliament  was  dissolved. 

May  18.     The  Fifth  parliament  of  George  HI.  (XVI.) 
Aug.  13.     Pitt's  India  bill  became  law  (p.  442). 

1787,  The  Jirst  convicts  sent  to  Australia  {Botany  Bay). 

1788,  Oct.  12.     The  king  became  insane.     Fox  proposed  that  the 

Prince  of  "Wales  should  assume  the  regency  as  of  right. 
Pitt,  though  admitting  the  prince's  claims,  insisted  that  the 
legislature  had  the  right  to  make  the  appointment.     Pending 

1789,  Feb.     the  discussion  the  king  recovered. 

1791,  Representative  institutions  granted  Canada. 

1792,  June.     Fox's  libel  bill,  which  gave  the  Jury  power  to  render 

a  general  verdict  of  guilty  or  not  guilty  upon  the  whole  matter 
in  issue,  received  the  royal  assent. 

1793,  Jan.     Alien  bill.     Traitorous  correspondence  bill. 

1793,  Feb.  1.     The  French  republic  declared  war  against  Great 

Britain,  etc.  (p.  453). 

1794.  Spread  of  revolutionary  principles.  Suspension  of  the  habeas 
corpus  act. 

May.      Trial  of  Hardy,  Home  Tooke,  and   Thelwall,  all  of  whom, 
Oct.-Dec.     through  the  efforts  of  Erskine,  were  acquitted. 

1794,  Nov.     Treaty  with  the  United  States  (Jay's  treaty,  p.  548). 

1795,  July-Nov.     Holland  having  joined  the  French  against  Eng- 

land, the  latter  seized  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Ceylon,  and 
other  possessions  of  the  Dutch  in  the  East. 

1796,  Sept.  17.     Sixth  parliament  of  George  III.  (XVII.) 
Oct.  11.     Spain  declared  war  against  England  (p.  458). 

1797,  Feb.  27.     Bank  of  England  stopped  specie  payments. 
1797,  April  15.     A  mutiny  broke  out  in  the  ileet  at  Spithead  (off 

Portsmouth).     The  demands  of  the  sailors,  which  were  rear- 


536  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

May  IV.     sonable,  were  granted  and  the  fleet  put  to  sea.     Another 

and  more  violent  mutiny  broke  out  at  the 
May  22.     Nore  (mouth  of  the  Thames),  which  was  finally  put  down 
June  30.     by  force  and  the  ringleader  hanged. 

1797,  Occ.  11.     Victory  of  Camperdown  (Dimcan)  puts  an  end  to 

the  danger  of  immediate  invasion. 

1798,  Apr.  20.     Habeas  corpus  act  again  suspended. 
Aug.  1.     Battle  of  the  Nile  (p.  460). 

1799,  Failure  of  the  expedition  to  the  Netherlands  (p.  461). 

1800,  Dec.  16.     Armed  neutrality  of  1780  revived  (p.  412). 

The  United  Irishmen,  an  association  of  malcontents,  mainly 
Protestants,  was  formed  in  1791  to  secure  the  entire  separation 
of  Ireland  from  England.  The  French  sent  more  than  one 
expedition  to  their  aid  ;  of  these  the  most  formidable,  under 

1796,  Dec.     Hoche,  was  scattered  by  a  storm,  while  a  smaller  one 

1798,  Sept.  8.     was  defeated  at  Ballinamuck. 

1798,  June  21.     The  United  Irishmen  were  beaten  at  Vinegar  Hill, 

1799.  and  'the  insurrection  put  down  with  cruel  severities.     These 
events  led  to  the 

1801)  Jan.  1.  Legislative  Union  of  Great  Britain  with 
Ireland  under  the  name  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  act 
of  union  provided,  among  other  things,  that  there  should  be 
one  imperial  parliament,  to  which  Ireland  should  send /oar 
spiritual  lords,  sitting  by  rotation  of  sessions  ;  twenty-eight  tem- 
poral peers,  elected  for  life  by  the  Irish  peerage  ;  and  one  hun- 
dred members  of  the  commons ;  and  that  the  churches  of  the 
two  countries  should  be  united  into  one  protestant  episcopal 
church. 
Mr.  Pitt  proposed  to  bring  in  a  bill  making  certain  concessions 
to  the  Roman  catholics.  The  king  being  persuaded  that  such 
concessions  would  be  a  breach  of  the  coronation  oath  refused 

1801,  Feb.  3.     his  consent,  and  Mr.  Pitt  resigned. 

Mar.  17-1804,  May  15.     Addington  administration.    Lord  Eldon, 

lord  chancellor. 
Apr.  2.     Battle  of  Copenhagen  (Nelson).     Convention  between  Eng- 
June  17.     land  and  Russia.     End  of  the  second  armed  neutrality  (p. 

463). 
Apr.  19.     Habeas  corpus  act  again  suspended. 

1802,  Nov.  16.     Seventh  parliament  of  George  III.  (2nd  impe- 
i  rial). 

i^^  1802,  Mar.  27.     Peace  of  Amiens  (p.  464). 
-"^"^         1803.     The  English  ambassador  (lord  Whitworth),  publicly  insulted 

Mar.  13.     by  Napoleon. 
.  ^i^x^May.     War  renewed  between  England  and  France  (p.  465). 
yi^      1803.     Emmet's  insurrection  in  Ireland,  easily  suppressed,  but  showed 
I  the  deep-seated  hostility  of  the  Irish,  and  led  to  the  suspension 

of  the  habeas  corpus  act  in  Ireland. 
1801:,  May  10-1806,  Jan.  23.     Pitt's  second  ministry. 
1805.     Third  coalition  against  France  (p.  467). 
Oct.  21.     Trafalgar  (Nelson,  p.  467). 


A.  D.  Great  Britain*  bZl 

1806,  Jan.  23.  ,  Death  of  Pitt. 

1806,  Feb.  10.-1807,  March  31.     All  the  Talents  :  Lm-d  Grenville, 

prime  minister  ;  Charles  James  Fox,  foreigu  secretary,  f  Sept. 

13  ;  lord  Erskine,  lord  chancellor  ;   lord  Howick  (afterwards 

earl  Grey),  first  lord  of  the  admiralty. 
Nov.  21.     Berlin  Decree  (p.  469). 
Dec.  15.     Eighth  (3d  imperial)  parliament  of  George  III. 

1807,  March  23.     Abolition  of  the  slave   trade  in  the  British 
dominions. 

The  ministry  went  out    on  the  catholic  question,  and  were  suc- 
ceeded by  the 

1807,  Mar.  31.-1809,  Oct.  29.  duke  of  Portland,  first  lord  of  the 
treasury  ;  Canning  and  Castlereagh,  home  and  foreign  secre- 
taries ;  Spencer  Perceval,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
(George  Canning,  b.  1770,  entered  parliament  1793,  under  sec- 
retary 1796,  t  1827).  (Castlereagh,  afterwards  marquis  of 
Londonderry,  b.  1769,  f  1822.) 

June  22.     Ninth  (4th  imperial)  parliament  of  George  III. 

July  7-9.     Treaty  of  Tilsit  (p.  469). 

Sept.  7.     Second  bombardment  of  Copenhagen  (p.  470). 

Jan.-Nov.      Orders   in    Council  which  declared  France,  and  all 
countries  under  her  control,  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade. 

1807,  Nov.  8.     Russia  declared  war  against  England. 

Dec.  17.   Milan  decree,  a  supplement  to  the  Berlin  decree  (p.  469). 

1808,  Aug.     Convention  of  Cintra  (p.  471). 

1808.  The  failure  of  the  Walcheren  expedition  sent  to  destroy 
July-Nov.     the  docks  and  shipping  at  Antwerp,  caused  a  rupture  be- 
tween Castlereagh  and  Canning,  both  of  whom  resigned. 

1809.  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  (b.  1769,  entered  the  army  1787  ;  As- 
May.     saye   1803 ;   entered   pcj'liament   1806  ;   commanded  in    the 

Peninsular  War.      Commander-in-chief  1842,  f  1852),  after- 
wards duke  of  Wellington^  enters  Spain,  and  the 

1808-1814.     Peninsular  war  was  fairly  begun  (p.  471). 

1809,  Oct.  29.     Death  of  the  duke  of  Portland. 

1809,  Dec.  6-1812,  May  11.     Mr.  Perceval /rsf  lord  of  the  treasury. 

1810,  Oct.  and  Nov.     Lines  of  Torres  Vedras  (p.  473). 
Nov.     The  king  became  hopelessly  insane,  and 

1811,  Feb.  5.     The  Prince  of  Wales  was  appointed  re- 

gent. 
Nov.     The  breaking  of  machinery  by  the  Luddites  became  so  fre- 
quent that  frame  breaking  was  made  a  capital  offense. 

1812,  May  11.     Assassination  of  Perceval  by  Bellingham. 

1812,  June   8-1827,  Apr.   24.     Liverpool  ministry  :    Castlereagh, 
foreign  secretary. 

1812,  June  18.     War  with  the  United  States  ended  bv  the  treaty  of 

Ghent,  1814,  Dec.  24  (p.  551). 
Nov.  24.     Tenth  (5th  imperial)  parliament  of  George  III. 

1813,  June  21.     Vittoria  (p.  479). 

1814,  May  30.     Peace  of  Paris  followed  by 

1815,  March  25.     Treaty  of  Vienna.     England  gained  Cape  of 


538 


Modern  History. 


A.  D. 


Good  Hope,  Demerara,  EssequibOy  Malta,  Tobago,  St.  Lucia, 
and  Mauritius.  Hanover  became  a  separate  kingdom,  with 
George  III.  first  king,  and  descent  to  heirs  male  (p.  491). 

1815,  June  15.     T?^aterloo  (p.  484). 

The  English  national  debt  had  grown  from  less  than  250  mill- 
ion pounds  in  1793  to  over  850  millions  ;  the  laboring  classes  found 
it  difficult  to  obtain  the  bare  necessaries  of  life.  Consequently  riots 
took  place  in  the  agricultural  districts,,  while  the  Luddites  broke  out 
with  fresh  vehemence.  Incited  by  the  "Weekly  Political  Register 
( William  Cobbett,  1762-1835),  the  cry  of  parliamentary  reform  was 
raised,  and  Hampden  clubs  were  formed  throughout  the  country. 

1816,  Mar.  3.     The  habeas  corpus  act  was  suspended. 

Mar.  10.  The  Blanket  meeting  at  Manchester  broken  up  by  the 
military;  lord  Sidmouth's  (Addiugton)  circular  letter. 

Dec.     Acquittal  of  Hone. 

1816,  July.     Dey  of  Algiers  compelled  to  abolish  christian  slavery. 

1819,  Jan.  14.  Eleventh  (6th  imperial)  parliament  of  George 
III. 

1819,  Aug.  16.     A  meeting  of  the  Radicals  at  St.  Peter's  Fields,  Man- 

chester, dispersed  by  the  military  with  bloodshed  ;  hence  called 
the  Manchester  Massacre,  or  Peterloo.  In  consequence  of 
these  disturbances,  the  Six  Acts,  strengthening  the  hands  of 
government,  were  passed. 

1820,  Jan.  29.     Death  of  George  III.     Chief  descendants:  — 


George  m.  =:  Charlotte  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 


George  rv., 

Ls2(i-ls;«J. 
t  without  issue. 


William  IV., 

lSSO-1837. 
t  without  issue. 


Frederic,         Edward, 
d.  of  York.     d.  of  Kent 
t 1827,  t 1820. 

without  issue.  | 

Albert  of  =7=  Victoria, 

Saxe-Coburs-    I       tl901. 
Gotha.  1 1«61.    1 


Ernest, 
d.  of  Cum- 
berland ;  k. 
of  Hanover. 
1837-1851. 


Adolphus, 
d.  of  Cambridge. 
11850. 


Victoria, 
m.  Ger- 
man Em- 
peror. 
tl901. 


Edward  vn. 

m.  Alexandra 
d.  of  k.  of 
Denmark. 


Alice, 


Alfred.  Helena,     Louise, 

m.  gr.    d.  of  Edin-     m.  pr.  of    m.  mar- 
d.of    burgh,  H'JOO,    Schleswig-   quis  of 
Hesse,       as  d.  of         Holstein.    Lome. 
1 1878.    Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha. 


Arthur, 
d.  of 
Con- 
naught. 


Leopold, 
d.  of  Al- 
bany, 

tl»84. 


Beatrice, 
ni.  pr. 

Henry  of 
Batten- 
berg. 


Albert  Victor, 

d.  of  Clarence, 

tl892. 


George, 

Prince  of  Wales, 

m.  Mary  of  Teck, 

g.  g.  d.  of 

George  III. 


Louise, 

m.  d.  of 

Fife. 


Victoria. 


Maud, 
m.  Charles, 
pr.  of  Den- 
mark. 


Edward  Albart. 


Kenry. 


George. 


1820-1830.     George  IV.  (prince  regent  since  1811). 

1820,  Apr.  21.     First  (7th  imperial)  parliament  of  George  IV. 

1820.  Cato  street  conspiracy  for  assassinating  the  king's  minis- 
ters discovered. 

May  1.     The  leader,  Thistlewood,  and  four  accomplices  executed.  ^ 

1820,  Aug.-Nov.  The  king,  while  prince  of  Wales,  had  been,  in  a 
manner,  forced  to  marry  his  cousin.     The  marriage  was  an 

unhappy  one,  and  not  long  after  his  accession  ministers  brought  for- 


A.  D.  Great  Britain.  539 

ward  a  bill  of  pains  and  penalties  to  degrade  and  divorce  the  queen 
on  charges  of  misconduct.  In  the  trial  of  queen  Caroline  which 
followed,  Mr.  (afterwards  lord)  Brougham  and  Mr.  (afterwards  lord) 
Denman  so  shook  the  evidence  against  her,  on  the  cross-examination 
(1821,  July  18),  that  the  bill  was  abandoned.  She  was,  however,  ex- 
cluded from  the  coronation,  and  not  long  after  died. 

1821.  May.     Bank  of  England  resumed  specie  payments  (p.  535). 

1822.  Castlereagh  (lord  Londonderry)  committed  suicide,  and  was 
succeeded  at  the  foreign  office  by  George  Canning.  Mr. 
Peel  home  secretary. 

1823.  The  next  year  Huskisson  became  president  of  the  board  of 
trade,  and  Mr.  Robinson  (afterwards  lord  Goderich)  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer. 

1825,  Commercial  panic;  modification  of  the  monopoly  of  the  Bank 
of  England. 

1826,  Nov.  14.     Second  (8th  imperial)  parliament  of  Greorge  IV. 

1827,  Aug.  8-1828,  Jan.  25.    Lord  Goderich  premier. 

1827,  Oct.  20.     Navarino  ;  "  untoward  event "  (p.  489). 

1828,  Jan.  26-1830,  Nov.  22.     Duke  of  Wellington  prime  min- 

ister. Robert  Peel,  home  secretary  (b.  1788  ;  M.  P.  1809  ;  colo- 
nial secretary  1810  ;.  f  1850). 
1828,  Feb.  26.  Lord  John  Russell  (b.  1792  ;  M.  P.  1813  ;  earl  Rus- 
sell 1861 ;  t  1878)  moved  the  repeal  of  the  corporation 
and  test  acts  (p.  380),  which  was  carried  (May). 
A  declaration  containing  the  words  "  on  the  true  faith  of  a 
christian  "  was  substituted  for  the  sacramental  test,  thus  ad- 
mitting protestant  dissenters  to  office. 

1828,  July  15.     The  restrictions  on  the  importation  of  breadstufPs 

were  modified  by  the  adoption  of  the  sliding  scale. 
The  duke  of  Wellington  and  Mr.  Peel  became  convinced  of 
the  necessity  of  catholic  emancipation. 

1829,  April  13.     The  catholic  relief  act  substituted  a  new  form  of 

oath  for  the  oaths  of  supremacy,  allegiance,  and  abjuration,  and 
there  were  now  no  offices  from  which  catholics  were  excluded,  ex- 
cept those  of  regent,  lord  chancellor  of  England  and  Ireland,  and  vice- 
roy of  Ireland.  The  franchise  in  Ireland  was  raised  from  40s.  to  10^., 
and  certain  regulations  were  made  respecting  the  exercise  of  the 
Roman  catholic  religion. 

1830,  June  26.     Death  of  Ge&rge  IV. 

1830-1837.    WiUiamlV. 

1830,  Sept.  15.     Opening  of  the  Manchester  and  Liverpool  rait 

way  (Rocket  locomotive),  f  of  Huskisson. 
1830,  Oct.  26.     First  (9th  imperial)  parUament  of  "William  IV. 

When  parliament  opened  earl  Grey  declared  that,  in  his  opin- 
ion, the  only  way  to  avert  political  convulsions  was  by  a  reform  in 
parliament.     The  duke  of  Wellington  expressed  himself  as  opposed  to 
reform,  and  being  defeated  on  a  minor  question  resigned  Nov.  16. 
1830,  Nov.  24-1834,  July  18.     Earl  Grey,  prime  minister.     Lord 
Althorp,  chancellor  of  exchequer  ;  lord  Brougham,  lord  chan- 
cellor; lord  John  Russell,  paymaster-general  of  the  forces  ;  and 
lord  Melbourne,  home  secretary. 


540  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

1831,  March  31.     Lord  John  Russell  introduced  his  reform  bill.     It 

soon  became  apparent  that  there  was  no  prospect  of  passing 

Apr.  22.     the  bill,  and  parliament  was  dissolved. 

June  14.  Second  (10th  imperial)  parliament  of  William  IV. 
The  reform  bill  again  introduced;  passed  the  commons  Sept. 
21,  but  was  thrown  out  by  the  lords,  and  riots  ensued  through- 
out the  country. 

1832,  Mar.  19.     The  reform  bill,  with  some  alterations,  was  again 

passed  by  the  commons.  In  the  lords  an  amendment  was  car- 
ried against  ministers,  who  resigned  May  7,  but  resumed  office  May 
18,  the  king  having  consented  to  create  a  sufficient  number  of  new 
peers  to  secure  the  passage  of  the  bill  ;  but  this  proved  uimeccssary, 
as  many  tory  peers  refrained  from  voting,  and  the  bill  received  the 
royal  assent  June  7. 

1832.  By  this,  the  First  Reform  Act,  143  boroughs  lost  one 
or  both  members,  and  the  seats  thus  obtained  were  given  to 

several  large  towns  (Manchester,  Birmingham,  etc.),  to  the  larger  coun- 
ties,  and  to  new  boroughs.  At  the  same  time  the  franchise  was  ex- 
tended.    The  Scotch  reform  act,  July  17;  the  Irish  reform  act,  Aug.  7. 

1833,  Jan.  29.  Third  (11th  imperial)  parliament  of  William  IV. 
Apr.  2.     The  Irish  coercion  act. 

In  August  the  bill  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  throughout  the 
British  empire  was  passed.  The  sum  of  20,000,000Z.  was 
voted  to  the  slave-owners. 

1833.  Renewal  of  the  charter  of  the  Bank  of  England  ;  and  of  the  East 
India  Company  for  twenty  years,  but  the  trade  with  China 
was  thrown  open  (p.  561). 

1834.  The  question  of  an  extension  of  the  Irish  coercion  act  led  to 
the  resignation  of  earl  Grey. 

1834,  July  16-Nov.  14.  Lord  Melbourne  became  premier.  Lord 
Althorp,  lord  John  Russell,  and  lord  Brougham  retained  their 
places. 

1834.     Poor  law  amendment  act.     Local  boards  abolished  in  favor 

Aug.  of  a  central  board  of  commissioners.  Poor  law  unions  took  the 
place  of  work^houses,  and  the  system  of  out-door  relief  was  in  a 
great  measure  reformed. 

Nov.  The  king  dismissed  the  ministry,  and  the  duke  of  Welling- 
ton took  control  of  affairs  until  sir  Robert  Peel  could  be 
summoned  from  Rome. 

1834,  Dec.  8-1835,  Apr.  18.  Peel's  first  administration.  {Wel- 
lington, foreign  secretary.)     The  majority  in  the  commons 

1834,  Dec.  30.     was  against  ministers,  parliament  was  dissolved,  and 

Peel  issued  the  Tamworth  manifesto. 

1835,  Feb.  19.     Fourth   (12th  imperial)  parliament   of  William 

rV.  The  conservatives,  as  the  supporters  of  Peel  termed  them- 
Apr.  selves,  being  in  a  minority  in  the  commons,  ministers  resigned. 
1835,  Apr.  18-1841,  Sept.  3.     Second  Melbourne  ministry. 

Palmerston,  foreign  secretary  (b.  1784  ;  M.  P.  1807  ;  f  Oct. 
18,  18C5);  lord  John  Russell,  home  secretary;  viscount  Hoivick, 
secretary  of  war,  —  succeeded  in  1839  by  T.  B.  Macaulay 
(b.  1800  ;  M.  P.  1830  ;  raised  to  the  peerage  1857  ;  f  1859). 


A.  D.  Great  Britain.  541 

1835,  Sept.    Reform  of  municipal  corporations  act,  London  not 

included. 

1836,  Commutation  of  tithes  act. 

1837,  June  20.     Death  of  William  IV.  (See  p.  542.) 

The  British  in  India.  {See  p.  444-) 

1786-1793.     Lord  Cornwallis,  governor-general. 

1792.  War  with  Tipu  Sultan,  ended  by  the  cession  of  one  half  of 
Mysore  to  the  English  and  allies. 

1793.  Capture  of  Pondicherri,  sir  John  Shore  (afterwards  lord 
Teignmouth),  governor-general,  succeeded  by 

1798-1805.   lord  Mornington  (afterwards  marquis  of  "Wellesley). 

1799.  Tipu  Sultan,  trusting  in  the  promises  of  Bonaparte,  again 
took  up  arms,  was  killed,  and  his  dominions  were  divided  be- 
tween the  English  and  the  Nizam. 

1802.  Holkar,  one  of  the  Mahrattd  chiefs,  drove  the  Peshwa  from 
Poona.  By  the  treaty  of  Bassein  the  English  agreed  to  assist 
the  Peshwa  provided  he  would  surrender  his  independence, 
and  maintain  a  body  of  European  troops  (the  subsidiary  policy). 
Sindhia  and  the  Raja  of  Nagpur  united  with  Holkar  against 
the  English.  The  latter  under  sir  Arthur  "Wellesley  (after- 
wards duke  of  Wellington),  brother  of  the  governor-general, 

1803.  gained  the  battles  of  Assaye,  Sept.  3,  and  Argaum,  Nov. 
29,  while  another  army  under  general  (afterwards  lord)  Lake 
won  the  battle  of  Laswari,  Nov,  1,  and  captured  Delhi.  The 
Raja  of  Nagpur  and  Sindhia,  by  treaties,  surrendered  much 

1804.  territory  to  the  English.  In  the  next  year  Holkar  was  de- 
feated by  Lake  at  Furrukabad,  and  again  near  Bhartpur  1805, 
and  made  peace  with  the  English  1806,  Jan.  7. 

1805.  July-Oct.     Lord  Cornwallis  again  governor-general;  f  Oct. ; 

and  was  succeeded  by 
1805-1807.    sir  G.  Barlow. 

1806.  Mutiny  of  the  Sepoys  at  Vellore. 
1807-1813.     Lord  Minto,  governor-general. 

1809.     Mutiny  of  the  European  officers  at  Seringapatam. 

1813-1823.  Lord  Moira  (afterwards  marquis  of  Hastings),  gov- 
ernor-general. 

1814-1815.      War  loith  the  Gurkhas  of  Nepal. 

1817.     Pindari  war. 

1817-1818.  Last  Mahratta  war.  The  dominions  of  the  Peshwa 
were  annexed  and  the  Rdjd  of  Ndgpur  was  put  under  British 
guardianship,  while  the  states  of  Rajputana  placed  themselves 
under  British  protection. 

1823-1828.     Lord  Amherst,  governor-general. 

1824^1826.     First  Burmese  war,  English  acquire  Assam,  etc. 

1828-1835.  Lord  William  Bentinck,  governor-general.  Financial 
reforms  ;  abolition  of  sati  (suttee)  or  widow-burning  ;  sup- 
pression of  the  thagi  (thugs)  or  hereditary  assassins. 

1833.  Company's  charter  renewed  for  twenty  years,  but  the  trade 
was  thrown  open,  and  Europeans  allowed  to  settle  in  the  coun- 


542  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

try.  A  legal  member  added  to  the  governor's  council,  and  a 
commission  appointed  to  revise  and  codify  the  laws.  Macau- 
lay,  first  legal  member,  and  president  of  the  commission.  The 
only  annexation  of  this  time  was  that  of  Coorg. 
1835-1836.  Short  administration  of  sir  Charles  (afterwards 
lord)  Metcalfe,  memorable  for  giving  entire  freedom  to  the 
press.  (5ee  p.  546.) 

Great  Britain.  (See  p.  64I.) 

1837-1901.  Victoria  (only  child  of  the  late  duke  of  Kent). 
Separation  of  Hanover  from  Great  Britain  ;  duke  of  Cumber' 
land,  the  eldest  surviving  son  of  George  III.,  became  king. 

1837,  Nov.  15.     First  (13th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 

1837.  Rebellion  in  Canada.  Burning  of  the  American  steamer  Car- 
oline. The  rebels  finally  reduced  to  obedience  in  1839.  The 
two  provinces,  upper  and  lovrer  Canada,  were  iinited  in 
1840,  and  in  1847  responsible  government  was  introduced  into 
the  colony. 

1838,  Aug.     Meeting  of  working  people  near  Birmingham.     A  na- 

tional petition  or  peoples'  charter  was  drawn  up.  The 
petitioners  or  chartists  demanded,  1.  annual  parliaments  ;  2. 
universal  (manhood)  suffrage  ;  3.  vote  by  ballot ;  4.  abolition 
of  the  property  qualification  of  members  of  parliament  :  and  5. " 
payment  for  their  services.  To  these  "  five  points  "  a  sixth,  that 
of  equal  electoral  districts,  was  afterwards  added.  The  petition 
was  presented  to  the  commons,  1839,  June  14,  and  its  rejection  was 
followed  by  riots  which  were  easily  suppressed. 

1838,  Sept.     The  anti-corn  la'w  league  formed  at  Manchester  under 

the  leadership  of  John  Bright  (b.  1811 ;  M.  P.  1843  ;  f  1889) 
and  Richard  Cobden  (b.  1804  ;  M.  P.  1847;  f  1865). 

1839,  Opium  -war  with  China  ended  by  treaty  of  Nankin,  1842, 
Aug.  29  (p.  561). 

1840,  Jan.     Penny  postage  introduced  (sir  Rowland  HUl). 

Feb.  10.  The  queen  married  her  cousin  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg  and 
Gotha. 

1841,  Aug.  19.     Second  (14th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 

1841,  Sept.  6-1846,  June  29.  Peel's  second  administration. 
Duke  of  Wellington  in  the  cabinet  without  office  ;  earl  Ripon, 
board  of  trade,  succeeded  in  1843  by  "W.  E.  Gladstone  (b. 
1809  ;    M.  P.  1832  ;  f  1898). 

1842.  Second  sliding  scale  adopted  ;  and  the  duties  on  over  700 
articles  either  removed  or  reduced,  the  deficiency  so  created  bet- 
ing made  up  by  an  income  tax  (June  22). 

1844.     Charter  of  the  Bank  of  England  renewed  (Peel  act).     The 
issue  department  established,  weekly  returns  to  be  published  ; 
and  circulation  limited  to  14,000,000Z. 
1846.     Total  repeal  of  the  corn  laws. 

The  sliding  scale  abolished  ;  the  duty  on  wheat  imported  at  or 
above  53s.  per  quarter  to  be  4s.  per  quarter  until  1849,  Feb.  1,  after 
that  time  to  be  an  uniform  Is.  per  quarter  on  all  kinds  of  grain  im- 
ported into  the  United  Kingdom  ;  this  Is.  duty  was  repealed  in  1869. 


A.  D.  Great  Britain.  543 

1846,  June.  Settlement  of  the  Oregon  boundary  dispute  with  the  United 
States  (p.  554). 

1846,  July  6-1852,  Feb.  23.  Ministry  of  lord  John  Russell ;  lord 
Palmerston,  foreign  secretary  ;  Maoaulay,  paymaster  gen- 
eral. 

1846.  Failure  of  the  potato  crop  in  Ireland  caused  a  famine  1846 
and  1847.  Popidation  of  Ireland  1841,  8,222,664.  1851, 
6,633,982. 

1847.  Commercial  panic  in  England. 

1847,  Nov.  18.    Third  (15th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 
This  distress  coupled  with  the  excitement  produced  by  the  rev- 

1848.  olutions  of  1848  (p.  492)  roused  rebellion  in  Ireland,  which 
was  easUy  suppressed,  and  its  leaders  Smith  O^Brien  and  Mit- 

1848,  April  10.     chell  transported  ;  while  in  England  the  chartists 

held  a  monster  meeting  on  Kennington  common^  and  presented 
a  petition  to  parliament. 

1849,  June.     Repeal  of  the  navigation  laws.     Encumbered  estates 
July,     act  (Ireland). 

1850,  Sept.  30.  Papal  bull  establishing  a  Roman  catholic  hie- 
rarchy in  England. 

1851,  July.     Ecclesiastical  titles  bill,  imposing  a  fine  of  1001.  on  all 

who  should  endeavor  to  carry  this  papal  bull  into  effect,  passed 
(never  executed). 
1851.      Telegraphic  commimication  between  France  and  Eng- 
land. 

1851.  Great  exhibition  of  the  industries  of  all  nations  in  Hyde  Park, 
London. 

1852,  Feb.  27-Dec.  18.  Earl  Derby's  first  ministry,  Disraeli, 
chancellor  of  exchequer  (b.  1805  ;  "  Vivian  Grey "  1825  ; 
M.  P.  1837  ;  earl  of  Beaconsfield,  1876  ;  f  1881). 

Sept.  14.     Death  of  the  duke  of  Wellington. 

1852,  Nov.  4.     Fourth  (16th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 

1852,  Dec.  28-1855,  Feb.  5.     Aberdeen  administration.     W.  B. 
Gladstone,  chancellor  of  exchequer;  lord  Palmerston,  home 
secretary  ;  lord  John  Russell,  foreign  secretary. 
End  of  Caffir  war  in  South  Africa. 

Oct.  30.     The  British  fleet  entered  the  Bosphorus. 

1853-1856.     Crimean  war  (p.  499). 

1854,  June  5.    Reciprocity  treaty  with  the   United  States  concluded 

(p.  555)  ;  abrogated  1866. 

1855.  The  mismanagement  with  regard  to  the  supply  of  food  and 
clothing  for  the  army  in  the  Crimea  and  the  feeble  prosecu- 
tion of  the  war  rendered  the  administration  unpopular,  and 

1855,  Jan.  30.     lord  Aberdeen  resigned. 

1855,  Feb.  5-1858,  Feb.  22.  Palmerston  premier.  Gladstone, 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  res.  Feb.  22. 

Feb.  19.     Bread  riots  at  Liverpool. 

1856.  Treaty  of  Paris  ended  the  Crimean  war  (p.  501),     War 
Mar.  30.     with  China.     Treaty  of  Tien-tsin,  June  26,  1859.     Peace 

ofPekin  Aug.  24,  1860  (p.  562). 
1867,  Apr.  30.     Fifth  (17th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 


544  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

Nov.  12.     Great  commercial  panic.    Suspension  of  the  hank  charter 

act  of  1^^. 
In  consequence  of  the  attempted  assassination  of  Napoleon  III. 

by  Orsini,  lord  Palmerston  introduced  the  conspiracy  to  murder 

bill.     On  its  rejection  in  the  commons  the  ministry  resigned, 

and  the 
1858,  Feb.  22-1859,  June  11.    Second  Derby  ministry  took  office  ; 

Disraeli,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
1858,  June.    Property  qualification  of  members  of  parliament 

abolished. 
July.     Je^vs  admitted  to  parliament. 

Act  for  the  better  government  of  India. 
Aug.  5.      The  successful  laying  of  the  frst  Atlantic  cable  (ceased 

working  Sept.  4). 
Aug.  26.     Treaty  with   the  tycoon  (shogun)  of  Japan  (p.  563). 

1858.  The  queen  of  England  proclaimed  sovereign  of  India. 
The  government  of  the  East  India  company  ceased. 

The  ministry,  defeated  on  a  reform  bill  introduced  by  THsraeli, 
Apr.  13.     dissolved  parliament,  but  being  in  a  minority  in  the 

1859,  May  31.     Sixth  (18th  imperial)  parliament   of  Victoria, 
resigned,  and  the 

1859,  June  13-1865,  Nov.  6.      Second  Palmerston  ministry  came 

in.  Gladstone,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  ;  earl  Russell 
(formerly  lord  John),  foreign  secretary  ;  lord  Campbell^  lord 
chancellor. 

1860,  Jan.  23.     Commercial  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  France. 
July-Oct.     The  prince  of  "Wales  visits  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada. 

1861,  July  27.     Rupture  of  diplomatic  relations  with  Mexico. 

Nov.  8.     Mason  and  Slidell  taken  from  the  British  mail  steamer 

Trent  (p.  557). 
Dec.  23.     Death  of  the  prince  consort. 

1862,  Second  Exhibition  of  the  industry  of  all  nations  opened  in 
May  1.     London. 

1863,  The  Maori  (native)  war  in  New  Zealand,  ended  in  1869. 

1864,  The  Schleswig-Holstein  question  (p.  505). 

June.     Final  cession  of  the  Ionian  Islands  to  Greece  (p.  483). 
July.     The  Thames  embankment  begun. 

1865,  June.     Commencement  of  the  Cattle  Plague. 
Oct.     Insurrection  in  Jamaica. 

Oct.  18.     Death  of  lord  Palmerston. 

1865,  Nov.  6-1866,  June  26.     Earl  Russell  premier. 

1866,  Feb.  1.     Seventh  (19th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 
Feb.     Habeas  corpus  act  suspended  in  Ireland. 

May.     Failure  of  Overend,  Gurney  and  Co.  (liabilities  over  19,000i- 

OOOZ.).     Panic  in  London. 
July      Telegraphic  communication  with  America  finally  established. 

1866,  July  6-1868,  Feb.  27.      Third  Derby  ministry.     Disraeli, 

chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 

1867,  Aug.  15.    The  second  reform  act,  —  "a  leap  in  the  dark,"  — 

which  greatly  extended  the  franchise,  received  the  royal  as* 
sent. 


A.  D.  Great  Britain.  545 

1867.  The  Fenians  attempted  the  seizure  of  the  arsenal  at  Chester 
(Feb.).  Rising  in  Ireland,  easily  suppressed.  Attempt  to 
release  Fenians  confined  in  Clerkenwell  prison,  by  exploding 
gunpowder  under  the  walls. 

1867.  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick  were  combined 
into  one  Dominion  of  Canada,  with  power  to  take  in  new 
provinces.  Each  province  retained  its  own  legislature  for 
local  affairs.  All  British  America,  with  the  exception  of 
Newfoundland,  now  belongs  to  this  confederation. 

1867.  Abyssinia  expedition,  Magdala. 

1868,  Feb.  27-Dec.  3.     Lord  Derby  resigned,  and  Mr.  Disraeli  be- 

came premier.  The  general  elections  to  the  new  parliament 
were  so  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  liberals  that  the  ministry  re- 
signed, and 

1868,  Dec.  9-1874,  Feb.  21.  Mr.  Gladstone  became  prime  minister. 

1868,  Dec.  10.     Eighth  (20th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 

July  26.  Disestablishment  and  disendowment  of  the  Irish 
church.  A  portion  of  the  money  so  obtained  given  to  the 
Bioman  catholic  college  of  Maynooth,  and  another  portion  ap- 
plied to  educational  purposes.  The  royal  assent  was  at  the  same 
time  given  to  the  bankruptcy  bill,  and  to  a  bill  abolishing 
imprisonment  for  debt.  (Debtors'  prisons  :  Fleet,  Marshal- 
sea,  etc.) 

1868,  Oct.  16.     Opening  of  the  Suez  canal. 

1870.     Irish  land  act  provided,  among  other  things,  for  compen- 
sation to  out-going  tenants  ;  for  loans  to  landlords  for  im- 
provements, and  to  tenants  desirous  of  purchasing  their  hold-" 
ings  (Bright  clauses). 
At  the  same  session  a  system  of 

1870.  national  education  was  established  by  law. 

1871.  Purchase  in  the  army  abolished. 

Treaty  of  Washington  with  the  United  States,  by  which  the 
Alabama  claims  were  settled  by 

1872.  Arbitration  at  Geneva  and  the  so-called  northwestern  boun- 
dary dispute,  decided  by  the  emperor  of  Germany  as  arbiter 
(p.  560). 

1872.  Vote  by  ballot  introduced. 

1873.  Ashantee  war.   Coomassie  taken  by 

1874.  the  British,  commanded  by  general  Wolseley. 

1874,  Feb.  21.-1880,  Apr.  28.  Mr.  Disraeli  (1876,  Aug.,  earl  of 
Beaconsfield),  premier  ;  sir  Stafford  Northcote,  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer. 

1874,  March  5.     Ninth  (21st  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 

1875.  Purchase  of  Suez  canal  shares  from  the  khedive  of  Egypt. 
1875,  1876.     Visit  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  to  India.     The  queen  pro- 
claimed empress  of  India.     Commercial  panic. 

1878,  July  13.     Treaty  of  Berlin.     British  take  possession  of  Cyprus 

July  14  (p.  624). 

1879.  Irish  land  league,  supported  by  Pamelly  Dillon,  etc  1879^ 
1880,  famine  in  Ireland. 

1879.     War  loith  the  Zulus  ("  Jingoism  "). 
35 


546  Modem  History.  ^.  d. 

1880,  Feb.  23.  Parliament  dissolved.  Elections  in  favor  of  liberals  ; 
resignation  of  ministers,  Apr.  22. 

1880,  Apr.  28.  Mr.  Gladstone,  prime  minister  ;  marquis  ofHar- 
im^rton,  secretary  for  India;  W.  E.  Forster,  chief  secretary  for 
Ireland,  succeeded  by  lord  F.  Cavendish,  and  he  by  G.  O.  Tre- 
vellyan.    John  Bright,  chancellor  of  the  duchy. 

1880,  Apr.  29.     Tenth  (22d  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 

1881,  March  3.     Irish  coercion  act. 

Aug.  22.  Irish  land  act  provided  for  a  court  of  commission  to  try 
differences  between  landlords  and  tenants  ;  and  in  a  measure 
granted  the  "  three  F's  :  "  1.  free  sale  ;  2.  fair  rents  ;  3.  fx- 
ity  of  tenure. 

1882,  May  6.     Murder  of  lord  Frederick  Cavendish  and    an 

under-secretary  in  Dublin. 
July  11.     Bombardment   of  Alexandria    (Egypt).      Resignation  of 

John  Bright. 
July  14.     A  new  Irish  coercion  act  went  into  force. 
Sept.     Total  defeat  of  Egyptian  rebels  by  the  British,  commanded  by 

sir  Garnet  Wolseley.     Capture  of  Tel-el-Kehir.       (See  p.  565.) 

The  British  in  India.  {Seep.  542.) 

1836-1842.     Lord  Auckland,  governor-general. 

1839.  First  Afghan  "w^ar,  occasioned  by  an  attempt  to  place  a  ruler 
in  Afghanistan  who  should  be  subservient  to  the  British, 
Kabul  was  easily  occupied.  Dost  Muhammad  taken  prisoner, 
and  Shah  Shujd  installed.  In  November,  1841,  the  Afghans 
rose,  and,  led  by  Akhar  Khan,  drove  the  British  from  Kabul. 
Terrible  "winter  retreat  to  Jalalabad. 

1842-1844.  Earl  of  Ellenborough,  governor-general.  Two  ar- 
mies sent  to  Afghanistan.  Relief  of  Kandahar  and  Jalalabad. 
Capture  of  Kabul.  The  bazar  blown  up.  Dost  Muhammad  re^ 
placed,  and  the  British  withdrawn. 

1844-1848.  Sir  Henry  (afterwards  lord)  Hardinge,  governor- 
general. 

1845.     First  Sikh  war. 

1848-1856.    Earl  of  Dalhousie,  governor-general. 

1848,  1849.  Second  Sikh  -war  ended  in  the  annexation  of  the 
Punjab. 

1852.     Second  Burmese  war.     British  Burma  annexed. 

1856.  Annexation  of  Oudh  on  the  ground  of  misrule. 
1856-1862.     Earl  Canning,  governor-general. 

1857.  May  10.   Mutiny  of  the  Sepoys  at  Mirath  (Meerut).    Rising 

of  the  Muhammadans  at  Delhi.  Massacre  at  Cawnpore 
(Nana  Sahib),  June  27.  First  relief  of  Lucknow  by  Have- 
lock,  Sept.  25  ;  final  deliverance  of  the  garrison  by  sir  Colin 
Campbell,  Nov.  16.  Siege  and  capture  of  Delhi,  June-Sept. 
The  mughal  emperor,  Bahadur  Shah,  captured,  deposed,  and 
banished  to  Rangoon  ;  f  1862.     End  of  the  mughal  empire. 

1858.  The  government  of  India  transferred  to  the  crovrn;  gov- 
ernor-general to  be  viceroy. 


A.  D.  United  States.  547 

1862-1863.     Lord  Elgin,  viceroy  ;  1864-1869,  lord  Lawrence, 

viceroy.    Famine  in  Orissa,  1866  ;  in  Bundelkhand  and  Upper 

Hindustan,  1868,  1869. 
1869-1872.     Lord  Mayo,  viceroy.     Internal  improvements. 
1872-1876.     Lord  Northbrook,  viceroy.     Dethronement  of  the 

Mahrattd  Gdekwdr  of  Baroda.    Visit  of  the  prince  of  Wales  to 

India. 
1876-1880.     Lord  Lytton,  viceroy. 

1877,  Jan.  1.   The  queen  proclaimed  empress  of  India. 
1877,  1878.     Famine  in  southern  India. 

1878-1881.  Second  Afghan  war.  Refusal  of  Sher  Ali  to  admit  a 
British  embassy.  The  Khaihar  (Kyber),  the  Kuram,  and  the 
Boldn  passes  occupied  by  the  British  troops,  f  Sher  Ali.  Abdication 
of  his  son,  Ydkuh  Khan.  Defeat  of  a  brigade  of  British  troops  by 
Ayub  Khan.  Brilliant  march  of  sir  F.  Roberts  from  Kabul  to  Kanda- 
har, and  rout  of  Ayub  Khan,  1880,  Sept.  1.  Abdurrahman  Khdn, 
the  eldest  male  representative  of  Dost  Muhammad,  recognized  by  the 
British  as  Amir,  and  their  troops  withdrawn  from  Kabul  and  Kanda- 
hdr. 

1880.  Marquis  of  Ripon,  viceroy. 

1881.  Population  of  all  India  252,541,210,  an  increase  in  ten  years 
of  over  twelve  millions.  {See  p.  565) 

§5.    UNITED  STATES.  {Seep.  433.) 

1789-1882. 

1789.    First  congress  met  at  New  York,  March  4. 

1789.     George  Washington  (Virginia),  president.     John 

Apr.  30.     Adams,  vice-president. 

Nov.  1.     North  Carolina  accepted  the  constitution. 

1789.  Three  executive  departments  created.  Thomas  Jefferson 
(b.  1743,  t  1825),  secretary  of  state  ;  Alexander  Hamilton 
(b.  1757,  -f  1804),  secretary  of  the  treasury  ;  Henry  Knox,  sec- 
retary of  war.  These  with  the  attorney  general  formed  the 
cabinet.  A  national  judiciary  was  also  established.  John 
Jay,  chief  Justice  of  the  supreme  court. 

1789.  First  ten  amendments  (in  the  nature  of  a  bill  of  rights)  to 
the  constitution  proposed  by  congress  to  the  state  legislatures,  and 
ratified,  in  the  course  of  two  years,  by  three  fourths  of  the 
states. 

1790,  May  29.     Rhode  Island  accepted  the  constitution. 

1790.  The  financial  affairs  of  the  country  were  put  on  a  firm  basis. 
The  seat  of  government  to  be  at  Philadelphia  for  ten  years,  and 
after  that  permanently  located  on  the  Potomac,  where  land 
was  ceded  by  the  states  of  Maryland  and  Virginia  {District  of 
Columbia),  and  the  city  of  Washington  laid  out. 

1790-1795.  Indian  war.  Defeat  of  Harmar  1790  ;  St.  Clair  1791  ; 
and  victory  of  Wayne  1794. 

1790.  Death  of  Franklin. 

Population  3,921,326  (1st  census).     National  debt  Jan.  1,  1791, 
$75,463,476.52. 

1791,  Aug.    George  Hammond,  minister  from  Great  Britain,  received. 

Vermont  admitted  (14th  state). 


548  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

A  national  bank  (United  States  bank)  chartered  for  twenty 
1792,  Apr.  2.     years,  and  a  mint,  were  established  at  Philadelphia. 
1792.     Two   parties  now  came  into  prominence  :   the   republican, 

afterwards  democratic,  led  by  Jefferson  •  and  the  federalist, 

whose  leaders  were  Hamilton  and  Adams. 

1792.  Kentucky  admitted  (15th  state). 
Eli  Whitney  invented  the  cotton  gin. 
"Washington  and  Adams  reelected. 

1793.  France  declared  war  against  Great  Britain,  and  sent  Genet  as 
minister  to  the  United  States.  He  arrived  at  Charleston  in 
April,  and  proceeded  to  fit  out  privateers,  etc. 

Washington  issued  a  proclamation  of  neutrality,  Apr.  22  ; 
and  the  next  year  (1794)  the  neutrality  act  was  passed. 
Genet  appealed  from  the  executive  to  the  people,  and,  upon  the 
demand  of  the  government,  was  recalled. 

1793.  Fugitive  slave  act,  substantially  a  dead  letter  until  revived 
in  1850. 

1794.  Whiskey  insurrection  in  western  Pennsylvania.  It 
was  caused  by  an  internal  revenue  law  of  1791,  which  laid  an 
excise  on  domestic  spirits,  and  was  put  down  by  an  army  com- 
posed of  the  nulitia  of  Pennsylvania  and  adjoining  states. 

1794.  Eleventh  amendment,  securing  the  non-suability  of  states, 
proposed  by  congress,  and  declared  ratified  Jan.  1798. 

1794.  Peace  purchased  from  Algiers^  and  from  Tripoli  and  Tunis 
in  the  following  years. 

1794.  The  treaty  of  peace  (p.  432)  had  been  fully  carried  out  by 
neither  party.     Great  Britain  had  not  delivered  the  posts  held 

by  her  on  the  northern  frontier.  And  she  was  accused  of  inciting  the 
Indians  to  hostility,  of  impressing  American  seamen,  and  of  capturing 
American  trading  vessels  ;  and  besides,  many  slaves  had  been  carried 
away  by  the  British  when  they  evacuated  New  York.  On  the  other 
side,  it  was  alleged  that  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  with  regard  to 
the  collection  of  debts  due  to  British  subjects  had  not  been  observed. 
To  settle  these  difEerences  John  Jay  was  sent  to  England,  and  a 

^794,  Nov.  19.  Treaty  of  amity,  commerce,  and  navigation 
(Jay's  treaty)  was  concluded.  It  provided  for  the  delivery 
of  the  posts  before  June,  1796  ;  for  a  commission  to  decide 
what  river  was  the  "  St.  Croix  "  (p.  432) ;  for  compensation  in 
certain  cases  to  British  subjects  and  American  citizens,  to  be  as- 
certained by  commissioners  ;  for  the  regulation  of  trade  between 
the  two  countries ;  for  the  extradition  of  criminals,  etc.  Tlie 
treaty  met  with  great  opposition;  the  ratif  cations  were  not  ex- 
changed till  Oct.  1795  ;  and  the  money  necessary  to  carry  it 
out  was  not  voted  till  1796  (speech  of  Fisher  Ames). 

1795.  Treaty  with  Spain  established  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
United  States,  and  secured  the  free  navigation  of  the  Missis^ 
sippi,  with  right  of  deposit  at  New  Orleans. 

1796.  Tennessee  admitted  (16th  state). 
Sept.  18.     Washington's  farewell  address. 

1797.  Mar.  4.  John  Adams  (Massachusetts),  federalist,  2d 
president. 


A.  D.  United  States.  549 

Thomas  Jefferson,  republican,  vice-president. 
1797.    Special  mission  to  France,    Attempt  on  the  part  of  the  French 

to  extort  money  (X.  Y.  Z.  affair).  Pinckney,  one  of  the  envoys, 
replied  :  "  Millions  for  defense,  not  one  cent  for  tribute."  Hostilities 
actually  began.  Provisional  army  raised  ;  Washington,  lieutenant- 
general  ;  navy  department  organized  1798  ;  Constellation  captured 
L'Insurgente  1799  ;  but  when  Bonaparte  came  into  power  more  pacific 
intentions  prevailed,  and  a  convention  was  concluded  1800,  Sept.  30. 
1797.     The  language  of  the  French  sympathizers  became  so  violent 

that  the  alien  and  sedition  laws  were  passed.  They  were 
followed  by  the  Kentucky  and  Virginia  resolutions  of  1798-1799, 
in  which  it  was  asserted  that  a  state  had  a  right  to  decide  for  itself 
how  far  the  national  authority  should  be  considered  binding. 

1799,  Dec.  14.     Death  of  Washington. 

1800,  Nov.  22.     Congress  met  in  Washington  for  the  first  time. 

Population,  5,319,762  (2d  census). 

1801,  John  Marshall,  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court.  In  the 
elections  of  1800  the  republican  candidates  received  a  major- 
ity of  the  votes,  but  as  they  had  equal  numbers  the  election 
went  to  the  house  of  representatives,  which  chose 

1801.  Thomas  Jefferson  (Virginia)  3d  president ;  and 
Aaron  Burr,  vice-president.  James  Madison,  secretary  of 
state  ;  Albert  Gallatin,  secretary  of  the  treasury. 

1801-1802.  Repeal  of  the  internal  revenue  taxes,  and  of  many  un- 
popular laws.     1802.     Ohio  admitted  (17th  state). 

1808>  April  30.  The  Louisiana  Purchase,  by  which  the 
United  States  acquired  :  all  of  its  present  area  between  the 
Mississippi  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  north  of  the  then  northern 
boundary  of  Mexico  j  the  island  on  which  New  Orleans  stands  ; 
and  a  claim  to  Texas,  to  west  Florida,  as  that  portion  of  the 
present  states  of  Mississippi  and  Alabama  south  of  31°  north 
latitude  was  then  called,  and  perhaps  even  to  territory  west  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  (p.  554).  The  price  was  fifteen  mil- 
lions of  dollars,  and  the  original  area  of  the  United  States 
was  more  than  doubled. 

X803,  Dec.  12.  Twelfth  amendment,  altering  the  mode  of  elect- 
ing president  and  vice-president,  proposed  by  congress,  and  de- 
clared ratified  1804,  Sept.  25. 

1804-1805.  Failure  of  the  impeachment  of  Chase,  a  justice  of  the 
supreme  court. 

1804,  July.     Aaron  Burr  killed  Alexander  Hamilton  in  a  duel. 
1801-1805.     Tripolitan  war.     Burning  of  the  frigate  Philadelphia 

(Decatur),  which  had  been  captured  while  aground,  1804. 
Capture  of  Deme.  Bombardment  of  Tripoli.  Treaty  1805. 
No  more  tribute  to  be  paid  by  the  United  States. 

1805,  Thomas  Jefferson  reelected  president ;  George 
Clinton  vice-president. 

1806,  April.     The  British  ship  Leander  fired  on  an  American  trad- 

ing sloop,  killing  John  Pierce,  the  owner.  The  Leander  ordered 
out  of  the  waters  of  the  United  States. 


550  Modem  History.  A.  i>. 

1806,  May  16.     The  British  government  issued  orders  in  council, 

declaring  the  coast  of  Europe  from  the  'Elhe  to  Brest  to  be  in 
a  partial  state  of  blockade  ;  Napoleon  replied  (Nov.  21)  by  the  Ber- 
lin decree  (p.  469).  Great  Britain  issued  other  orders  in  council 
(Jan.  7  and  Nov.  11,  1807),  followed  (Dec.)  by  the  Milan  decree 
(p.  537),  which  orders  and  decrees  practically  put  an  end  to  the  most 
profitable  portion  of  the  commerce  of  the  United  States. 

1807,  June  22.     The  frigate  Chesapeake  was  fired  into  by  the  British 

ship  Leopard,  and  four  men  claimed  as  deserters  were  taken  out 
of  her  by  the  British.  The  president  by  proclamation  ordered  all 
British  ships  of  war  to  leave  the  coast ;  reparation  was  demanded  of 
Great  Britain,  and  congress  laid  an  embargo  (Jeflterson's  embargo) 
on  all  shipping  in  the  ports  of  the  United  States  (Dec.  22). 

1806.  FaUure  of  Miranda's  scheme  for  revolutionizing  the  Span- 
ish American  colonies. 

1807.  Trial  and  acquittal  of  Aaron  Burr,  late  vice-president, 
for  treason.  It  is  said  that  he  had  designed  seizing  New 
Orleans,  detaching  several  states  from  the  union,  and  invading 
Mexico. 

1807.  Robert  Fulton  made  the  first  successful  application  of  steam 
to  navigation,  in  the  steamboat  Clermont  (engine  imported). 

1808.  The  importation  of  slaves  into  the  United  States  prohib- 
ited after  Jan.  1,  1808. 

The  embargo  policy  was  designed  to  compel  Great  Britain  and 
France  to  withdraw  their  orders  and  decrees.  The  further  history  is 
as  follows  :  — 

1808.  Supplementary  acts  :  1.  Jan.  8,  coasting  and  fishing  ves- 
sels to  give  bonds  to  re-land  cargoes  in  United  States.   2.  Mar. 

12,  boats  and  vessels  of  all  kinds  and  land-carriages  made  subject  to 
the  embargo  [April  17,  Bayonne  decree  directing  the  seizure  of  all 
American  vessels  then  in  the  ports  of  France].  3.  Apr.  25,  coasting 
trade  forbidden  to  foreign  vessels,  and  to  be  exercised  by  others  only 
under  the  most  stringent  rules  ;  enforcing  act  of  1809  (Jan.  9),  by 
which  every  attempt  to  avoid  the  embargo  worked  the  forfeiture  of  ship, 
boat,  or  vehicle,  and  involved  2ifine  oif our  times  the  value  of  the  mer- 
chandise, one  half  to  the  informer,  and  the  president  was  authorized  to 
use  the  army  and  navy  to  enforce  the  embargo.  Embargo  repealed 
except  as  to  France  and  England,  to  take  effect  1809,  Mar.  15.  No 
goods  to  be  imported  from  those  countries  after  May  20. 

1809.  March  4.  James  Madison  (Virginia),  democrat,  4th 
president.    Jam£s  Monroe,  secretary  of  state. 

1810.  Population  7,239,881  (3d  census). 

1810,  March  23.     Rambouillet  decree,  ordering  the  sale  of  all 

American  vessels   which  had  been  seized  for  violating  the 

French  decrees. 

1810,  May  1.     Act  known  as  Macon's  No.  2  provided  that  in  case 

either  Great  Britain  or  France  should  revoke  its  edicts  the 

United  States  would  prohibit  trade  with  the  other.    Napoleon  revoked 

the  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees,  but  not  the  Rambouillet  decree,  Aug. 

5,  to  take  effect  Nov.  1,  as  to  American  vessels.    This  was  considered 

by  the  president  as  a  sufficient  compliance  with  the  condition  of 


I 


A.  D.  United  States.  551 

Macon's  No.  2,  and  a  proclamation  declared  the  non-importation  act 
revived  as  to  Great  Britain  after  Feb.  2,  1811. 

1811,  May  16.     Engagement  between  the  American  frigate  Presi- 

dent and  the  British  ship  Little  Belt. 

1812.  Louisiana  admitted  (18th  state). 

1812,  Apr.  4.  Embargo  for  ninety  days.  War  declared  against 
Great  Britain.  The  orders  in  council  of  Jan.  and  Apr.  1807, 
revoked  (June  23). 

1812-1814.  War  with  Great  Britain.  Events  of  1812. 
Unsuccessful  invasion  of  Canada,  surrender  of  Detroit  (Aug. 
16),  defeat  at  Queenstown  (Oct.  13).  On  the  water,  however,  the 
American  ship  Essex  (Porter)  captured  the  Alert;  the  Constitution 
(Hull),  the  Guerriere;  the  "Wasp,  the  Frolic  (both  taken  by  the  Poic- 
tiers,  a  British  74)  ;  the  United  States  (Decatur),  the  Macedonian  ; 
and  the  Constitution  (Bainbridge),  the  Java.  In  1813  the  Amer- 
icans were  defeated  at  Frenchtown  (Jan.) ;  gamed  the  battle  of  Lake 
Erie  (Perry) ;  but  were  driven  from  their  posts  on  the  Niagara.  The 
English  blockaded  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  June  1  the  British 
frigate  Shannon  captured  the  Chesapeake;  the  Pelican,  the  Argus ; 
but  on  the  other  hand  the  American  ship  Hornet  took  the  Peacock  ; 
the  Enterprise,  the  Boxer.  In  1814  there  was  another  attempt  to 
invade  Canada;  the  Americans  captured  Fort  Erie  and  won  the 
battles  of  Chippewa  (July  5)  and  Lundy's  Lane  (July  15),  but 
these  victories  led  to  nothing.  Battle  of  Lake  Champlain  won  by 
McDonough  (Sept.  11).  Aug.  24,  the  British  under  Ross  defeated 
the  Americans  at  Bladensburgh  ;  entered  Washington  the  next  day 
and  burnt  all  the  public  buildings  ;  but  were  repulsed  in  an  at- 
tempt on  Baltimore  (Sept.  13)  ;  and  with  great  loss  at  New  Or- 
leans (Dec,  Jackson).  At  sea  the  American  ship  Essex  (Porter), 
after  a  successful  cruise  in  the  Pacific,  was  captured  by  the  Phoebe 
and  Cherub ;  the  Peacock  captured  the  Epervier  ;  the  "Wasp,  the 
Reindeer  and  Avon.  In  1815  the  Constitution  captured  the  Cyane 
and  Levant ;  and  the  Hornet,  the  Penguin ;  while  the  President  sur- 
rendered to  a  British  squadron.  Peace,  however,  had  been  made  at 
Ghent,  December  24,  1814,  by  a  treaty  by  which  none  of  the  ques- 
tions which  led  to  the  war  were  settled,  but  which  provided  for  com- 
missions to  run  the  boundaries,  as  determined  in  previous  treaties. 

The  eastern  states  had  resisted  the  embargo^  and  later  had  taken 
a  very  lukewarm  interest  in  the  war,  and  had  consequently  been  left 
to  shift  for  themselves.  This  dissatisfaction  led  to  the  summoning  of 
the  Hartford  convention,  1814,  Dec.  15,  which  adjourned  in  three 
weeks  without  accomplishing  anything. 

1815.  Squadron,  under  Decatur,  sent  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  a 
treaty  negotiated  with  Algiers. 

1816.  The  second  United  States  bank  chartered  for  twenty 
years  (charter  of  1st  expired  in  1811).  Protective  tariff.  In- 
diana admitted  (19th  state). 

1817-1825.  James  Monroe  (Virginia),  democrat,  5th  pres- 
ident. Era  of  good  feeling.  J.  Q.  Adams,  secretary  of 
state  ;  W.  H.  Crawford,  secretary  of  the  treasury  ;  and  John 
C.  Calhoun,  secretary  of  war  (res.  1817). 


552  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

1817.  Mississippi  admitted  (20th  state). 

1817-1818.  Seminole  war  (Jackson).  Invasion  of  Florida,  then  a 
colony  of  Spain.     Execution  of  two  British  subjects. 

1818.  Illinois  admitted  (21st  state). 

Pensions  granted  to  the  survivors  of  the  revolutionary  war,  in 
needy  circumstances. 

Convention  with  Great  Britain  as  to  the  fisheries  ;  the  coun- 
try west  of  the  "  Stony  [Rocky]  Mountains  "  to  be  occu- 
pied by  the  two  pow^ers  in  common  for  ten  years,  etc. 

1819.  Treaty  with  Spain.  She  gave  up  all  claim  to  west  Florida, 
(p.  432)  which  had  been  occupied  by  the  United  States  since 
1810,  and  ceded  east  Florida.  The  United  States  gave  up  all 
claim  to  Texas,  and  agreed  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  five  mill- 
ions to  its  own  citizens  for  claims  which  they  had  against  Spain. 

1819.  Alabama  (22d  state).     Financial  crisis. 

1820.  Maine  (23d  state).    Population  of  the  United  States  9,638,453. 

1820.  Missouri  compromise,  by  which  it  was  agreed  that 
slavery  should  he  prohibited  in  the  United  States  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  north  of  36°  30'  north   latitude,  this  being  the 

1821.  southern  border  of  Missouri,  which  was  admitted  as  a  slave 
state  (24th  state). 

1823,  Dec.  2.  The  president  in  his  annual  message  enunciated  the 
Monroe  doctrine  :  "  That  the  American  continents,  by 
the  free  and  independent  position  which  they  have  assumed 
and  maintained,  are  henceforth  not  to  be  considered  as  subjects 
iov  future  colonization,  by  any  European  power ;  "  and  that  the 
extension  of  the  system  of  the  Holy  alliance  (p.  485)  to 
America  would  not  be  viewed  "  in  any  other  light  than  as  the 
manifestation  of  an  unfriendly  disposition  toward  the  United 
States." 
Neither  of  the  candidates  for  president  receiving  a  majority  of 
the  electoral  vote,  the  house  of  representatives  chose 

1825-1829.  John  Quincy  Adams  (b.  1767,  t  1848) 
(Massachusetts),  democrat,  president,  although  Andrew  Jack- 
son had  received  a  plurality  in  the  electoral  college  ;  John  C. 
Calhoun  (b.  1782,  f  1850),  vice-president  ;  Henry  Clay  (b. 
1777,  t  1852),  secretary  of  state. 

1825.  The  Erie  canal  was  finished  ;  the  first  railroad  in  America  (at 
Quincy,  Mass.)  was  completed  in  1827,  although  steam  was 
not  used  on  such  a  road  in  this  country  until  1829. 

1826.  Failure  of  the  Panama  congress,  and  1827  of  another  ap- 
pointed to  meet  near  the  city  of  Mexico.  These  were  at- 
tempts to  put  the  Monroe  doctrine  into  practice. 

1828.     Tariff  of  abominations, 

1829-1837.  Andrew  Jackson  (b.  1767, 1 1845),  (Tennes- 
see), democrat,  7th  president;  John  C.  Calhoun,  vice-president 
(res.  1831);  Martin  Van  Buren  (b.  1782,  f  1862),  secretary  of 
state. 
Inauguration  of  the  spoils  system  ;  about  690  office  holders 
removed  by  the  president  during  the  first  year  of  his  admint 


A.  D.  United  States.  553 

istration,  in  contrast  with  only  seventy-four  removals  ly 
all  former  •presidents.  The  government  was  now  in  the  hands 
of  those  who,  according  to  senator  Marcy  of  New  York,  saw 
"  notliing  wrong  in  the  rule  that  to  the  victor  belong  the 
spoils  of  the  enemy." 

1829.  The  merchants  of  Boston  protested  against  the  tariff  acts,  and 
were  followed  by  the  legislatures  of  South  Carolina^  Virginia, 
Alabama,  and  North  Carolina. 

1830.  Population  12,866,020  (5th  census). 

1830,  Jan.  27.     Speech  of  Daniel  Webster  (b.  1782,  f  1852),  in  the 

senate  of  the  United  States  in  reply  to  colonel  Hayne  of  South 
Carolina,  who  upheld  extreme  states-rights  views. 

1831.  "William  Lloyd  Garrison  established  in  Boston  a  paper 
called  the  Liberator,  advocating  the  immediate  and  uncondi- 
tional emancipation  of  the  negroes.  This  led  to  the  organization 
of  the  abolitionists. 

1831.  Convention  with  France,  mutual  settlement  of  claims.  France 
to  pay  the  United  States  25,000,000  francs,  and  to  be  paid 
1,300,000  francs,  such  sums  to  be  distributed  to  claimants  in 
either  country. 

The  tariff  act  of  1832,  while  containing  a  reduction  of  duties, 
retained  the  protective  principle.  A  convention  held  in  South 
Carolina  reported 

1832.  A  nullification  ordinance  (Nov.  1832),  which  de- 
clared that  the  tariff  laws  of  1828  and  1832  were  unconstitu- 
tional "  and  are  null  and  void,  and  no  law,  nor  binding  upon  this  state," 
etc.  Colonel  Hayne  was  elected  governor  of  South  Carolina,  and  Cal- 
houn took  the  seat  thus  vacated  in  the  senate.  Dec.  10  president 
Jackson  issued  the  nullification  proclamation,  in  which  the  doc- 
trine of  states-rights  was  refuted  and  the  national  theory  set  forth  ; 
and  he  declared  his  intention  of  executing  the  laws  of  the  United  States. 
This  was  followed  by  the  nullification  message,  1833,  Jan.  16.  This 
trouble  was  finally  ended  by  the  compromise  tariff  act,  introduced 
into  the  senate  by  Henry  Clay,  1833,  Feb.  12.  Both  sides  claimed 
the  victory. 

1835-1842.     War  with  the  Seminole  Indians. 

1836.  Arkansas  (25th  state). 

1837.  Michigan  (26th  state). 

1837-1841.  Martin  Van  Buren  (New  York),  democrat, 
8th  president. 

1837.  Financial  crisis  :  causes,  removal  (1833)  of  deposits  from 
the  United  States  bank  to  the  local  banks  ;  great  extension  of 
credit,  and  over-issue  of  paper  money  ;  contraction  of  the  vol- 
ume of  the  currency  by  the  (1836,  July  11)  specie  circular, 
which  produced  a  great  scarcity  of  money. 

1837.  Rebellion  in  Canada,  burning  of  the  American  steamer  Car- 
oline by  the  royalists.     McLeod^s  case. 

1838-1839.  The  gag  resolutions,  by  which  congress  declared  that 
petitions  praying  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  District  of 

Columbia  or  against  the  inter-state  slave  trade  should  be  tabled  without 

being  debated,  referred,  or  printed. 


554  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

1840.  Independent  treasury  established  ;  the  national  funds  to  be 
kept  in  the  treasury  at  Washington  and  in  the  sub-treasuries 

established  in  certain  cities,  subject  to  the  order  of  the  treasurer. 

1840.     Population  17,069,453  (6th  census). 
After  an  exciting  contest  was  elected 

1841-1845.  William  Henry  Harrison  (Ohio),  whig,  9th 
president,  f  1841,  Apr.,  succeeded  by  John  Tyler  (b.  1790, 
t  1862)  of  Virginia,  vice-president.  JJaniel  Webster,  secretary 
of  state  (res.  1843). 

1842.  The  northeastern  boundary  dispute  with  Great  Britain  set- 
tled by  the  Ashburton  treaty. 

1842.     Dorr  rebellion  in  Rhode  Island. 

1844.  Experimental  telegraph  line  between  Washington  and  Balti- 
more built  by  professor  S.  F.  B.  Morse  with  money  appro- 
priated by  congress. 

1845.  Florida  (27th  state). 

In  1821  Mexico  had  separated  from  Spain,  and  in  1836  Texas 
declared  itself  independent  of  Mexico.     Houston  with  eight  hundred 
Texans  defeated  Santa  Anna  at  the  San  Jacinto  (1836,  Apr.  21),  and 
drove  the  Mexicans  across  the  Rio  Grande  ;  and 
1845)  March.     Texas  was  annexed  to  the  United  States. 
1845-1849.     James  K.  Polk  (Tennessee),  democrat,  11th 

president ;  James  Buchanan  (b.  1781,  f  1868),  secretary  of 

state. 

1845.  Texas  (28th  state)  ;  1846,  Iowa  (29th  state). 

The  United  States  and  Great  Britain  claimed  the  territory 
west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  from  the  northern  boundary  of  Mexico, 
42°  north  latitude,  to  the  southern  boundary  of  Alaska,  54°  40'  north 
latitude.     By  the 

1846.  Oregon  treaty  this  tract  was  divided  between  them,  the  49th 
parallel  forming  the  boundary,  and  the  southern  portion,  which 
fell  to  the  United  States,  retained  the  name  of  Oregon. 

The  annexation  of  Texas  led  to  a 

1846-1848.     "War  with  Mexico, 

which  was  invaded  by  an  army  from  the  north  commanded  by 
Zachary  Taylor  (b.  1786,  f  1850) ;  battles  of  Palo  Alto  (May  8), 
Resaca  (May  9).  Surrender  of  Monterey  (Sept.  24),  Buena 
Vista  (1847,  Feb.  22  and  23).  In  March,  1847,  another  army 
under  general  Scott  landed  near  Vera  Cruz,  which  surrendered 
March  29th.  He  then  set  out  for  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  won 
the  battles  of  Cerro  Gordo  (April  18),  Churubusco  (Aug.  20), 
captured  the  fortress  of  Chapultepec  (Sept.  12  and  13),  and  en- 
tered the  city  of  Mexico  (Sept.  14).  On  the  Pacific  the  Amer- 
icans had  been  equally  successful,  and  the  war  was  ended  by 
the 

1848,  Feb.  2.     Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo. 

Mexico  gave  up  all  claim  to  Texas,  the  Rio  Grande  to  he  the 
boundary,  and  ceded  to  the  United  States  the  provinces  of  New 
Mexico  and  Upper  California,  in  all  about  522,955  squara 
miles,  in  consideration  of  fifteen  millions  of  dollars. 


A.  D.  United  States.  655 

1848.     Wisconsin  (30th  state). 

In  1846  the  Wilmot  proviso,  which  provided  that  slavery 

should  not  be  permitted  in  whatever  territory  should  be  acquired  from 

Mexico^  was  defeated  ;  but  the  agitation  it  occasioned  led  to  the  organ- 
ization of 

1848.  The  Free  soil  party,  the  precursor  of  the  present  republican 
party. 

1849-1853.  Zachary  Taylor  (Louisiana),  whig,  12th  presi- 
dent, t  July  9, 1850  ;  succeeded  by  Millard  Fillmore  of  New 
York,  vice-president.  John  M.  Clayton,  secretary  of  state  ;  fol- 
lowed by  Daniel  Webster  1850,  July  20,  f  1852  ;  who  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Edward  Everett  (b.  1794,  f  1865). 

1850.  Population  23,191,876  (7th  census).  The  discovery  of  gold 
in  California  (1848)  had  led  to  the  rapid  population  of  that 
territory,  and  in  1850  it  became  the  31st  state. 

1850,  Sept.  Clay's  compromises  provided  for  the  admission  of  Cal- 
ifornia as  a  free  state  ;  for  the  payment  to  Texas  of  ten  millions 
for  her  claim  to  New  Mexico  ;  for  the  organization  of  Utah  and 
New  Mexico  as  territories  without  any  mention  of  slavery  ;  for 
the  prohibition  of  the  slave  trade  in  the  District  of  Columbia  ; 
and  for  the  rendition  of  slaves  who  had  escaped  to  free  states, 
this  last  known  as  the 

1850.     Fugitive  Slave  Law. 

1850,  April  19.  Clayton-Bul^ver  treaty  with  Great  Britain  settled 
certain  questions  with  regard  to  communication  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  ;  which,  owing  to  the  acquisition  of  Cali- 
fornia, had  become  of  importance  to  the  United  States. 

1853-1857.  Franklin  Pierce  (New  Hampshire),  demo- 
crat, 14th  president  ;  William  L. .  Marcy,  secretary  of  state  ; 
Jefferson  Davis  (b.  1808  ;  f  1889),  secretary  of  war. 

1853,  Dee.  30.     Boundary  dispute  -with  Mexico  settled  by  the 

Gadsden  purchase  ;  by  which  the  boundary  was  to  be  the 
Rio  Grande  from  its  mouth  to  31°  20^  north  latitude  ;  thence  due 
west  to  the  111th  meridian  of  longitude  west  of  Greenwich  ;  thence 
in  a  straight  line  to  a  point  on  the  Colorado  river  twenty  .miles  below 
the  junction  of  the  Gila  ;  thence  up  the  middle  of  the  Colorado  river 
until  it  intersects  the  boundary  of  California  as  determined  by  the 
treaty  of  1848.  The  price  was  ten  millions,  and  the  area  thus  acquired 
was  45,000  square  miles. 

1854.  Treaty  with  Japan,  which  opened  that  country  to  commer- 
cial intercourse  with  the  United  States,  negotiated  by  commo- 
dore Perry  (p.  563). 

1854.  Reciprocity  treaty  with  Great  Britain  secured  to  the 
Americans  the  right  to  the  ^^ fisheries  ;  "  and  certain  articles  were 
to  be  admitted  free  of  duty  into  the  United  States  and  the  British 
provinces.  This  treaty  was  terminated  in  1866  by  the  United  States. 
1854.  Kansas-Nebraska  bill  passed.  It  provided  for  the  organ- 
ization of  two  territories,  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  and  left  the 
question  of  slavery  to  those  who  should  there  settle  (squatter  sov- 
ereignty^, thus  repealing  in  part  the  Missouri  compromise.     A 


656  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

struggle  immediately  ensued  between  the  slave-holders  and  the  aboli- 
tionists as  to  which  party  should  colonize  these  territories  first.  Sack 
of  Lawrence  by  "  border  ruffians  "  (1856,  May  21)  ;  battle  of  Ossawat- 
tomie  (John  Brown).    At  last  the  anti-slavery  party  proved  successful. 

1856.  Rise  of  "  Know-Nothingism,"  or  secret  opposition  to  foreign 
influence  in  national  legislation. 

1857-1861.     James  Buchanan  (Pennsylvania),  democrat, 
15th  president. 

1857.  In  the  Dred  Scott  case  the  supreme  court  decided  that  un- 
der the  constitution  neither  negro  slaves  nor  their  descen- 
dants, slave  or  free,  could  become  citizens  of  the  United  States  ; 
and  added,  as  a  dictum,  that  the  Missouri  compromise  was  unconstitu- 
tional, and  that  therefore  a  slave  did  not  become  free  by  being  carried 
to  a  territory  where  slavery  had  been  prohibited  under  that  compro- 
mise. 

1857.  Great  commercial  distress  throughout  the  country. 

1858.  Minnesota  (32d  state)  ;  1859,  Oregon  (33d  state). 

1859.  John  Brown  with  a  handful  of  men  seized  the  United 
Oct.  19.    States  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry ;  but,  after  half  his  men 

were  killed,  was  captured,  and  hanged  December  2d  of   the 
same  year. 

1860.  Population  of  the  United  States  31,443,332  (8th  census). 
1860,  Nov.     Abraham  Lincoln   (b.  1809,  f  1865)  of  IlUnois,  re- 
publican, received  the  electoral  votes  of  all  the  free  states,  — 

I^ew  Jersey  excepted,  — but  none  from  the  slave  states,  and  was  de- 
clared president-elect.    (New  Jersey  gave  Lincoln  4,  Douglas  3  votes.) 

1860,  Dec.  20.     South  Carolina  seceded  from  the  union,  and  was 

followed  by  Mississippi,  Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia,  Lou- 
isiana, and  North  Carolina  in  January,  1861  ;  by  Texas  in  Febru- 
ary ;  Virginia  in  April  ;  and  by  Tennessee  and  Arkansas  in  May. 
Missouri  and  Kentucky  declared  themselves  neutral.  Delegates  from 
the  seceded  states  met  in  convention  at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  1861, 
Feb.  4  ;  and  formed  a  provisional  government  under  the  style  of  the 
Confederate  States  of  America,  Feb.  8.  Jefferson  Davis  was 
elected  president  ;  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  vice-president.  The  se- 
ceding states  endeavored  to  seize  all  the  national  property  within 
their  borders,  and  were  successful  except  at  Pensacola  (Florida)  and 
Charleston  (South  Carolina).  At  the  latter  place  the  commander 
of  the  United  States  forces  withdrew  to  an  unfinished  fort,  Sumter, 
on  an  island  in  the  harbor,  Dec.  26, 1860  ;  and  on  the  9th  of  January, 

1861,  a  steamer,  the  Star  of  the  West,  bringing  him  supplies,  "was 
fired  on  by  the  state  forces,  and  forced  to  return. 

1861,  Jan.  29.     Kansas  admitted  to  the  union  as  a/ree  (34th)  state. 

1861.  Lincoln  reached  Washington  in  safety  Feb.  23  ;  and 
was  inaugurated  (16th)  president  of  the  United  States  on 
March  4  without  disturbance.  William  H.  Seward,  secretary  of 
state  ;  Simon  Cameron,  succeeded  Jan.  1862,  by  Edwin  M.  Stan- 
ton, secretary  of  war  ;  Salmon  P.  Chase,  secretary  of  the  treasury. 

The  government  of  the  so-called  confederate  states  attempted  to  open 
negotiations,  with  the  federal  authorities,  for  a  peaceful  separation, 


A.  D.  United  States.  557 

but  the  president  declined  to  entertain  any  such  propositions.  On  the 
contrary,  it  was  determined  to  succour  the  garrison  in  Charleston 
harbor.  The  insurgsnts  fired  on  fort  Sumter  1861,  Apr.  12,  which 
surrendered  Apr.  14. 

1861-1865.     The  Civil  War. 

Apr.  15,  the  president  issued  a  proclamation  calling  for 
75,000  volunteers  to  serve  for  three  months  •  and  summoned  congress 
to  meet  July  4.  April  18  a  few  companies  of  Pennsylvania  mili- 
tia reached  Washington  ;  and  on  April  19,  the  anniversary  of  the  bat- 
tle of  Lexington,  the  sixth  Massachusetts  regiment  was  attacked 
by  a  mob  while  passing  through  Baltimore.  The  same  day  the  pres- 
ident declared  the  ports  of  the  seceded  states  to  be  in  a  state  of 
blockade.  On  May  3d  he  issued  a  call  for  42,000  men  to  serve  for 
three  years  or  the  war.  May  13,  Great  Britain  recognized  the 
so-called  confederate  states  as  belligerents,  June  10  the  union 
troops  were  repulsed  at  Big  Bethel,  and  July  21  were  routed  at  Bull 
Run  or  Manassas. 

Nov.  1.  George  B.  McClellan  succeeded  general  Scott  in  command 
of  the  union  forces.  Nov.  8,  Mason  and  Slidell,  commissioners 
from  the  confederate  states  to  Great  Britain  and  France,  were 
taken  from  the  British  mail  steamer  Trent  by  the  American 
steamer  San  Jacinto.  War  with  Great  Britain  averted  tlirough 
the  prudence  and  skUl  of  Mr.  Seward.  The  commissioners 
were  given  up,  and  thus  was  established  a  principle  of  inter- 
national law  for  which  the  United  States  had  invariably  con- 
tended. 

Events  of  1862.  Feb.  6,  capture  of  Fort  Henry  (in  Ten- 
nessee) by  the  union  forces.  Feb.  16,  "  unconditional  sur- 
render "  of  Fort  Donelson  to  general  U.  S.  Grant  (b.  1822  ; 
f  1885).  Mar.  9,  Monitor  and  Merrimac.  Mar.  14,  cap- 
ture of  Newbern.  Apr.  6  and  7,  battle  of  Shiloh  or  Pitts- 
burgh landing  (Grant);  retreat  of  the  confederates.  Apr. 
16,  slavery  abolished  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  April  24, 
a  fleet  under  flag-officer  (afterwards  admiral)  David  G.  Far- 
ragut  ran  the  forts  below  New  Orleans,  and  received  the 
surrender  of  that  city  the  next  day. 

March  to  July,  Peninsular  campaign  (McClellan).  Battle  of  Fair 
Oaks  May  31  and  June  1  ;  seven  days  battles  before  Rich- 
mond (Meckanicsville,  Gaines's  Mill,  White  Oak  swamp,  and 
Malvern  Hill  July  1)  ;  withdrawal  from  the  peninsula.  The 
confederate  army,  now  under  the  command  of  general  Rob- 
ert E.  Lee  (b.  1807,  f  1870),  pressed  forward  toward  Wash- 
ington. Battle  of  Cedar  Mountain  (Aug.  5)  ;  defeat  of  the 
union  army  under  Pope  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
Aug.  30.  Lee  crossed  the  Potomac  into  Maryland,  but  was  de- 
feated at  South  Mountain,  and  after  the  battle  of  the  Antie- 
tam  (Sept.  17)  recrossed  the  Potomac.  McClellan  superseded 
by  Bumside,  who  was  repulsed  with  great  loss  at  Fredericks- 
burg (Dec.  13),  and  was  succeeded  (Jan.  26)  by  general 
Hooker. 


558  Modem  History,  A.  D. 

Events  of  1863.  After  the  battle  of  the  Antietam  the  presi- 
dent had  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  that  all  slaves  in 
states  or  parts  of  states  in  rebellion  Jan.  1,  1863,  should  then 
be  free  ;  and  on  that  day  he  issued  the  formal  emancipation 
proclamation. 
The  army  of  the  Potomac,  under  general  Hooker,  defeated  at 
Chancellorsville  (May  3).  f  Stonewall  Jackson  (b.  1826). 
Lee  again  attempted  an  invasion  of  the  north,  but  was  de- 
feated by  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  now  commanded  by  gen- 
eral George  G.  Meade  (b.  1816,  f  1872),  at  Gettysburg 
(July  1-3).  July  4,  Vicksburg  surrendered  to  Grant.  These 
two  events  were  the  turning  points  of  the  war.  Grant  assumed 
command  of  the  military  division  of  the  Mississippi,  and  with 
force  composed  of  the  army  of  the  Cumberland  commanded  by 
Thomas  (b.  1816,  f  1870),  and  reinforcements  from  Vicksburg 
under  William  T.  Sherman  (b.  1820 ;  f  1891),  and  from 
the  Potomac  under  Hooker,  fought  and  won  the  battles  of 
Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge  at  Chatta- 
nooga, Tennessee,  Nov.  24  and  25. 

West  Virginia  (loyal  portion  of  Virginia)  (35th  state). 

Events  of  1864.  Grant  made  a  lieutenant-general  (March  9), 
and  commander-in-chief  (Mar.  12)  of  all  the  armies  of  the 
United  States  which  henceforth  operated  on  a  settled  plan.  May 
3,  Grant  with  the  army  of  the  Potomac  under  general  Meade 
crossed  the  Rapidan,  fought  the  battles  of  the  Wilderness 
(May  5  to  12),  Spottsylvania  (May  12-21),  North  Anna 
(May  21-31),  Cold  Harbor  (June  1-3),  and  sat  down  before 
Petersburg,  June  19.  A  confederate  force  under  Early  was 
sent  to  threaten  Washington,  and  thus  to  secure  the  with- 
drawal of  Grant.  Early  penetrated  into  Maryland  and  Penn- 
sylvania, but  was  defeated  by  Sheridan  (b.  1831)  at  Opequan 
(Sept.  19),  Fisher's  Hill  (Sept.  21),  and  at  Cedar  Creek 
(Oct.  19).  The  Shenandoah  valley  was  then  devastated, 
and  Sheridan  rejoined  Grant  before  Petersburg.  The  western 
armies  under  Sherman  began  a  campaign  against  the  confed- 
erates led  by  general  Joe  Johnston  (b.  1807)  May  6,  and 
after  a  series  of  engagements  reached  Atlanta,  which  was 
evacuated  by  the  confederates  Sept.  2.  A  portion  of  his  army 
was  then  sent  north  under  Thomas  to  watch  Hood  (the  suc- 
cessor of  Jolmston),  who  was  finally  defeated  before  Nash- 
ville, Dec.  15  and  16.  Meanwhile  Sherman,  after  burning  At- 
lanta, started  on  the  march  through  Georgia.  He  reached 
the  sea  Dec.  12,  and  took  Savannah  Dec.  22.  On  the  water 
the  Kearsarge  (  Winslov))  sank  the  confederate  steamer  Ala- 
bama off  Cherbourg  (Alabama  claims,  p.  560)  ;  and  a  fleet 
under  vice-admiral  Farragut  ran  the  forts  at  Mobile,  Aug.  5, 

1864,  Nov.     Nevada  (36th  state). 

Nov.  8.  Reelection  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  Andrew  Johnson,  vice- 
president. 

1865.  The  Thirteenth  Amendment,  prohibiting  slav- 


A..  D.  United  States.  559 

ery  within  the  United  States,  was  proposed  by  congress 
Feb.  1,  and  was  declared  ratified  Dec.  18th. 

Events  of  1865-  Surrender  of  Port  Fisher  to  general 
Terry,  Jan.  15.  Grant  had  gradually  drawn  his  lines  around 
Zee's  right  flank,  and  on  April  1st  Sheridan  won  the  battle  of 
Five  Forks,  which  compelled  the  evacuation  of  Petersburg 
April  2,  and  the  surrender  of  Richmond  April  3.  Grant,  with 
his  whole  army,  under  Meade  and  Sheridan,  pursued  Lee, 
who,  being  surrounded,  capitulated  at  Appomattox  Court 
House,  April  9.  Meantime  Sherman  had  set  out  from  Sa- 
vannah for  the  north,  Feb.  1.  On  Feb.  17,  he  compelled  the 
evacuation  of  Charleston,  and  on  April  26  received  the  surren- 
der of  the  last  confederate  army,  under  Johnston. 

1865,  April  15.     Assassination  of  Lincoln. 
Andreio  Johnson,  vice-president,  succeeds. 

Cost  of  the  war.  National  debt  m  1860,  $64,842,287 ;  in  1866, 
$2,773,236,173,  which  great  increase  was  in  addition  to  the 
debts  incurred  by  the  states  and  municipalities. 

1865,  May  22.     The  southern  ports  declared  open. 

May  29.  Amnesty  to  all  persons  engaged  in  the  rebellion,  with  the 
exception  of  fourteen  specified  classes. 

1866,  Apr.  9.     Civil  rights  bill  passed  over  the  president's  veto. 
June  16.    Fourteenth  amendment,  securing  to  the  freedmen 

the  right  of  citizenship,  declaring  the  validity  of  the  national 
debt,  and  regulating  the  basis  of  representation  and  disqualifi- 
cation from  office,  proposed  by  congress,  and  declared  ratified 
1868,  July  28. 
3866,  July  16.  Act  to  continue  the  freedmen's  bureau,  which  had 
charge  of  the  loyal  and  sufPering  classes,  black  and  white,  in 
the  southern  states,  passed  over  the  president's  veto. 

1866,  July  27.  Telegraphic  communication  finally  established 
with  Great  Britain. 

1867,  March  1.     Nebraska  (37th  state). 

Mar.  2.  Reconstruction  act  passed  over  the  president's 
veto.  It  divided  the  ten  southern  states  into  five  military 
districts,  each  commanded  by  an  army  officer,  who  should  see 
to  the  protection  of  life  and  property.  Tlie  seceded  states 
to  be  restored  to  their  place  in  the  union,  whenever  a  con- 
vention of  delegates,  "elected  by  the  male  citizens,  ...  of 
whatever  race,  color,  or  previous  condition,"  except  those  dis- 
franchised for  participation  in  rebellion,  etc.,  should  frame  a  con- 
stitution, which,  being  ratified  by  the  people  and  approved  by  con- 
gress, should  go  mto  operation,  and  the  legislature  thereupon 
elected  should  adopt  the  fourteenth  amendment. 

1867,  Mar.  4.   Tenure  of  office  bill  passed  over  the  president's  veto. 

1867,  Mar.  30.     Alaska   purchase.     Area  577,340  square  miles  ; 

price  a  Uttle  over  seven  million  dollars. 

1868,  Feb.  24-May  26.  Impeachment  of  president  An- 
drew Johnson  by  the  house  of  representatives.     He  had  op- 


560  Modeim  History,  A.  d. 

posed  the  reconstruction  measures  of  congress  ;  but  the  imme- 
diate ca^j^e  of  the  impeachment  was  an  alleged  violation  of  the 
tenure  of  office  act  of  1867,  Mar.  4.  The  senate  acquitted,  him 
by  one  vote  (35  to  19,  the  constitution  requiring  a  two  thirds 
majority). 

1868,  Dec.  25.     Amnesty  extended. 

1869,  Feb.  26.  Fifteenth  amendment,  that  the  right  to 
vote  shall  not  he  denied  or  abridged  on  account  of  "  race,  color, 
or  previous  condition  of  servittide"  proposed  by  congress,  and 
declared  ratified,  1870,  Mar.  30. 

1869,  Mar.  4-1877,  Mar.  5.  Ulysses  S.  Grant  (Illinois), 
republican,  18th  president. 

1870,  Population  38,555,983  (9th  census). 

1871,  Mar.  3.  A  clause  in  the  appropriation  bill  authorized  the 
president  to  appoint  a  civil  service  commission   to  prescribe 

rules,  etc. 

1871,  May  8.  Treaty  of  "Washington  with  Great  Britain 
provided :  1.  For  the  reference  to  the  emperor  of  Germany  of 
the  dispute  as  to  the  Oregon  boundary  (decided  in  favor  of  the 
United  States,  1872,  Oct.  21).  2.  For  a  partial  settlement  of  the 
fishery  dispute  (Halifax  award,  1877,  gave  Great  Britain  five  and 
one  half  million  dollars)  ;  this  part  of  the  treaty  abrogated  by  act  of 
the  United  States,  1883.  3.  For  the  settlement  of  the  Alabama 
claims  (Geneva  tribunal  of  arbitration  awarded  to  the  United  States 
over  fifteen  million  dollars). 

1873.     Commercial  crisis.     1875.     Colorado  (38th  state). 
1876.     Centennial  exhibition  at  Philadelphia. 

1876.  The  national  elections  of  this  year  were  very  close,  and  con- 
gress appointed  an  electoral  commission  (five  senators,  five 
representatives,  and  five  justices  of  the  supreme  court),  which 
declared  the  republican  candidate  elected. 

1877,  Mar.  5-1881,  Mar.  4.  Rutherford  B.  Hayes  (Ohio), 
republican,  19th  president. 

1879,  Jan.  1.     Resumption  of  specie  payments. 

1880,  Population  50,155,783  (10th  census). 

1881,  Mar.  4.  James  A.  Garfield  (Ohio),  republican,  20tb 
president.  July  2,  shot  and  mortally  wounded,  f  Sept.  19. 
Succeeded  by  the  vice-president,  Chester  A.  Arthur,  of  New 
York,  republican. 

1882,  May  6.  Immigration  of  Chinese  laborers  suspended 
for  ten  years,  in  accordance  with  a  treaty  with  China,  con- 
cluded 1880,  Nov.  7. 

1883,  Jan.  9.  Civil  service  act  (Pendleton  bill)  introduced 
the  principle  of  compulsory  competitive  examination  into  the 
civil  service  of  the  United  States.  (^See  p.  586.) 

§6.    CHINA.  {See  p.  443.) 

1796-1882. 
1796-1820.     Kiaking. 

Frequent  insurrections,  rampant  piracy.     Embassy  of  lord  Am- 
herst (1816). 


A.  D.  China.  561 

1820-1850.     Taukwang. 

The  exclusive  privilege  of  the  East  India  company  ceasing  in 
1834,  lord  Napier  was  appointed  superintendent  of  British  trade 
(t  1834).  Imperial  prohibition  of  the  opium  trade.  Commissioner 
Lin  sent  to  Canton  with  extraordinary  powers  (1838).  Surrender  of 
opium  by  Capt.  Elliot^  British  commissioner  to  the  Chinese,  by  whom 
it  was  destroyed  (over  20,000  chests),  1839,  Mar.-June.  The  con- 
tinuance of  the  trade,  and  the  English  demands  that  the  loss  be  made 
good  to  their  traders,  caused  the 

1840-1842.  First  war  with  Great  Britain  (Opium  war).  A 
treaty  concluded  by  Keshin,  successor  of  Lin  (Hong-kong 
ceded  to  England),  was  rejected  by  the  emperor.  The  English  cap- 
tured Amoy  (1842,  Aug.  27),  Ning-po  (Oct.  13),  Shang-hai  (1842, 
June  19),  and  stormed  Ching-lceang  (July  21). 
1842,  Aug.  29.     Treaty  of  Nanking. 

1.  Canton,  Amoy,  Fuhchau,  Ning-po,  Shanghai,  opened  to  British 
trade.  2.  Hong-kong  ceded  to  England.  3.  The  Chinese  paid 
{($21,000,000.  4.  Establishment  of  a  regular  tariff.  5.  Official  inter- 
course to  be  on  a  basis  of  equality. 

1844,  July  3.     Treaty  with  the  United  States  (Caleb  Cushing,  am- 
bassador).    Treaty  with  France  (Oct.  23). 
1850-1860.     Hienfimg. 

1850,  Aug.  Outbreak  of  the  Tai-ping  rebellion  (1850-1864).  The 
leader  was  Hung  Sui-tsuen,  who  called  himself  Tien-teh  ("  ce- 
lestial virtue  "),  and  claimed  to  have  been  commissioned  by  heaven 
to  conduct  a  political  and  religious  reform  of  the  empire.  Promulga- 
tion of  a  religious  system  based  on  some  knowledge  of  Christianity. 
1853.  Capture  of  Nanking  (Mar.  19),  Shanghai  (Sept.  7).  Sui- 
tsuen  proclaimed  emperor. 

1855.  Failure  of  the  attack  made  by  the  rebels  on  Peking. 

1856,  Oct.  8.     The  lorcha  ^  Arrow,  owned  by  a  Chinese,  but  com- 

manded  by   an   Irishman  and  flying  the   British  flag,   was 
boarded  at  Canton  by  Chinese  officers  in  search  of  suspected  pirates  ; 
twelve  natives  were  carried  off  and  the  flag  pulled  down. 
1856,   Nov.     Three  Chinese  forts  destroyed  by  the  American  fleet 

under  commodore  Armstrong,  the  Chinese  having  fired  upon 
American  boats. 

The  attempt  of  the  English  government  (Palmerston,  p.  643)  to  ob- 
tain a  disavowal  of  the  attack  upon  the  Arrow,  or  an  apology  there- 
for, resulted  in  the 
1857-1860.     (Second)  war  with  Great  Britain  allied  with  France. 

Lord  Elgin,  English  envoy.  Destruction  of  the  Chinese  fleet 
(1857,  May  26,  27).  Capture  of  Canton  (Dec.  28,  29).  Treaties  of 
Tientsin  (June,  1858)  with  Great  Britain,  France,  the  United 
States. 

Infraction  of  the  treaty  (1859,  June),  renewal  of  the  war.   Repulse 
of  the  English  attempt  to  force  the  passage  of  the  Pei-ho  forts  (June 

^  Lorclia:  a  liijht  Chinese  sailing  vessf  ^  carrying  guns,  built  after  the  Euro^ 
^ean  model,  but  rigged  like  a  Chinese  junk.  —  I'mpkkial.  Dictionary. 
3(> 


562  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

25).     Chinese  defeat  at  Palikao  (1860,  Sept.  21).    Destruction  of  the 
summer  palace  (Oct.  6),  surrender  of  Peking  (Oct.  12). 
1860,  Oct.  24.     Treaty  of  Peking. 

Ratification  of   the   treaty  of  Tientsin  •   toleration   of   Chris- 
tianity ;  revised  tariff  ;  payment  of  an  indemnity  ;  resident  ambassa- 
dors at  Peking. 
1860-1875.     Tungchi,  six  years  old. 

Palace   revolution.     Administration  of  prince  Kung.      Reor- 
ganization of  the  imperial  army  under  general  Ward,  an  American 
(f  1861),  and  colonel  Gordon,  an  Englishman.     The  "  ever  victorious 
force." 
1862-1864.      Suppression  of  the   rebellion.      Capture   of  Nanking 

(1864,  July  19).     Suicide  of  Hung  Sui-tsuen. 
1866.     Successful  rebellion  of  Yakub  Beg  (f  1877^  in  Kashgar. 
1868.     Embassy  of  Anson  Burlingame  (and  two  (Chinese  envoys)  to 

the  treaty  powers.    (Burlingame  f  1870.) 

1870,  May.  Mohammedan  rebellion  in  the  northwest  {Yun-nan, 
Kan-suK). 

1871.  Russia  annexed  Kuldja,  until  the  Chinese  power  should  be 
reestablished  in  that  region. 

1873.  Settlement  of  the  audience  question  ;  foreign  ambassadors  re- 
ceived by  the  emperor  without  the  ceremony  of  prostration 
(kotow).     Suppression  of  the  Mohammedan  rebellion. 

1875  —  X.     Kwangsii,  three  years  old  (Tsai-tien). 

1876,  June  30.     Opening  of  the  first  railroad  in  China  (Shanghai  to 

Woosung,  eleven  miles). 
1877-1878.     Terrible  famine  in  the  north  of  China. 

1877,  Dec.     Defeat  and  assassination  of  Yakub  Beg.     Capture   of 

Kashgar. 
1879,  June.     Treaty  with  Russia  negotiated  by  Chung-how :  China 
obtained  only  a  portion  of  Kuldja  and  paid  an  indemnity.   Re- 
jection of  the  treaty. 

1881,  Aug.      Peace  with  Russia  negotiated  by  the  marqms  Tseng. 

Cession  of  nearly  all  of  the  Kuldja  district  ;  China  paid  the 
expenses  of  Russian  occupation. 

1882.  A  threatened  war  with  Japan  avoided  by  Chinese  diplomacy. 
Dispute  with  the  French  over  Tonquin  (p.  535).    (See p.  594-) 

§7.    JAPAN.  {See  p.  445.) 

1817-1882. 
Mikados.  Shoguns  (Tokugawa  family). 

1817-1846,  Ninko  1787-1838         lyenori. 

(1838-1853        lyeyoshi. 
1846-1866,  Komei  •}  1853-1859        lyesada. 

( 1859-1866         lyemochi. 
1867  — X.    Mutsuhito       1866-1868         Reiki  (Hitotsubashi-yoshi- 

nobu  ;  Noriyoshi). 
Growing  dissatisfaction  with  the  usurped  power  of  the  shoguns 
among  the  samurai ;  jealousy  of  the  long  possession  of  the  shogunate 
by  the  Tokugawa  family  (1603-1868)  among  the  great  daimios. 
1853,  July  7.  Commodore  Perry,  of  the  United  States  navy,  en- 
tered the  harbor  of  Yedo  with  four  vessels,  but  soon  departed  ; 
in  Feb.  1854,  he  returned,  and  concluded  a 


A.  D.  Japan.  563 

1854,  Mar.  21.  Treaty  between  Japan  and  the  United  States, 
which  was  signed  by  the  shogun,  whom  Perry  took  to  be  the 
"secular  emperor  "  of  Japan,  under  the  newly  assumed  title  of  tai~ 
kun  (tycoon,  "great  prmce,"  properly  a  title  of  the  mikado).  Trea- 
ties with  Great  Britain  (1854,  Oct.  14),  and  Russia  (1855,  Jan.  26). 
In  1858  treaties  (peace,  amity,  unrestricted  commerce)  concluded 
with  the  United  States  (Toumshend Harris),  Great  Britain  (Elgin), 
France,  Russia,  —  all  signed  by  the  shogun. 

1859.  Yokohama,  Nagasaki,  Hakodate,  opened  to  trade. 

These  unwarranted  assumptions  of  power  on  the  part  of  the 
shogun  angered  the  mikado  and  the  Kioto  court,  where  the  foreigners 
were  regarded  with  deep  distrust. 

1860.  First  Japanese  embassy  to  the  United  States  sent  out  by  li, 
prime  minister  of  the  shogun  (assassinated  Mar.  23). 

1861-1865.  Civil  dissensions.  Outrages  upon  foreign  representa- 
tives. Death  of  an  Englishman  (Richardson)  in  a  broil  with 
the  train  of  the  brother  of  the  prince  of  Satsuma,  avenged  by  the 
bombardment  of  Kagoshima  (in  Satsuma),  and  the  exaction  of 
$625,000  (1862). 

1862.  The   daimios,  released  from  compulsory  residence   at  YedOy 
flocked  to  Kioto. 

1863.  Some  American,  Dutch,  and  French  vessels,  having  anchored 
in  the  forbidden  roadstead  of  Shimonoseki  after  due  warning, 

were  fired  upon.      In  reprisal  these  powers  bombarded  the  batteries, 
inflicting  considerable  loss.     In  spite  of  this 

1864,  Sept.  4.     Bombardment  and  destruction  of  the  Shimonoseki 

batteries  by  English,  French,  Dutch,  and  American  vessels. 
Exaction  of  an  indemnity  of  $3,000,000,  of  which  the  United  States 
received  $785,000.1 

1865,  Nov.  25.     Ratification  of  treaties  extorted  by  the  foreign  pow- 

ers. 

1867.  Nov.  19.     Resignation  of  Keiki,  the  last  shogun. 

1868.  Restoration  of  the  mikado.     End  of  the  dual  gov- 
ernment. 

The  proclamation  setting  forth  the  resumption  of  government 
by  the  mikado  (1868,  Jan.  3)  was  followed  by  the  revolt  of  Keiki  and 
by  open  war,  which,  after  severe  fighting  (battles  of  Fushimi,  1868, 
Jan.  27-30  ;  Wakam^tsu,  Hakodate),  ended  in  favor  of  the  imperial- 
ists (June,  1869). 

1869.  Nov.     Residence  of  the  mikado  transferred  from  Kioto  to  Yedo 

(Jeddo),  the  name  of  the  latter  place  having  been  previously 
changed  to  Tokio  ("  the  eastern  capital  "). 

1870.  The   mikado,   by   advice   of   the   leading  samurai   {Okuho), 
changed  front,  and  welcomed  the  foreigners. 

1871.  Embassy  to  the  United  States  and  Europe. 

1871.     Abolition  of  feudalism  ;  relegation  of  the  daimios 
to  private  life  ;  abolition  of  the  title  ;  exchange  of  their  rev- 
enues for  pensions. 

1  In  Feb.  1883,  the  house  of  representatives  accepted  a  favorable  report  upon 
the  Japanese  indemnity  bill.     Repayment  of  the  $785,000  without  interest. 


564  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

Assimilation  to  western  civilization.  Issue  of  a  code  of  criminal 
law  (revised  1881)  ;  establishment  of  a  government  post  ;  introduc- 
tion of  the  telegraph  ;  railroad  from  Yokohama  to  Shinogana  (1872) ; 
bureau  of  education  ;  adoption  of  the  Gregorian  calendar  (1874,  Jan. 
1)  ;  female  normal  school  (1875)  ;  university  of  Tokio  (1873);  rees- 
tablishment  of  the  Shinto  faith  (p.  32)  ;  new  military  system. 
1874.  Expedition  to  Formosa,  avenging  the  murder  of  Japanese  sail^ 
ors  on  that  island. 

1876.  Enforcement  of  a  treaty  with  Corea. 

1877.  Rebellion  in  Satsuma  {Saigo,  Kirimo')  suppressed  after  heavy 
fighting  (SaigOjf  Sept.  24).  Large  issue  of  inconvertible  paper 
money  to  defray  the  expenses. 

1878.  Establishment  of  local  elective  assemblies  for  regulating  local 
taxation,  and  with  right  of  petitioning  the  central  government ; 

franchise  secured  to  all  males  twenty-one  years  of  age  who  pay  a 
land  tax  of  $5.00. 

1881.  Negotiations  with  the  foreign  powers  relative  to  the  adoption 
of  a  higher  tariff,  and  to  the  abolition  of  the  privilege  enjoyed 

by  foreigners  of  living  under  the  jurisdiction  of  their  native  country. 
Dispute  with  China  over  the  Loo-Choo  islands. 

1882,  Oct.     Imperial  decree  establishing  a  new  constitution  ;  promise 

of  a  national  assembly  in  1890  (p.  594).  (^Seep.  594-) 


APPENDIX  (1883— x), 


§8.   GREAT  BRITAIN.  (See  p.  646.) 

1883— X. 

1883,  Jan.  18.   France  having  declined  to  join  in  the  expedition  against 

Arabi,  the  dual  control^  was  abolished  by  the  khedive 
(Tewjik  Pasha),  and  a  British  financial  agent  appointed  in 
place  of  the  controllers.  Sir  Evelyn  Baring  (later  Lord  Cro- 
mer), British  diplomatic  agent  and  consul-general.  In  the 
Soudan  the  mahdi  Muhammad  Ahmad  was  conducting  a  reli- 
gious revolt.  Hicks  Pasha's  Egyptian  army  annihilated  (Nov. 
3-5,  1883);  (Valentine)  Baker  Pasha  defeated  (Feb.  4, 1884). 
Great  Britain  insisted  on  evacuation  of  the  Soudan,  and 

1884,  Feb.  18.     Gen.   Charles  Gordon  ("  Chinese "  Gordon,  p.  562) 

arrived  at  Khartum  to  withdraw  the  garrisons  and  establish  a 
native  government. 

Feb.  27.  By  the  Convention  of  London  the  South  African 
republic,  now  first  so-called,  was  granted  practical  inde- 
pendence in  internal  affairs,  but  Great  Britain  reserved  a  veto 
over  treaties  with  other  states,  except  the  Orange  Free  State 
and  native  tribes.  Draft  guaranteeing  full  independence  was 
rejected  by  Great  Britain;  but  the  new  convention  made  no 
mention  of  preamble  of  convention  of  1881,  in  which  the  suzer- 
ainty of  Great  Britain  was  asserted,  while  it  expressly  substi- 
tuted its  articles  for  the  articles  of  1881.  Western  boundary 
established.        , 

Nov.  6.     Protectorate  proclaimed  over  southeastern  New  Guinea. 

Dec.  6.  Third  reform  act  received  royal  assent  (pp.  540,  544). 
Uniform  franchise  in  counties  and  boroughs,  and  in  the  three 
kingdoms;  about  2,500,000  enfranchised.  Redistribution  of 
seats  act  (June  25,  1885)  ;  counties  now  have  more  seats  than 
boroughs  have  ;  single  member  seats.  Total  members  of  par- 
liament, 670. 

1885,  Jan.  26.     Khartum  captured  by  the  mahdi ;  death  of  gen. 

Gordon.  A  relief  expedition  which  had  been  demanded  by 
the  opposition  since  March,  1884,  had  started  under  lord 
Wolseley  in  Sept.     After  severe  fighting  {Abu  Klea,  Jan.  14) 

1  Egypt  became  bankrupt  in  3876  in  consequence  of  loans  contracted  by 
the  khedive  Ismail  Pasha  (deposed,  1879),  and  the  financial  affairs  were  under- 
taken by  the  nations  representing  the  chief  creditors.  In  1881  France  and 
Great  Britain  practical!}'  assumed  the  administration  of  the  country. 


566  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

an  advanced  guard  approached  Khartum,  Jan.  28,  but  the  ex- 
pedition was  withdrawn. 

March  30.  Russians  occupied  Pe?ijdeh,  driving  out  Afghan  force. 
Rupture  imminent,  but  an  adjustment  was  finally  made  and  the 
Russian- Afghan  frontier  delimited  by  joint  commission  (1886), 
Russia  retaining  Penjdeh. 

March-May.  Rebellion  of  Louis  Riel  in  Northwest  territory, 
Canada.     Riel  surrendered.  May  15  ;  executed,  Nov.  16. 

June  23.  Lotd  Salisbury  (b.  1830 ;  M.  P.,  1854  ;  lord,  1868  ; 
1 1903),  prime  minister. 

Sept.  30.  British  Bechuanaland  made  a  crown  colony ;  protectorate 
over  Northern  Bechuanaland. 

1886.  Canadian  and  Bering  sea  fisheries  (p.  586). 

Jan.  1.  Upper  Burma  annexed  to  British  India  as  result  of  the 
defeat  of  king  Theebaw. 

Jan.  12.  Eleventh  (23d  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria  met, 
Irish  nationalists  (86)  holding  balance  of  power.  Bradlaugh, 
after  repeated  exclusions  because  of  his  religious  opinions,  was 
allowed  to  take  the  oath.     Government  defeated,  and 

Feb.  12.  Gladstone  became  premier  for  the  third  time  ;  sir  W. 
Vernon  Harcourt  (exchequer),  lord  Rosebery  (foreign),  John 
Morley  (Ireland),  Joseph  Chamberlain  (local  government 
board). 

April  8.  Gladstone  introduced  a  Home  rule  bill  for  Ireland. 
Separate  parliament,  and  Irish  members  excluded  from  the 
imperial  parliament  ;  lord-lieutenant  appointed  by  the  crown 
with  right  of  veto  ;  prerogatives  of  crown  untouched;  customs 
and  excise  under  British  treasury;  Ireland  to  pay  -^-^  of  inter- 
est on  national  debt.  Secession  of  liberal  unionists  under 
lord  Hartington  and  Chamberlain  (resigned  in  March)  followed. 
Land  purchase  bill  for  Ireland  introduced.  Home  rule  bill 
was  defeated  on  second  reading,  June  7  (341-311),  and  par- 
liament was  dissolved  (June  26).  The  elections  gave  316 
conservatives,  191  home-rule  liberals,  78  liberal  unionists,  and 
85  Irish  home-rulers.     Gladstone  resigned  (July  20)  and 

July  21.  Lord  Salisbury  became  prime  minister  ;  lord  Iddesleigh 
(sir  Stafford  Northcote)  (foreign);  lord  Randolph  Churchill 
(exchequer  and  leader  of  the  Commons),  succeeded  by  G.  J. 
Goschen,  Jan.,  1887;  sir  M.  Hicks  Beach  (Ireland),  succeeded 
hj  A.  J.  Balfour,  March  5,  1887. 

Aug.  5.  T-welfth  (24th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria  met. 
A  tenant's  relief  bill  introduced  by  Parnell  failing,  the 

Oct.  17.  plan  of  campaign  was  put  into  force  in  Ireland ;  rents 
offered  and  refused  were  formed  into  a  joint  fund  for  the  sup- 
port of  evicted  tenants. 

1887,  May.     Canadian  Pacific  railway  opened  (2905  miles). 

June  21.  Jubile6  day  in  commemoration  of  the  fiftieth  anniver- 
sary of  the  accession  of  queen  Victoria. 

July  19.  Criminal  land  amendment  (Ireland)  act  ("  Crimes  act ") ; 
Irish  land  act,  Aug.  23;  Sept.  9,  disturbances  at  Mitchels- 
town,  Ireland. 


A.  D.  Great  Brifam.  567 

1888,  March  27.     Conversion  of  the  national  debt  (Goschen's  act). 
June  11.     Lord  Stanley  appointed  governor-general  of  Canada. 
Aug.  13.     Local  government  act  (England  and  Wales)  received  royal 

assent.  County  administration  (except  judicial  and  licensing 
powers)  transferred  from  justices  of  the  peace  to  elective 
county  councils.     London  county  council  (p.  570). 

May-Sept.  Protectorate  established  over  North  Borneo,  Brunei, 
and  Sarawak. 

Dec.  10.     Lord  Lansdowne  appointed  viceroy  of  India. 

1889,  June  14.     Saraoan  treaty  (p.  587). 

Oct.  29.     Royal  charter  granted  to  British  South  Africa  Company. 

1890,  Feb.  13.     Report  of  the  special  ("  Parnell ")  commission 

on  charges  against  the  Irish  leaders.  In  Feb.  R.  Pigott  con- 
fessed the  forgery  of  the  letter  (Tim£Sf  April  18,  1887)  iu 
which  Parnell  was  made  to  approve  the  murder  of  Burke  (p. 
646).  Commission  found  that  the  personal  charges  against 
Parnell  were  false;  that  direct  complicity  with  crime  was  not 
proved  as  to  the  respondents  collectively,  but  that  they  "  en- 
tered into  a  conspiracy  to  promote,  by  a  system  of  coercion 
and  intimidation  an  agrarian  agitation  for  the  purpose  of 
impoverishing  and  expelling  the  Irish  landlords,"  and  did  not 
denounce  a  system  which  they  knew  led  to  crime. 

March  17.  Convention  signed  with  China  on  boundary  of  Thibet 
and  India. 

July  1.  Treaty  with  Germany  signed,  fixing  boundaries  of  German 
East  and  West  Africa  and  British  possessions,  with  recip- 
rocal free  transit  for  commerce;  Heligoland  ceded  to  Ger- 
many in  exchange  for  Zanzibar  (protectorate  proclaimed, 
Nov.  7). 

Aug.  5.  Convention  signed  recognizing  French  protectorate  over 
Madagascar,  and  French  sphere  of  influence  from  Algeria  to 
the  Niger  and  lake  Chad. 

Nov.  28-Dec.-6.  Division  of  Irish  nationalists  following  conviction 
of  Parnell  of  adultery;  Justin  McCarthy  leader  of  the  major- 
ity.    Parnell  f  Oct.  6,  1891. 

1891,  Feb.  26.     Population  of  all  India,  287,314,671. 

March  24.     Protocol  signed  with  Italy  on  African  spheres  of  influ- 
ence ;  Abyssinia  within  Italy^s  sphere. 
April  5.     Population  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  38,104,975. 

1891,  June  11.     Treaty  with  Portugal  signed,  regulating  the  bound- 

aries of  African  possessions.  Agreement  on  spheres  of  influ- 
ence, May  31, 1893. 

Aug.  5.  Elementary  »education  act  (England  and  Wales)  received 
royal  assent;  public  grant  to  denominational  and  board  schools. 
Assent  also  given  to 

Aug.  5.  Land  purchase  (Ireland)  act;  voluntary  agreement  of  sale 
between  landlord  and  tenant;  landlord  paid  by  government 
bonds. 

1892,  Jan.  7.   f  Tewfik  Pasha,  khedive  of  Egypt,  succeeded  by  Abbas 

II.  Pasha. 
Aug.  4.    Thirteenth   (25th  imperial)   parliament  of  Victoria. 


568  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

The  government  was  defeated  on  a  motion  of  want  of  confi- 
dence and  resigned,  and 
Aug.  16.  Gladstone  became  (4th  time)  premier;  sir  W.  Vernon 
Harcourt  (exchequer),  lord  Rosehery  (foreign),  John  Morley 
(Ireland),  James  Bryce  (chancellor  of  Lancaster),  H.  Camp- 
hell  Bannerman  (war). 

1893,  Jan.  16-19.     Ministerial  crisis  in  Egypt;  khedive  informed 

that  British  advice  must  be  foUcwed.  • 

Feb.  13.  Home  rule  bill  for  Ireland  introduced  by  Gladstone.  It 
was  like  the  earlier  bill  except  that  80  Irish  members  were 
to  sit  in  the  imperial  parliament  with  (by  amendment  in  com- 
mittee) right  to  vote  on  all  matters.  The  bill  passed  the 
Commons  on  Sept.  1  (301-267)  but  was 

Sept.  8.     rejected  by  the  House  of  Lords  by  vote  of  419  to  41. 

July-Nov.  Matdbele  war,  ending  in  the  defeat  of  chief  Lohengula 
(t  Jan.  23,  1894). 

Aug.  15.     Bering  sea  arbitration  award  (p.  588). 

1894,  March  1.     Anglo-Chinese  agreement  (p.  595). 

March  3.  Resignation  of  Gladstone;  lord  Rosebery  prime  min- 
ister. 

March  5.  Parish  council  (England  and  Wales)  act;  elective  coun- 
cils to  supersede  vestries  except  in  church  matters. 

March  20.  Sovereignty  over  Pondoland  proclaimed;  annexed  to 
Cape  Colony  (June  7). 

May  21.     Manchester  ship  canal  opened. 

Aug.  7.  Evicted  tenants  (Ireland)  bill  passed  the  Commons,  but  was 
rejected  by  the  Lords  (Aug.  14). 

Aug.  27.     Treaty  with  Uganda  signed  ;  protectorate. 

1895,  Jan.  21.     Agreement  on  Sierra  Leone  hinterland  signed  with 

France. 

March  5 -April  20.  English  garrison  at  Chitral  besieged  by 
Afghan  freebooters.  The  government  sanctioned  permanent 
occupation  of  Chitral  (Aug.  10),  and  several  punitive  expedi- 
tions against  frontier  tribes  followed  (1897). 

June  22.  Rosebery  ministry  resigned  after  a  defeat  on  a  side  issue, 
and  was  succeeded  by  the 

June  25  third  ministry  of  lord  Salisbury  (foreign);  A.  J.  Bal- 
four (treasury  and  leader  of  the  Commons),  sir  M.  Hicks 
Beach  (exchequer),  Joseph  Chamberlain  (colonies),  G.  J.  Goschen 
(admiralty),  lord  Lansdowne  (war,  after  1900,  foreign). 

Aug.  12.  Fourteenth  (26th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria 
met  ;  government  majority,  152. 

Dec.     Venezuela  boundary  controversy  (p.  590). 

1895,  Dec.  29.     Jameson  Raid. 

Causes  :  development  of  gold  mines  in  South  African 
republic  (discovery  of  gold,  1884)  by  foreigners  (uitlanders),  who 
outnumbered  the  burghers  but  were  allowed  no  political  rights 
by  president  Kruger  (b.  1825;  pres.  1883  ;  f  1904)  and  the  Boer  oli- 
garchy, while  they  were  oppressed  by  the  burdens  of  citizenship, 
monopolies  (especially  of  dynamite),  and  maladministration;  growth 


A.  D.  Great  Britain.  569 

of  British  control  north  and  west  of  Transvaal  ;  rejection  by  the 
Boers  of  the  British  claim  of  suzerainty  over  them  (p.  565);  desire 
of  the  Cape  authorities  to  place  the  Dutch  states  under  British  control. 
Cecil  Rhodes  (b,  1853  ;  f  1902),  premier  of  Cape  Colony  and  head 
of  the  British  South  Africa  Company,  which  controlled  the  region 
north  and  west  of  Transvaal,  fostered  a  conspiracy  of  uitlanders  at 
Johannesburg  and  collected  a  body  of  troops  under  L.  S.  Jameson  at 
Mafeking  to  aid  them.  Jaraeson,  without  orders  or  cooperation  of 
the  uitlanders,  crossed  the  frontier  (Dec.  29)  and  marched  on 
Johannesburg  with  600  horse.  He  was  captured  (Jan,  2)  and  turned 
over  to  the  British  authorities  (Jan.  14).  Secretary  Chamberlain 
denounced  the  raid. 
1896-1903.     Plague  in  India;  also  during  earlier  years,  famine. 

1896,  Jan.     Expedition  against  Ashantee  ;  king  Prempeh  deported. 
Jan.   15.     Convention  signed  with  France  on  China  and  Siam  (p. 

596). 
March-Sept.    Advance  of  British  and  Egyptians  in  Soudan  under 
gen.  Herbert  (later  lord)  Kitchener  ;  opposed  by  Osman  Digna. 
The  Egyptians  were  established  near  Dongola. 

1897,  Jan.  11.     General  arbitration  treaty  signed   with  the  United 

States  ;  but  it  was  rejected  by  the  Senate  (May  5). 

June  22.  Jubilee  of  the  sixtieth  anniversary  of  the  accession  of 
queen  Victoria ;  prominent  participation  of  colonies  and  de- 
pendencies. Conferences  of  colonial  premiers  with  secretary 
Chamberlain. 

July.     Gold  discovered  at  Klondike  in  Canadian  Northwest  territories. 

Aug.  6.  Workmen^s  compensation  act ;  employers  made  liable  for 
injuries,  but  "  contracting  out  "  allowed. 

Oct.  1.  Chamberlain  reasserted  British  suzerainty  over  South 
African  republic  in  answer  to  Kruger^s  demand  for  for- 
eign arbitration  on  the  Convention  of  London  (p.  565). 

Dec.  25.     Italians  evacuated  Kassala,  which  the  Egyptians  occupied. 

1898,  April  8.     The    Anglo-Egyptian   army  under   Kitchener  de- 

feated the  dervishes  near  Atbara,  securing  Berber.  The  advance 

was  continued  during  the  summer  and 
Sept.  2.    the  forces  of  the  mahdi  (Abdullahi)  were  defeated  at  Om- 

durman   and   Khartum   occupied.     This    was   followed   by 

the  final  defeat  and  death  of  the  mahdi  near  Gedid  (Nov.  24, 

1899),  and  the  capture  of  Osman  Digna  (Jan.  19,  1900). 
1898,  May  19.     f  Gladstone. 
June  13.     Act  of  the  Canadian  parliament  approved,  giving  to  Great 

Britain  and  some  of  her  colonies  a  tariff  preferential  of  25%. 

This  was  increased  in  1900   to  33|%.      Germany   retaliated^ 

July  7,  1899,  by  depriving  Canada  of  the  most  favored  nation 

treatment. 
July  25.     Lord  Minto  appointed  governor-general  of  Canada. 
Aug.  10.     George  N.  (later  lord)  Curzon  appointed  viceroy  of  India. 
Aug.  12.     Local  government  (Ireland)  act  received  the  royal  assent ; 

extension  to  Ireland  of  county  and  district  councils  (p.  567), 

but  not  of  parish  councils. 
Sept.-Nov.     Fashoda  incident.     A  French  expedition  under  major 


570  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

Marchand  declined  to  comply  with  Kitchener's  request  to  with- 
draw from  Fashoda  on  the  White  Nile  (Sept.  19).  Nov.  4 
the  French  government  agreed  to  withdraw  tlie  force,  and  on 
March  21, 1899,  a  convention  was  signed  as  to  possessions  and 
spheres  of  influence  in  central  Africa.  France  renounced 
any  claim  to  the  Nile  valley. 

Nov.  1.     Old  age  pension  law  enacted  in  New  Zealand. 

Dec.  25.  An  imperial  penny  postage  rate  went  into  operation 
with  most  of  the  colonies.    Australia  included,  April  24, 1902. 

1899,  Feb.     Attempt  of  France  to  obtain  territory  at  Muscat  from 

sultan  of  Oman  prevented  by  Great  Britain. 

March  15,  Oct.  28.  Agreements  between  Germany  and  Rhodes  for 
the  construction  of  the  Cape  to  Cairo  telegraph  through  Ger- 
man East  Africa. 

July  13.  London  (outside  the  City)  divided  into  separate  horoughSy 
with  powers  previously  held  by  the  county  council  (p.  567). 

Aug.  9.     Central  hoard  of  education  established. 

1899-1902.     South  African  War. 

Unsuccessful  negotiations  followed  the  Jameson  raid  (p.  568). 
To  the  demand  of  Great  Britain  for  recognition  of  the  rights  of  the 
uitlanders,  the  Transvaal  responded  with  a  claim  of  entire  inde- 
pendence not  only  in  such  (internal)  affairs  but  in  foreign  matters, 
a  request  for  indemnity,  and  active  military  preparation.  Violation 
of  London  convention  (p.  565).  March  24,  1899,  petition  of  British 
citizens  at  the  mines  for  intervention.  Various  projects,  including 
an  offer  (Aug.  19)  of  the  franchise  on  five  years'  residence  and  a 
quarter  representation  in  the  rand,  in  return  for  Great  Britain's  re- 
nunciation of  the  claim  of  suzerainty,  were  refused  by  England.  Both 
sides  prepared  for  war,  and  the 
Oct.  12.     Boers  issued  an  ultimatum,  demanding  the  immediate 

withdrawal  of  British  troops  from  the  frontier  and  the  removal 

of   all  reinforcements   from   South  Africa.     When  this  was 

refused  the  forces  of  the 
Oct.  12.     two    Dutch    republics  (in  offensive  alliance)  invaded 

Natal  and  Cape  Colony,  and  also  laid  siege  to  Kimherley  and 

Mafeking. 
The  Boers  had  the  advantage  of  better  preparation  and  more 

mobility,  and  besieged  sir  George  White  and  12,000  men  at 

Ladysmith.     Sir   Redvers   Buller,   marching    to  relieve  the 

town,  was  defeated  at 
Dec.  15.     Colenso,  on  the  Tugela,  at 

1900,  Jan.  23.     Spion  Kop,  and  at 

Feb.  5.     Vaal  Krantz  ;  but  finally  succeeded  in 

Feb.    28.     relieving    Ladysmith.      Lord    Methuen,   advancing    on 

Kimberley,  was  defeated  at 
1899,  Dec.  10, 11.     Maagersfontein  on  the  Modder  by  gen.  Cronje  ; 

and  gen.  Gatacre  at 
Dec.  10.     Stormberg  by  the  Boers  who  had  invaded  Cape  Colony. 

Lord  Roberts  was  sent  out  as  commander-in-chief,  with 

Kitchener  as  chief  of  staff.     The 


A.  D.  South  African  War.  571 

1900,  Feb.  13.     relief  of  Kimherley  (where  Rhodes,  the  "evil  genius 

of  the  Boers,"  was)  was  accomplished  by  gen.  French,  while 

Roberts 
Feb.  17.     surrounded  Cronje  at  Paardesburg,  and  after  ten  days 

received  his  surrender  and  that  of  4000  men.     The 
May  24.     annexation  of  the  Orange  Free  State  was  proclaimed 

by  lord  Roberts,  who  soon  after 
June  5.     occupied  Pretoria.     This  advance  had  also 
May  17.     raised  the  siege  of  Ma/eking  (held  by  col.  Baden-PoweU). 

The  Boers  were  defeated  at 
June  11.     Diamond  Hill,  and  the  railroad  to  the  Portuguese  frontier 

having  been  cleared,  the 
Sept.  1.     South  African  republic  was  annexed.     Kruger  retired 

to  Europe,  and  Roberts  left  the  command  to  Kitchener. 
The  Boers,  under  Botha,  De  Wet,  and  Delarey,  began  a  guerilla 
"warfaie  :  communications  were  cut,  supplies  captured,  and  isolated 
garrisons  "  rushed,"  while  engagements  were  avoided.  The  British 
built  lines  of  blockhouses,  connected  them  by  means  of  entanglements, 
established  concentration  camps  for  nonconibatants,  and  kept  an  army 
of  250,000  in  the  field  against  a  force  averaging  45,000.  The 
1902,  May  31.   Boers  finally  submitted,  receiving  honorable  terms, 

but  renouncing  independence.  British  force  during  the 
war,  450,000  ;  Boer  force,  about  75,000  ;  British  loss,  22,000  ;  Boer 
loss,  about  5000.  Deficiency  in  organization  and  administration  of 
the  British  army  (report  of  royal  commission,  Aug.  26,  1903)  and 
participation  of  colonial  troops  were  features  of  the  war.  The  con- 
quered states  became  the  crown  colonies  of  Orange  River  and 
Transvaal,  with  appointive  legislative  councils. 

1900,  Jan.  10.     First  train  from  Cairo  to  Khartum. 
July  9.     Royal  assent  given  to  the  act  constituting  the  Common- 
•wealth  of  Australia.     All   of    Australasia   united   in   one 
government  except  New  Zealand.     Bicameral  parliament  of  des- 
ignated powers  ;  an  equal  number  of  senators  from  each  colony,  pop- 
ularly elected  ;  representatives  apportioned  according  to  population, 
and  given  control  of  revenue  bills  ;  bills  to  receive  the  royal  assent 
direct  or  through  the  governor-general.     Executive   composed  of 
the  governor-general  and  a  responsible  ministry.  Federal  judiciary 
of  supreme  and  lower  courts,  with  regulation  of  appeal  to  king  in 
council;  appointed   justices  ;  jurisdiction   over  interstate   and  state 
and  federal  relationships.     Special  provisions  for  trade  and  finances, 
new  states,  and  amendment.     Lord  Hopetoun  was  appointed  first  gov- 
ernor-general.    The  government  was  inaugurated,  Jan.  1,  1901 ;  first 
parliament  met.  May  9  ;  first  ministry  formed  by  Edmund  Barton. 
Oct.  31.     Union  of  Free  and  United  Presbyterians  in  Scotland.    Thirty 
ministers  and  100  congregations  of  the  Free  church  refused 
to  accede  to  the  union,  and  the  House  of  Lords  (Aug.  1,  1904) 
decided  they  were  the  legal  holders  of  all  of  the  property  of 
the  Free  church. 
Dec.  3.     Fifteenth  (27th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria  ;  gov- 
ernment majority,  134. 


572  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

1901 — X.  Expeditions  by  British  and  Abyssinians  against  the  Mullah  in 
Somaliland.  A  force  of  British,  Indians,  Boers,  and  natives, 
under  gen.  Manning  was  in  the  field  in  1902.  British  defeated, 
Oct.  6,  1902. 

Jan.  22.     f  Queen  Victoria  ;  succeeded  by  her  son  as 

1901-X.     Edward  VII. 

March  15.     Population  of  all  India,  294,361,056. 

April  1.     Population  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  41,607,552, 

July  22.  House  of  Lords  decided  that  trade  unions  could  be  sued  as 
corporatiotis  (Taff  Vale  case). 

Nov.  18.     Abrogation  of  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  (p.  593). 

1902.  Rene-wed  trouble  in  Ireland  over  rent  questions,  influ- 
enced also  by  pro-Boer  demonstrations.  Members  of  parlia- 
ment convicted  for  conspiracy  under  the  summary  jurisdiction 
of  the  crimes  act  of  1887.     Industrial  depression  in  England. 

Jan.  30.  Defensive  alliance  with  Japan  as  to  the  eastern  ques- 
tion (p.  598). 

May  15.     Treaty  signed  with  Abyssinia  ;  Soudan  boundary,  railway. 

March  26.  f  Rhodes.  His  will  provided  for  the  education  of  colonial, 
American,  and  German  students  at  Oxford  {Rhodes  scholar- 
ships). 

July  11.  Resignation  of  lord  Salisbury.  A.  J.  Balfour,  prime 
minister  ;  George  Wyndham  (Ireland). 

Aug.  9.     Coronation  of  Edward  VII. 

Oct.  31.  First  message  sent  over  British  Pacific  cable  between  Canada 
and  Australia,  completing  the  all  British  cable  round  the  world. 

1902,  Nov.,  1903,  March.     Visit  of  Chamberlain  to  South  Africa  on 

an  official  tour  of  investigation  and  to  promote  reconciliation 

and  unity. 
Nov.  21.     Lord  Tennyson  appointed  governor-general  of  Australia. 
Dec.     Coercion  of  Venezuela  (p.  585). 
Dec.  10.     Opening  of  the  Assuan  dam  on  the  Nile. 
Dec.  19.     Education  act  for  England  and  Wales  received  royal 

assent.      Voluntary  (denominational)  schools  entitled  to  public 

support  on  equal  footing  with  board  schools  ;  local  councils  to 

control  aided  schools  in  secular  matters.     Passive  resistance 

by  nonconformists. 
Dec.  21.      Wireless  telegraphic  messages  exchanged  between  England 

and  Canada. 

1903.  Cape  to  Cairo  railway  completed  to  near  the  Zambesi. 
Agitation  in  South  Africa  for  coolie  labor  in  the  mines.     Dec. 

30,  favorable  vote  by  the  legislative  council  of  Transvaal,  and 
first  Chinese  arrived  on  June  22,  1904. 

May  5.  Declaration  by  lord  Lansdowne,  foreign  minister,  as  to 
British  control  of  Persian  gulf. 

May  15.  Secretary  Chamberlain  began  his  campaign  for  imperial 
unification  through  a  colonial  preferential  tariff.  The 
ministry  divided  on  the  question  ;  Balfour  showed  leanings 
toward  a  retaliatory  tariff.  Sept.  9  Chamberlain  resigned 
from  the  cabinet,  as  did  several  free  trade  members. 


I 


A.  D.  Continental  Europe.  573 

Aug.  8.     Lord  Norihcote  appointed  governor-general  of  Australia. 

Aug.  11.     Prohibition  of  bounty-fed  sugar  (p.  584). 

Aug.  14.  Irish  land  purchase  act  received  royal  assent.  Three 
methods  of  non-compulsory  sale  to  tenants:  (1)  As  under 
former  law  (p.  567);  (2)  sale  of  entire  estate  to  tenants  at 
annuity  less  than  present  rent ;  (3)  sale  to  a  land  commission 
for  resale  to  tenants.  Landlords  paid  in  cashy  the  govern- 
ment issuing  British  bonds  for  that  purpose. 

Aug.  22.   t  Lord  Salisbury. 

July-x.  Thibet  mission.  China  and  Thibet  agreed  to  send  com- 
missioners to  meet  the  British  commissioner,  col.  F.  E.  Young- 
husband,  at  Kamba  (July)  to  discuss  frontier  and  trade  rela- 
tions; but  failed  (as  often  before)  to  do  so.  Preparations 
were  made  to  advance  the  mission  under  military  protection 
to  Lhasa,  and  movement  began  Dec.  11. 

Oct.  14.  General  arbitration  treaty  with  France  signed ;  phase  of 
a  rapprochement  shown  also  in  official  visits  of  king  Edward  to 
Paris  (May  1)  and  president  Loubet  to  London  (July  6). 

Oct.  20.     Alaskan  boundary  award  announced  (p.  594). 

§9.    CONTINENTAL  EUROPE.      (See  pp.  526,  535.) 

1883— X. 

1883,  Jan.  16.  Manifesto  and  arrest  of  prince  Napoleon  Bon- 
aparte (Plon-Plon)  (released  Feb.  9),  followed  by  attempt 
to  expel  the  princes.  Resignation  of  ministry  Duclerc 
(Jan.  28)  and  ministry  Fallieres  (Feb.  21).  Ministry  Ferry 
took  of6ce  (Feb.  21);  Waldeck-Rousseau  (interior),  Tirard 
(finance).     Princes  placed  in  inactivity. 

Feb.  8-March  10.  An  international  conference  at  London  regulated 
the  navigation  of  the  Danube. 

March  15.  Triple  alliance  (Dreibund)  of  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Italy,  acknowledged  in  Italy. 

May-July.  Railway  convention  in  France;  abandonment  of  Frey- 
cinet's  policy  of  state  ownership. 

May  31.  German  act  prescribing  the  insurance  of  workmen  against 
illness  (Krankenkassengesetz) ;  employer  to  pay  ^  of  premium. 
In  1888,  5,400,000  insured. 

May  2.     Consecration  of  the  tzar  Alexander  III.  at  Moscow. 

June  13.  French  occupied  Tamatave  in  Madagascar;  continued 
resistance  of  the  Hovas. 

Anti-Semitism  in  Hungary;  accusations  of  ritual  murder;  severe 
persecutions  at  Pressburg  and  elsewhere. 

Aug.  24.  f  Count  of  Chambord("  Henry  v.").  Legitimists  acknowl- 
edged the  count  of  Paris  (table,  p.  528). 

Aug.  25.  Preliminary  peace  between  France  and  Anam  ;  French 
protectorate.     War  with  Black  Flags  continued. 

Sept.  29.  Alfonso  XII.  of  Spain  insulted  by  a  mob  in  Paris  for  hav- 
ing received  the  honorary  colonelcy  of  a  German  regiment 
stationed  at  Strasburg. 

Dec.  17.     Visit  of  the  German  cro-wn  prince  to  the  pope  ("  sec- 


574  Modem  History.  a.  d. 

ond  journey  to  Canossa").  The  German  government  had 
gradually  withdrawn  from  the  position  of  the  May  laws,  as 
Bismarck  found  support  of  catholics  necessary. 

1884.  In  Belgium  the  extension  of  the  suffrage  was  followed  by  a  cath- 
olic reaction ;  communes  allowed  to  adopt  clerical  schools. 

Feb.  11.  Annexation  of  Merv  and  Sarakhs  by  Russia,  bringing 
the  frontier  within  200  miles  of  Herat. 

June  26.  Under  the  liberal  minister  Sverdrup  royal  assent  was 
given  to  an  act  for  a  responsible  ministry  in  Norway. 

May  11.  Treaty  of  Tientsin  between  France  and  China;  China  to 
retire  from  Tonquin  and  respect  French  protectorate  over 
Anam.  Definitive  treaty  with  Anam,  June  6;  also  with  Cam- 
bodia, June  17.  Dispute  over  construction  of  Chinese  treaty, 
and  direct  war.  French  attacked  Formosa  (Aug.  3)  and 
Puchau  (Aug.  23). 

June  27.  Workmen's  accident  insurance  act  ( Unfallversicherungsge- 
setz)  enacted  in  Germany.     In  1888,  10,340,000  insured. 

July  28.     Earthquake  at  Ischia;  2000  killed. 

Aug.  French  constitution  revised;  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment not  subject  to  future  proposals  of  revision,  princes  not 
eligible  for  the  presidency.  Reform  in  the  organization  of  the 
senate  (Dec.) ;  proportional  representation  in  the  electoral  con- 
gress, no  more  life  members  to  be  created. 
The  establishment  of  the  Deutsche  Colonialverein  in  1882 
foreshadowed  German  imperialism.  In  Jan.  1884,  Bis- 
marck announced  the  protectorate  over  Angra  Pequena  in 
southwestern  Africa.     After  a  controversy  with  Great  Britain 

Aug.  13.  the  protectorate  was  extended  from  Cape  Frio  to  Orange 
River  (except  Walfish  Bay),  and  over  Kamerun  and  Togoland. 
Bismarck's  policy  was  to  protect  mercantile  undertakings 
rather  than  to  inaugurate  state  colonization. 

Aug.  18.     Vatican  library  opened  to  scholars  for  research. 

Oct.  28.  Elections  for  the  German  Reichstag;  gains  by  conserva- 
tives and  socialists. 

1885.  Hereditary  house  of  peers  abolished  in  Portugal;  house  of 
100  life  peers  and  50  elective  peers  substituted. 

Jan.,  Feb.     Italy,  after  an    understanding  with  England    (Jan.    1, 

1884),  occupied  Assab  and  Massawa.     Unfriendly  relations 

with  king  John  of  Abyssinia. 
Jan.,  Feb.     Earthquakes  in  Spain,  great  loss  of  life;  cholera. 
Feb.  17.     Imperial  charter  granted  to  German  East  Africa  Company. 
Feb.  26.     General   act   of   Congo  conference   signed   at   Berlin. 

Provisions  for  freedom  of  trade,  eradication  of  slave  trade, 

neutrality  of  the  basin,  and  regulation  of  future  occupations 

on  coast  of  Africa. 
March  30,     Resignation  of  ministry  Ferry  in  France  in  consequence 

of   defeat    in    Tonquin.     Ministry  Brisson  (justice)  formed; 

Freycinet  (foreign),  Sadi-Carnot  (public  works,  later,  finance). 
Russia  at  Penjdeh  (p.  566). 
May.     In  Germany,  increase  in  agrarian  duties. 
May.     Recidivist  law  in  France ;  transportation  of  habitual  criminals. 


A.  D.  Continental  Europe.  575 

June  8.  Adoption  of  the  scrutin  de  liste  (note,  p.  533)  in  the  election 
of  deputies  in  France. 

June  9.  Franco-Chinese  treaty  of  peace,  recognizing  the  treaty  of 
Tientsin. 

Aug.  25.  Germany  took  possession  of  the  Caroline  Islands,  but  the 
pope,  as  referee,  upheld  Spain's  protest  (Oct.  22). 

Sept.  13-17.  Revolution  in  East  Rumelia  ;  allegiance  offered  to 
Alexander  of  Bulgaria,^  who  accepted  the  crown  under  the 
suzerainty  of  the  Porte.  The  union  was  distasteful  to  the  sig- 
natory powers  (except  England),  but  the  sultan  accepted  the 
personal  union  in  the  end.  Meanwhile  Servia  and  Greece  were 
arming,  and 

Nov.  13.  Servia  declared  war  and  suffered  defeat  at  Slivnitza 
in  Bulgaria  (Nov.  14-20).  The  Bulgarian  counter-invasion 
was  stopped  hy  Austria,  and  an  armistice  signed,  Dec.  27. 

Nov.  25.  t  Alfonso  XII.  of  Spain  ;  queen  Maria  Christina  regent ; 
prime  minister  Canovas,  with  Campos  and  Sagasta  at  inter- 
vals. 

Dec.  1.     Population  of  Germany,  46,885,704. 

Dec.  17.  French  treaty  with  Madagascar;  protectorate,  but  not  ac- 
knowledged by  the  Hovas. 

Dec.  28.  Re-election  of  president  Gr^vy.  Oct.  elections  showed 
increase  in  monarchists.  Ministry  Brisson  resigned,  and  min- 
istry Freycinet  (foreign)  formed  (Jan.  7,  1886);  Sadi-Camot 
(finance),  Boulanger  (war). 

1886,  March  3.     The  powers  force  a  treaty  of  peace  between  Ser- 

via and  Bulgaria  at  Constantinople.     Greece  continued  to 

arm  for  the  occupation  of  Macedonia  until 
May  10-June  7.     the  allied  fleet  blockaded  her  ports. 
April  5.     Protocol  of  the  powers  ;  prince  of  Bulgaria  to  be  governor 

of  East  Rumelia. 
May  31.     Population  of  France,  38,218,903. 
May  17.     Birth  of  Alfonso  XIII.  of  Spain. 
June  22.     Expulsion  of  the  French  princes. 
Aug.  22.     Prince  Alexander  of  Bulgaria  kidnapped  by  Russian 

sympathizers.     A  provisional  government  under  Stamhouloff 

arrested  the  revolutionary  leaders,  and  the  prince  returned 

Aug.  28  ;  but  on  Sept.  3,  in  consequence  of  the  displeasure 

of  the  tzar,  he  abdicated. 
Oct.  3.     Law  regulating  primary  instruction  in  France. 

1887,  Jan.  14.     German  army  increased  from  427,000  to  468,000  men 

because  of  the  military  activity  of  France  and  Russia. 

April  21.  The  arrest  on  a  charge  of  espionage  of  the  French  com- 
missioner Schnahele  by  Germans  but  on  French  soil  aroused 
much  excitement  (released  April  29). 

May  30.  Ministry  Rouvier  (finance);  Ferron  (war).  The  change 
was  due  to  conservative  distrust  of  the  intentions  of  Boulan- 
ger, who  continued  to  increase  his  popularity. 

June.     Renewal  of  the  triple  alliance  causes  increase  in  Italian  army 
to  252,000  men. 
^  Of  the  house  of  Battenberg,  elected  prince  of  Bulgaria  in  May,  1879. 


576  Modern  History.  A.  D. 

July  7.  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Coburg  elected  prince  of  Bulgaria 
in  spite  of  Russia's  refusal  to  recognize  the  election. 

July  27.  Death  of  the  Italian  prime  miuister,  Dupretis  ;  Crispi  suc- 
ceeded him,  Rudini  and  Giolitti  at  intervals. 

Oct.  A  scandal  in  France  over  the  sale  of  decorations  and  other 
jobbery  affecting  Grdvy's  son-in-law  resulted  in  the  fall  of  the 
Kouvier  ministry  and  the  resignation    of  Gr^vy  (Dec.  1). 

Dec.  3.  Election  of  Sadi-Carnot  as  president.  Dec.  12,  ministry 
Tirard  (finance) ;  Fallieres  (justice),  Flourens  (foreign). 

1888,  Jan.     Papal  jubilee. 

March  9.     f  William  I.  German  emperor  ;  succeeded  by  his  son  as 

1888,  March-June.  Frederick  III.  The  emperor,  suffering 
from  cancer,  f  June  15,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 

1888,  June  -X.     William  II. 

March  19.  A  period  of  five  years  instead  of  three  adopted  for  the 
German  Reichstag. 

March  21.  Gen.  Boulanger  on  account  of  political  intrigues  and 
disregard  of  discipline,  was  removed  from  the  French  army. 
Ministry  Tirard  succeeded  by  the  ministry  Floquet  (interior)  on 
April  3;  Freycinet  (war).  Boulanger  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  by  a  large  majority  ;  he  declared  himself  in 
favor  of  a  revision  of  the  constitution. 

May  27.  Completion  of  the  Sarmarkand  section  of  the  Transcauca- 
sian  railway. 

Aug.  14.  Von  Moltke  resigned  as  chief-of-staff  of  the  German 
army.  The  publication  in  Sept.  of  extracts  from  the  diary  of 
Frederick  III.  indicated  that  the  establishment  of  the  empire  was 
due  in  good  part  to  his  initiative.  Bismarck  declared  the  ex- 
tracts had  been  interpolated,  but  their  genuineness  was  shown. 

Oct.  29.     Suez  canal  convention  signed  at  Constantinople ;  free  navi- 
gation. 
Completion  of  the  Eastern  railway  connecting  Constantinople 

with  Calais. 
Upon  the  receipt  of  remonstrances  from  Austria,  Germany,  and 
Russia  against  asylum  to  political  offenders  in  Sivitzerland,  that 
country  voted  16,000,000  francs  for  military  supplies. 

1889,  Jan.  30.     Suicide    of   crown   prince   Rudolf   of   Austria. 

Archduke  Carl  Ludwig,  brother  of  the  emperor,  trans/erred  his 
right  of  succession  to  his  son  archduke  Ferdinand. 
Adoption  of  the  zone  railway  tariff  in  Hungary. .  ? 
Feb.  Popularity  of  Boulanger  increased  ;  he  was  elected  to  the 
assembly  from  Paris  in  Jan.  by  a  large  majority.  Floquet 
secured  a  return  to  the  scrutin  d'arrondissement  (note,  p.  533), 
but  was  defeated  on  a  proposal  for  revision.  Ministry  Tirard 
(commerce)  formed  on  Feb.  22  ;  Rouvier  (finance),  Constans 
(interior),  Freycinet  (war),  Thevenet  (justice),  Fallieres  (in- 
struction). The  new  government  at  once  took  up  the  repres- 
sion of  the  Boulangist  movement ;  Boulanger,  Dillon,  and 
Rochefort  fled  (April),  and  while  absent  were  condemned  by 
the  senate  of  an  attempt  against  the  security  of  the  state  (Aug). 


A.  D.  Continental  Europe,  577 

March  7.     Abdication  of  'k.mg  Milan  of  Servia  in  favor  of  his  son 

Alexander;  queen  Natalie  banished. 
May  6.     International  exposition  opened  at  Paris  in  eoramemoration 

of  the  revolution  of  1789.     Eiffel  tower,  984  feet. 
May  24.     Aged  and  indigent  workmen's  insurance  act  adopted  in  Ger- 
many. 
June  14.     Samoan  treaty  (p.  587). 

July.     Electoral  reform  in  France  ;  plural  candidacy  abolished.   In 
Sept.  and  Oct.  the  elections  showed  decided  republican  gainSy 
and  interest  in  Boulanger  visibly  declined. 
Oct.  9.     t  Dom   Luis,    king    of    Portugal  ;    succeeded    by  his    son 

Carlos  I. 
1890-1903.  A  period  throughout  Europe  of  much  social  unrest, 
indicated  by  anarchistic,  socialistic,  and  anti-Semitic  agitations 
which  assumed  acute  phases  especially  noticed.  Strikes  were  frequent 
and  usually  of  political  significance.  In  Germany  and  in  Russia  (espe- 
cially under  Witte)  industrial  development  was  forced,  and  a  policy  of 
naval  expansion  entered  upon.  In  France,  in  spite  of  setbacks,  the 
republican  government  was  strengthened.  Foreign  interests  shifted  from 
the  near  to  the  far  East,  and  the  political  map  of  Africa  was  more 
clearly  marked. 

1890.  March  18.     Resignation  of  Bismarck  in  consequence  of  dif- 

ferences of  opinion  with  the  emperor.  He  was  created  duke 
of  Lauenburg  and  retired  to  Friedrichsruhe.  Von  Caprivi 
appointed  chancellor. 

March  15-19.  International  labor  conference  at  Berlin  at  sugges- 
tion of  the  emperor  ;  recommendations  with  regard  to  labor  of 
women  and  children,  and  Sunday  labor. 

July  1.     Anglo-German  treaty;  Heligoland  and  Africa  (p.  567). 

July.  In  Russia  enforcement  of  the  May  laws  of  1882  ;  Jews 
forbidden  to  reside  in  the  rural  districts,  to  own  or  farm  land, 
to  enjoy  educational  advantages,  to  practice  law  or  engineer- 
ing, to  act  as  army  doctors,  or  to  hold  any  government  position. 

Aug.  5.     Franco-British  African  convention  (p.  567). 

Nov.  23.  t  William  HI.  of  the  Netherlands  ;  queen  Emma  regent  for 
his  daughter  Wilhelmina.  Luxemburg  passed  to  Adolf  of 
Nassau. 

Dec.  1.     Population  of  Germany,  49,428,470. 

Dec.  31.     Population  of  Austria-Hungary,  41,231,342. 

1891.  Radicals  gained  control  in  Norway,  advocating  universal 
suffrage,  and  separate  consuls  and  foreign  office.  Through 
various  ministries  this  agitation  has  continued. 

March  17.     f  Prince  Napoleon  Bonaparte  at  Rome. 
March  24.     Anglo-Italian  protocol  on  Africa  (p.  567). 
April  12.     Population  of  France,  38,342,948. 
June  11.     Anglo-Portuguese  African  convention  (p.  567). 
July,  Aug.     French  fleet  at  Cronstadt  visited  by  the  tzar  ;  demon- 
strations of  friendship  between  Russia  and  France. 
Sept.  30.     Suicide  of  Boulanger  at  Brussels. 

1892.  Cholera  and  distress  ;  activity  of  anarchists. 

Jan.  11.     French  protective  tariff  ;  regular  and  minimum  rates. 


578  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

Feb.  1.  New  German  commercial  treaties  became  operative  ;  hostile 

to  agrarian  interests. 
Feb.    16.     Papal   encyclical   to   French   catholics  ;   republic   to   be 

unreservedly  recognized. 
Feb.  28.     Change  in  French  ministry  on  question  of  associations  bills  ; 

ministi-y  Loubet  (interior);  Freycmet  (war),  Ribot  (foreign). 
Nov.  22-Dec.  17.     International  monetary  conference  at  Brussels  at 

invitation  of  the  United  States  ;  no  results  on  bimetallism. 
Dec.  3.     French  protectorate  over  Dahomey. 
1892-1893.     Panama   scandal   in   France.     A   French   company 

having  secured  from  Colombia  the  right  to  build  a  ship  canal 
(May  18,  1878),  de  Lesseps  undertook  the  task.  Company  declared 
bankrupt,  Feb.  4,  1889  ;  of  1,434,000,000  fr.  disbursed  only  560,000,- 
000  fr.  had  been  spent  on  the  canal  and  much  of  this  misappropri- 
ated. Exposure  of  great  fraud,  blackmail,  and  bribery,  inculpating 
legislators  and  former  ministers  (Nov.  1892)  ;  ministry  reconstructed 
under  Ribot  (Dec.  5),  and  again,  Jan.  12,  1893,  without  Loubet  and 
Freycinet,  Dupuy  (education).  Trials  and  confessions  followed  (Jan., 
March).     The  company  was  reorganized,  but  sold  out  (p.  593). 

1893.  Bank  scandal  in  Italy  (Panamino),  involving  premier  Gio- 
litti  and  ex-premiers  Crispi  and  Rudini.  Crispi  formed  a  new 
ministry  (Dec.  14).  Financial  and  monetary  disturbances 
during  the  year  ;  deficit,  ^35,000,000.  Socialistic  disturb- 
ances in  Sicily. 

Feb.  19.     Episcopal  golden  jubilee  of  Leo  XIII. 

April  13.  Coup  d*^tat  in  Servia;  Alexander  deposed  his  regents  and 
took  personal  charge  of  the  government. 

May  6.  German  Reichstag,  having  refused  to  vote  an  increase  of  the 
army,  was  dissolved.  The  New  Reichstag,  showing  increase 
of  socialists,  passed  the  act  (promulgated  Aug.  3),  providing 
for  479,000  men. 

Aug.  Tariff  war  between  Russia  and  Germany,  ending  in  a  commer- 
cial treaty  (Feb.  10,  1894),  reducing  duties  on  German  manu- 
factures and  Russian  grain  ;  agrarian  opposition  in  Germany. 

Sept.  7.  Amendments  to  Belgian  constitution  sanctioned  ;  universal 
male  suffrage  with  system  of  plural  votes  ;  senate  reorgan- 
ized. 

Oct.  3.     Franco-Siamese  treaty  of  peace  (p.  595). 

1894,  March  15.     Franco-German  convention  ;  boundaries  of  French 

Congo  and  Kamerun,  spheres  of  influence  about  lake  Chad. 
May  28.     Ministry  Dupuy  (interior)  formed  ;   Poincare  (finances), 

Delcasse    (colonies),    Guerin    (justice),   Hanotaux   (foreign), 

Faure  (marine),  Mercier  (war). 
June  21.     Compulsory  civil  marriage  in  Hungary. 
June  24.     President  Sadi-Carnot  assassinated  by  an  anarchist  at 

Lyons. 
June  27.     Casimir-P^rier  elected  president  of  France. 
June  29.     French  law  for  compulsory  insurance  of  miners  •  employers 

to  pay  \  of  premium. 
Sept.     f  Count  of  Paris  ;  succeeded  in  his  claim  by  his  son  the  due 

dJ  Orleans. 


A.  D.  Avmenian  Massacres.  579 

Sept.  29.     Completion  of  the  North  Sea-Baltic  (Kiel)  ship  canal, 

61  miles  long  ;  formal  opening,  June  19-22,  1895. 
Oct.  15.  Capt.  Alfred  Dreylus,  of  the  general  staff  of  the  French 
army,  an  Alsatian  Jeiv,  arrested  on  accusation  of  sending 
military  secrets  to  the  Germans,  as  shown  by  a  letter  in  his 
handwriting  (bordereau).  Dreyfus  was  convicted  by  a  secret  court- 
martial  (Dec.  22)  on  the  divided  opinion  of  graphologists,  tlie  perjured 
testimony  of  major  Henry,  and  the  contents  of  a  secret  "  dossier  "  pre- 
pared by  the  minister  of  war,  Mercier,  and  submitted  privately  to 
the  judges.  He  was  publicly  degraded  (Jan,  5, 1895)  and  sentenced 
to  perpetual  imprisonment  on  Devil's  Island.  The  affair  became  a 
political  matter,  involving  anti-Semitism  and  the  relation  of  the 
army  to  the  republic. 
Oct.   26.     Resignation   of   chancellor   v.   Caprivi ;    succeeded  by 

prince  v.  Hohenlohe. 
Nov.  1.     t  Tzar  Alexander  III.  of  Russia  ;  succeeded  by  his  son 

1894-X.     Nicholas  II. 

Dec.  27.  Convention  deliminating  the  possessions  of  Congo  and 
French  Congo. 

1894-1896.  Armenian  Massacres.  Causes :  religious 
and  racial  antipathy ;  an  energetic  people  under  the  rule  of  a 
quietistic  government ;  abuses,  misrule,  and  forced  conversion 
to  Mohammedanism  ;  Armenian  plots  against  Turkish  rule. 
In  Aug.  1894,  Kurds  and  Turkish  soldiers  plundered  many 
villages  in  Sasun  and  massacred  thousands  of  Armenians. 
After  investigations,  England,  France,  and  Russia  (under 
treaty  of  Berlin) 

1895,  May  11.     presented  a  project  of  reform  to  the  Porte,  and 

after  much  friction  an  irade  was  issued  (Oct.  17)  ordering  the 
reforms  proposed.  Meanwhile 
Sept.  30,  an  Armenian  demonstration  at  Constantinople  provoked  a 
riot,  and  as  a  result  of  this  Kurds,  Circassians,  and  Turkish 
soldiers  began  to  massacre  the  Armenians  in  the  pro- 
vinces included  in  the  reform  irade,  which  continued  through- 
out the  year,  and  resulted  in  the  murder  of  over  25,000  and 
destitution  for  hundreds  of  thousands  as  the  result  of  pillage. 
Foreign  relief  expeditions  were  sent  to  the  desolated  districts 
(1896).  Disturbances  continued,  especially  at  Van  (June) 
between  Mohammedans  and  revolutionists. 

1896,  Aug.  26.     An  attack  on  the  Ottoman  bank  at  Constantinople  by 

Armenians,  caused  a  general  attack  on  Armenians  by  organized 
bands  of  Mussulmans,  which  continued  several  days.  Wholesale 
arrests  of  Armenians  at  the  capital,  and  many  thousands  fled. 
Dec.  22.  A  general  amnesty  was  issued  covering  all  Mohammedans 
and  most  of  the  Armenians.  Reforms  put  in  operation,  call- 
ing for  Christian  officials  and  gendarmes,  control  over  the  Kurds, 
and  tax  reforms;  of  little  practical  effect.  Action  of  the 
powers  hampered  by  lack  of  unity,  fear  of  international  compli- 
cations, and  condition  of  Turkish  finances.  England^s  policy 
checked  by  the  results. 


580  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

1895.  Naval  increase  in  Germany,  to  protect  commercial  ex- 
pansion. Agrarian  agitation  for  state  monopoly  in  foreign 
cereals. 

Jan.  14.     Resignation  of  ministry  Dupuy;  financial  scandals.     Also 
Jan.  15.     resignation  of  Casimir-Perier  because  of  hostile  criti- 
cism. 
Jan.  17.     Felix  Faure  elected  president  of  France. 
Jan.  21.     Anglo-French  agreement  on  Sierra  Leone  hinterland. 
Jan.  26.     Ministry   Ribot    (finance)    formed  ;    Hanataux    (foreign), 

Poincare  (education). 
Feb.     Revolt  in  Cuba  (p.  690). 
March  11.     Russian  and  English  spheres  of  influence  in  the  Pamirs 

deliminated. 
April  7.     Nansen  reached  86°  14' ;  farthest  north. 
April  12.     Interference  in  Chinese-Japanese  treaty  (p.  596). 
May  11.     Anti-revolutionary  bill  (^Umsturzvorlage)  against  socialists  in 

Germany  dropped   because  open  to  too  general  application; 

continuation  of  lese-majeste  prosecutions. 
July  15.     Stambouloff,  anti-Russian  leader  in  Bulgaria  (premier, 

1887-94),  attacked,  by  assassins;  f  July  18. 
Sept.  30.     French  occupy  capital  of  Madagascar  after  an  advance 

of  several  months  from  the  coast.     Treaty  of  peace  (Oct.  1); 

protectorate. 
Nov.  2.    Radical   ministry  Bourgeois  (interior)  formed  ;    Cavaignac 

(war),  Berthelot  (foreign),  Combes  (education). 
Dec.  2.     Population  of  Germany,  52,279,915. 

1896.  Agricultural  depression  throughout  Europe. 

Electoral  reform  in  the  Netherlands;  suffrage  made  dependent 

on  educational  or  financial  tests. 
Italy,  claiming  a  protectorate  over  Abyssinia,  advanced  troops 
(1895)  to  annex  it  to  Eritrea.    King  Menelek  surprised  them, 
compelled  the  evacuation  of  Makaleh  (Jan.  23,  1896),  and  de- 
feated them  in  the 

March  1.  battle  of  Adua  (Adowa).  Crispi's  ministry  fell  (March  5) 
and  Rudini,  the  new  premier  ("peace  with  honor"),  withdrew 
the  forces.  At  the  peace^of  Addi's  Abeda  (Oct.  26)  Italy 
acknowledged  the  full  independence  of  Abyssinia. 

Jan.  15.     Anglo-French  agreement  on  Siam  (p.  596). 

Feb.  Austrian  Reichsrath  introduced  general  suffrage  for  ^  of 
members  of  the  house;  remainder  still  elected  by  ^  of  the 
electors. 

Feb.  14.  Baptism  of  prince  Boris,  heir  apparent  of  Bulgaria,  in  the 
Greek  church  ;  restoration  of  Russian  ascendency. 

March  29.     Population  of  France,  38,517,957. 

April  28.  Ministry  Meline  (agriculture),  succeeds  ministry  Bour- 
geois; Hanotaux  (foreign). 

May  16.  Hungarian  parliament  passed  a  law  recognizing  the  Jewish 
faith. 

May  26.  Consecration  of  Nicholas  II.  at  Moscow;  disaster  in  the 
crowd  (May  30). 

Aug.  6.     Madagascar  declared  a  French  colony. 


A.  D.  Turco-Greek  War.  581 

Sept.  26.     Opening  of  the  Iron  Gates  of  the  Danube. 
Oct.     Visit  of  the  tzar  to  France. 

1896-1899.  Cretan  Revolt  and  Turco-Greek  War. 
In  Crete  a  Christian  (Greek)  insurrection  began  in  May, 
1896,  against  Turkish  rule.     The 

1897,  Feb.  7.  insurgents  proclaimed  union  "with  Greece,  and 
Greece  landed  troops,  refusing  to  withdraw  at  the  order  of 
the  powers  (Feb.  18),  who  had  assumed  joint  occupation 
of  the  island  and 

March  2.     presented  an  ultimatum;  no  annexation  to  Greece^  but 

Crete  to  have  an  effective  autonomous  government.     Greece 

still  refused  to  withdraw  (March  8),  and  the  powers  announced 

the  blockade  of  Crete. 

Public  opinion  in  Greece  forced  the  government  into  a  war  with 

Turkey,  for  which  she  was  utterly  unprepared.     The  conflict 

began  on  the  Thessalonian  frontier  on  April  16,  and 

April  17.     Turkey  declared  war,  her  forces,  under  Edhem  PashOj 

driving  the  Greeks  out  of  the  Milouna  pass  (April  18),  and 

causing  a  general  retirement,  though  unsuccessful  at  Raveni 

pass  (April  19).     The  Greeks,  under  the  crown  prince^  seized 

with  panic, 

April  25.     evacuated  Larissa  and  retreated  to  the  Karditsa-Volos 

line.     The  Greek  ministry  was  dismissed  and  Athens  almost  in 

revolt.     Meanwhile  the  Greeks  had  invaded  Epirus  from  Arta  (April 

20),  but  were  driven  back  by  Osman  Pasha  (April  28).     Karditsa  was 

abandoned  on  the  advance  of  Edhem  Pasha;  May  5  the  Greeks  were 

driven  from  Fersala  and  Velestino,  and  May  8  the  Turks  entered 

Volos.     Fighting  closed  with  the  further  retreat  of  the  Greeks  from 

Domokos  to  Lamia  (May  17). 

May  10.     Greece  consented  to  withdraw  from  Crete  and  was  ready 

for  mediation,  which  the  powers  offered   to  Turkey.     Russia 

and  Austria  had  ordered  the  Balkan  states  to  keep  out  of  the 

war  (April  29),  and  now  at  a  hint  from  the  tzar  the 

May  18.     Porte  suspended  hostilities.     Turkey  was  not  allowed 

to  profit  by  her  victories.     By  the 
Dec.  4.     treaty  of  peace  at  Constantinople,  the  frontier  was  rectified 
(Turkey  gained  control  of  the  passes),  and  Greece  paid  an 
indemnity  of  $17,600,000.     A  commission  of  the  powers  assumed  con- 
trol of  Greek  revenues  sufficient  to  pay  this  and  the  old  Greek  loans. 

Meanwhile  in  Crete  the  settlement  made  little  progress,  though 
the  Christian  assembly  accepted  autonomy  (Aug.  26)  and  the  powers 
increased  their  zone  of  occupation.  The  powers  failed  to  agree 
among  themselves  or  with  Turkey,  and  Germany  and  Austria  with- 
drew. Turkey  wished  to  keep  troops  on  the  island  as  a  mark  of  her 
suzerainty -And  have  the  Christian  governor  her  subject  ;  but  the  with- 
drawal of  her  troops  was  forced  (Nov.  12,  1898)  after  a  Moslem 
attack  on  the  British  troops  and  Christians  at  Candia  (Sept.  6),  and 

1898,  Dec.  21.     Prince     George    of    Greece   was   made    governor- 

general  by  the  powers.     A  constitution,  drawn  up  by  a  native 
commission,  was  accepted  by  the  four  powers  (Russia,  Great  Britain, 


582  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

Italy,  France)  and  the  Cretan  assembly  (April,  1899).     Many  desti- 
tute Mobammedaus  emigrated. 

1897,  Feb.  9.     Population  of  Russian  empire,  129,004,514. 

April  5.     By  ministerial  decree  in  Austria  Czech  (Bohemian)  was 

placed  on  an  official  equality  -with  German  in  Bohemia.  A 
race  was  followed  in  Bohemia.  In  the  Reichsrath  violence  and  ob- 
struction by  the  Germans  produced  a  deadlock  which  continued  during 
1898  and  1899  and  made  necessary  legislation  by  decree  under  a 
temporary  suspension  of  the  constitution.  The  Ausgleich  was  thus 
renewed  as  a  modus  vivendi.  Matters  were  complicated  by  socialism 
and  anti-Semitism.  In  Hungary  there  was  opposition  to  the  renewal 
of  the  Ausgleich.  The  repeal  of  the  language  ordinance  (July  20, 
1900)  was  followed  by  obstruction  by  the  young  Czechs. 
July  23.     Convention  defining  the  boundary  of  French  Dahomey  and 

German  Togoland. 
Aug.     Visit  of  the  president  of  France  to  Russia;  the  tzar  toasted 

the  "  alUed  "  nation  (Aug.  26). 
Dec.  2.     Gold  standard  adopted  in  Russia. 
1898-1899.     Dreyfus  affair.    An  attempt  by  col.  Picqmirt  to  re-open 

the  Dreyfus  case  (p.  579),  with  proof  that  the  dossier  con- 
tained nothing  applicable  to  him  and  that  the  bordereau  was  written 
by  another  officer  (Esterhazy),  was  met  by  an  attempt  to  discredit 
Picquart  and  his  evidence  by  forgeries  made  by  Henry,  acquittal  of 
Esterhazy  by  court-martial  (Jan.  11,  1898),  the  declaration  that  the 
case  was  une  chose  Jugee,  and  that  the  Dreyfusards  (including  Zola) 
were  trying  to  dishonor  the  army.  Public  opinion,  led  by  the 
Patriotic  League,  anti-Semites,  army  officers,  and  reactionists,  became 
rabid  against  the  revisionists.  But  Henry  confessed  to  the  forgeries 
and  committed  suicide  (Aug.  31),  and  the  prime  minister  {Brisson) 
now  favored  a  revision;  but  while  the  court  of  cassation  was  con- 
sidering the  question,  the  ministry  resigned  after  a  vote  virtually 
accusing  them  of  permitting  attacks  on  the  army,  and  the  ministry 
Dupuy  with  Freycinet  as  war  minister  succeeded  (Oct.  30).  The 
court  of  cassation  (June  3,  1899)  ordered  a  new  court-martial, 
declaring  the  bordereau  to  be  Esterhazy's  work  and  the  secret  dossier 
without  reference  to  Dreyfus,  but  the  new  court-martial  renewed  the 
conviction  (Sept.  9).  Meanwhile  the  agitation  had  endangered  the 
stability  of  the  republic,  and  the  ministry  Dupuy  ("  trimmers ") 
was  replaced  (June  22)  by  the  ministry  "Waldeck-Rousseau 
(interior)  ;  Delcasse  (foreign),  Gallifet,  later  Andre  (war).  This  was 
known  as  the  ministry  of  republican  defense,  and  it  steadily 
repressed  the  "  affair."  Dreyfus  was  pardoned  (Sept.  19),  the  leaders 
of  militarism  transferred  and  subdued,  and  an  act  of  amnesty  passed 
(Dec.  24, 1900). 

1898,  Feb.  20.     Referendum  in  Switzerland  voted  in  favor  of  state 

ownership  of  railways. 

April- August.     Spanish-American  war  (p.  590). 

May.  Distress  in  Italy  led  to  strikes  and  riots,  assuming,  under 
socialistic  and  clerical  encouragement,  a  political  character, 
amounting  in  Milan  (May  6-8)  to  an  insurrection. 


A.  D.  Continental  Europe,  583 

June.  Elections  for  German  Reichstag  showed  increase  of  social 
democrats  ;  but  little  increase  of  agrarians. 

June  14.  Franco-British  convention  on  spheres  of  influence  about 
Niger  river. 

July  17.  Italian  law  for  pension  fund  for  workpeople  j  national  sub- 
vention of  members  of  the  fund. 

July  30.     f  Bismarck. 

Aug.  31.     Accession  of  queen  Wilhelmina. 

Sept.-Nov.     Fashoda  incident  (p.  569). 

Sept.  10.     Empress  of  Austria  assassinated  by  an  anarchist. 

Oct.-Nov.  Visit  of  the  German  emperor  to  Constantinople  and  the 
Holy  Land. 

1899,  Jan.  25.     The  speech  from  the  throne  to  the  Finnish  diet  an- 

nounced that  the  military  service  of  Finland  would  be 
made  uniform  with  that  of  the  rest  of  the  empire.  Feb.  15, 
an  imperial  manifesto  displayed  the  intention  of  using  auto- 
cratic authority  over  legislation  respecting  Finland,  leav- 
ing to  the  diet  only  the  right  of  consultation. 
Feb.  16.     t  President  Faure. 

Feb.  18.     Emile  Loubet  elected  president  of  France. 
May  18-July  29.     Hague  peace  conference.     Aug.  24  and  Dec. 
30,  1898,  the  tzar  of  Russia  proposed  a  conference  to  consider 
limitation  of  armaments,  arbitration,  and  laws  of  war.     The  conference 
was  attended  by  representatives  of  European  nations,  United  States, 
Japan,  China,  Persia,  and  Siam.     No  conclusion  was  reached  as  to  re- 
duction of  armaments,  but  conventions  signed:  (1)  for  a  permanent 
court  of  international    arbitration  at  the  Hague  and    friendly 
mediation;  (2)  on  laws  and  customs  of  war  on  land;  (3)  extending 
the  Geneva  convention  to  maritime  warfare  ;  and  also  declarations 
prohibiting  the  use  of  special  means  of  destruction. 
June,  July.     Socialistic  demonstration  in  Belgium  against  the  govern- 
ment's   electoral  bill  ;    in    Brussels    fierce   rioting.     Ministry 
resigned  (Aug.  1)  and  the  new  ministry  carried  through  a 
law  ior  proportional  representation  (Dec.  29). 
June  30.     Spain  ceded  the  Caroline  Islands  to  Germany. 
Dec.  2.     Samoan  treaty  (p.  592). 

1900,  March.    Successful  obstruction  by  socialists  in  the  Italian  cham- 

ber of  deputies  of  a  drastic  bill  for  the  public  safety,  the  out- 
come of  the  disturbances  of  1898. 

April  14.  Paris  exposition  to  commemorate  the  work  of  the  century 
opened. 

June  26.  Imperial  ukase  issued  for  gradual  introduction  of  Russian 
as  the  official  language  in  Finland. 

June  27.  Franco-Spanish  convention  deliminating  possessions  in 
Sahara  and  on  gulf  of  Guinea. 

July  29.  Assassination  of  king  Humbert  of  Italy  by  an  anarch- 
ist, succeeded  by  his  son 

1900-X.     Victor  Emmanuel  TIL' 

Sept.  First  election  in  Nor-way  under  universal  manhood  (25 
years)  suffrage. 


584  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

Oct.  17.  Count  von  Biilow  succeeded  prince  v.  Hohenlohe  as 
chancellor  of  the  German  empire. 

Dec.  1.     Population  of  Germany,  66,367,178. 

1901.     Industrial  depression  in  Germany. 

1901-1902.  Attempted  Germanization  of  Prussian  Poland 
through  settlement  of  German  proprietors  and  language  de- 
crees made  little  progress  against  opposition. 

1901-1903.  In  Jan.,  1901,  revolt  of  students  throughout  Russia; 
Bogolepoff,  minister  of  education,  assassinated  (Feb.  27).  Tolstoi 
excommunicated  (Feb.  25).  Trouble  renewed  at  the  end  of 
year,  assisted  by  workmen  and  with  revolutionary  purposes. 
Sipiagin,  minister  of  the  interior,  was  assassinated,  April  15, 
1902,  and  so  was  his  successor,  Plehve  (July  26, 1904).  Labor 
strikes  followed,  a  novelty  in  Russia,  due  to  over-stimulation 
and  collapse  of  manufacturing  enterprises.  Distress  and 
famine  caused  agrarian  agitation  and  sacking  of  large  estates 
(April,  1902). 

1901 — X.  Macedonian  revolt,  headed  by  Bulgarian  revolutionists 
{Boris  Sara/of),  which,  with  the  conduct  of  the  Turkish 
troops,  produced  a  reign  of  terror.  Russia  and  Austria  up- 
held the  status  quo  and  presented  a  schem£  of  reform  to  the 
sultan  (Oct.  24,  1903)  which  he  accepted. 

1901,  Feb.  10.     Population  of  Italy,  32,475,253. 
March  24.     Population  of  France,  38,961,945. 

April  19.     A  liberal  constitution  decree  in  Servia,  creating  a  senate. 

June  25.     Army  reorganization  law  in  Sweden  ;  compulsory  service. 

July  1.  Associations  la"w  in  France.  Causes  :  attitude  of  clergy 
in  Dreyfus  affair  ;  teachings  of  the  regular  clergy  considered 
reactionary  ;  "too  many  monks  in  business,  and  too  many  monks 
in  politics."  All  religious  associations  and  their  establishments 
must  be  authorized  by  the  state;  all  unauthorized  ones  after 
Oct.  1  to  be  considered  dissolved.  Many  congregations,  espe- 
cially the  Jesuits,  transferred  their  property  beyond  France 
before  that  date.  The  law  was  construed  strictly,  especially 
against  associations  engaged  in  teaching  and  business  (Char- 
treuse). 

July  11.  Imperial  edict  deprived  Finnish  army  of  its  national  charac- 
ter ;  attempt  at  recruiting  at  Helsingfors  failed  (April  17, 
1902). 

Aug.  26.  Rupture  of  Franco-Turkish  diplomatic  relations  over 
claims  and  French  religious  orders.  Nov.  7,  naval  demonstra- 
tion. The  Porte  yielded  and  also  recognized  French  pro- 
tection of  catholics  in  the  East. 

1902, 1903.     Famine  in  Sweden  and  Finland. 

1902,  Jan.     Completion  of  the  Transsiberian  railway. 

Jan.  16.     Turkish  irade  for  a  German  railway  across  Asia  Minor  to 

Persian  gulf. 
March  5.     Brussels  sugar  convention  signed  by  most  European  states, 

abolishing  bounties;  in  effect  Sept.  1.     Great  Britain  (Aug. 

11)  forbade  import  of  bounty-fed  sugar. 
April.     A  general  strike  in  Belgium  against  plural  suffrage  failed. 


A.  D.  Continental  Europe.  585 

April,  May.     French  elections^  hearty  support  of  the  government. 

May  7.  Eruption  of  Mount  Pelee,  Martinique  ;  destruction  of  St. 
Pierre. 

May  17.     Accession  of  Alfonso  XIII.  of  Spain. 

June  3.  Resignation  of  ministry  Waldeck-Rousseau  ;  succeeded  by 
ministry  Combes  (interior,  worship)  on  June  7  ;  Delcasse 
(foreign),  Andre  (war),  Rouvier  (finance). 

June  7.  German  Reichstag  assented  to  the  abolition  of  the  dictator 
paragraph  (state  of  siege)  in  Alsace-Lorraine. 

June  28.     Triple  alliance  renewed  at  Berlin. 

July.  Riots  in  Brittany  and  Savoy  against  the  closing  of  unauthorized 
religious  schools.     About  3000  schools  closed  in  France. 

Sept.  30.  Further  Russification  of  Finland.  Edicts  issued  giv- 
ing governor-general  power  to  appoint  officials  and  remove 
judges;  Russian  to  be  the  official  language  Oct.  1,  1903. 
Russian  espionage  and  Cossacks  employed.  Great  emigra- 
tion. Bodrikoffy  governor  general,  assassinated,  June  16, 
1904. 

Dec.  Coercion  of  Venezuela.  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  Italyj 
presenting  claims,  blockaded  Venezuela.  United  States  re- 
fused to  interfere  so  long  as  no  permanent* occupation  was 
attempted,  but  through  its  good  offices  the  Hague  tribunal  was 
asked  to  decide  whether  coercing  powers  should  have  prefer- 
ence over  other  claimants  (Feb.  13,  1903),  and  the  blockade 
was  raised.     Claims  conventions. 

Dec.  14.  Tariff  hill  passed  the  German  Reichstag;  minimum  duties 
on  agricultural  products  raised. 

1903.  In  France  an  agitation  developed  for  separation  of  church  and 
state  and  denunciation  of  the  Concordat  (p.  463) ;  members  of 
dissolved  congregations  denied  the  right  to  preach  in  the 
parishes.  The  visit  of  the  king  of  Italy  to  Paris  (Oct.  14), 
and  the  Franco-Italian  general  arbitration  treaty  (Dec.  25) 
harmonized  with  this  movement. 

Feb.  20.     Silver  jubilee  of  papacy  of  Leo  XIII. 

March  5.     Bagdad  railway  convention  signed  at  Constantinople. 

April.  In  Servia  "km^  Alexander,  not  receiving  the  support  of  the  radi- 
cals, suspended  the  new  constitution.  June  11  he  and  queen 
Draga  were  murdered  by  army  officers.  Peter  Kara- 
georgevitch,  the  rival  claimant,  elected  to  succeed  (June 
15). 

April  19,  20.  Planned  riot  against  the  lews  at  Kishinef,  Russia, 
the  authorities  sympathizing  with  the  rioters.  The  affair 
attracted  world-wide  attention.     Sept.  14,  similar  riot  at  Gomel. 

July  20.  t  Leo  XIII.;  Pius  X.  (Sarto),  patriarch  of  Venice,  elected 
to  succeed,  Aug.  4. 

Sept.  14.  Emperor  Francis- Joseph  sharply  denounced  the  demand 
of  the  Kossuthites  for  use  of  Hungarian  in  the  army.  Ministe- 
rial crisis. 

Oct.  14.     Franco-British  general  arbitration  treaty  (p.  573). 


586  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

§  10.     UNITED  STATES.  (See  p.  560.) 

1883— X. 

1883,  Beginning  of  the  ne^w  steel  navy  ("white  squadron  "). 
March  3.     Tariff  act;  protection  principle  maintained. 

May  24.     Opening  of  the  New  York-Brooklyn  suspension  bridge. 

1884,  June  6.     Republican  convention  at  Chicago  nominated  J.    G. 

Blaine  for  president;  protective  platform.  The  democrats  nom- 
inated Grover  Cleveland  at  Chicago,  July  11,  and  advocated  tax- 
ation for  revenue  only.  Both  platforms  supported  civil  service 
reform.  Campaign  of  much  personality.  Democrats  suc- 
cessful at  election  (Nov.  4),  carrying  the  pivotal  state  of  New 
York  by  1047  votes.     Electoral  vote,  219-182. 

1885,  Feb.  26.     Act  forbidding  importation  of  contract  laborers. 

1885,  March  4-1889,  March  4.  Grover  Cleveland  (b. 
1837)  (New  York),  democrat,  22d  president;  T.  A.  Hen- 
dricks, vice-president  (f  Nov.  25,  1885);  T.  F.  Bayard,  sec- 
retary of  state. 

1886,  Jan.  19.  Presidential  succession  law;  members  of  the 
cabinet  to  follow  the  vice-president  in  succession. 

March  6-May  3.     General  strike  on  the  Gould  system  of  railroads; 

rioting  suppressed  by  regulars  and  militia.     Knights  of  Labor 

controller!  the  strike. 
May-July.     Seizures  made  of  American  fishermen  in  Canadian 

waters,  reopening  old  controversy  under  convention  of  1818 

(p.  552).    Retaliatory  legislation. 
May  1.     Strikes  and  socialistic  demonstrations  throughout  the  country 

for  the  eight-hour  system. 
May  4.     Anarchist  riot  in  Haymarket  Square,  Chicago. 
Aug.  31.     Earthquake,  much  havoc  wrought  at  Charleston. 

1886,  1887.     Seizure  of  British  vessels  for  pelagic  sealing  in 

Bering  sea.  A  diplomatic  discussion  covering  several  years 
followed. 

1887,  Feb.  3.     Act  to  regulate  the  counting  of  the  electoral  votes  ; 

votes  certified  by  state  executives  to  be  counted,  unless  both 
houses  reject  them. 

Feb.  4.  Interstate  commerce  act ;  regulation  of  interstate  rail- 
road transportation,  prevention  of  discrimination  in  rates,  pool- 
ing, and  other  abuses  ;  commission  with  administrative  and 
judicial  powers  to  execute  the  act.  Results  under  the  act  have 
been  disappointing. 

Dec.  6.  The  president's  annual  message  to  congress  was  devoted 
entirely  to  surplus  revenue  and  tariff  reform  ("  it  is  a  con- 
dition which  confronts  us — not  a  theory"),  making  the 
tariff  the  issue  of  the  next  election. 

1888,  Feb.  15.     A  fisheries  treaty  with  Great  Britain  signed,  grant- 

ing certain  rights  in  Canadian  inshore  in  return  for  free  fish. 
The  senate  rejected  the  treaty  (Aug.  21). 
June  6.     Democratic  convention  renominated  Cleveland  at  St.  Louis. 
The   republicans   nominated    Benjamhi  Harrison  at  Chicago, 


A.  D.  United  States.  587 

June  25.  Tariff  the  issue,  and  republicans  successful 
(Nov.  6)  by  233  electoral  votes  to  168. 

June  13.  Department  of  labor  created,  but  without  a  seat  in  the 
cabinet. 

Oct.  1.  Chinese  exclusion  act  made  more  stringent,  after  China  had 
refused  to  ratify  a  treaty  for  the  same  purpose  ;  former  resi- 
dent laboi-ers  not  to  be  allowed  to  return. 

1888-1889.  Introduction  of  the  Australian  ballot ;  gradually 
adopted  by  most  of  the  states. 

1889,  Feb,  9.     Department  of  Agriculture  authorized. 

1889,  March  4-1893,  March  4.  Benjamin  Harrison 
(b.  1833  ;  t  1901)  (Indiana),  republican,  23d  president  ;  Levi 
P.  Morton^  vice-president ;  James  G.  Blaine,  secretary  of  state 
until  June,  1892. 

April  22.  Oklalwma  opened  to  settlement;  wild  rush  of  settlers. 
Territorial  government  authorized.  May  2,  1890.  Population 
(18909,  78,475. 

April  30.  Uentenary  of  Washington's  inauguration  celebrated  at 
New  York. 

May  31.  Destruction  of  Johnstown,  Pa.,  caused  by  the  bursting  of  a 
dam  ;  2280  perished. 

June  14,  Treaty  on  Samoa  signed.  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
and  Germany  united  in  a  declaration  recognizing  the  independ- 
ence and  neutrality  of  the  islands  and  providing  for  an 
autonomous  government  under  their  joint  control. 

Oct  2-1890,  April  19.  Pan-American  Congress  of  all  the  Ameri- 
can states  except  San  Domingo  met  at  Washington.  Few 
positive  results  ;  reciprocity  recommended.  Bureau  of  Ameri- 
can Republics  organized  (1890)  to  collect  and  distribute  com- 
mercial information. 

1889,  Nov.  2.     North  Dakota  (39th  state). 
Nov.  2,     South  Dakota  (40th  state). 
Nov.  8.     Montana  (41st  state). 

Nov.  11.     Washington  (42d  state). 

1890-1903.  Prominent  features  of  this  period  were  :  the  advent  of 
America  as  a  -world  power  ;  great  industrial  prosperity 
following  a  period  of  depression  ;  amalgamation  of  capital,  forming 
virtual  monopolies  and  "  trusts  ; "  growth  of  trade-unionism  and 
protracted  strikes ;  corruption  in  municipal  government ;  development 
of  rural  communication  by  means  of  electric  railroads,  telephones,  and 
free  delivery  of  mail.  At  the  Soutky  a  slow  betterment  in  the 
economic  condition  of  the  colored  race,  but  constitutional  disfran- 
chisement in  six  states  ("  grandfather  "  clause,  "  understanding  " 
clause)  and  lynching. 

1890,  Feb.  14.     New  rules  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  enabling 

the  speaker  to  include  in  the  quorum  those  present  but  not 

voting. 
June  1.     Population,  62,979,766  (11th  census). 
June  19.     Force  bill  reported  in  the  House,  providing  for  federal 

control  of  federal  elections,  and  intended  to  protect  negro  voters. 


588  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

Passed  the  House,  July  2,  but  was  shelved  in  the  Senate  by  aid 
of  republican  votes,  Jan.  1891. 

June  27.  Disability  and  dependent  pension  act  ;  pensions  to 
be  paid  to  all  Union  veterans  incapacitated  from  earning  a  living 
by  manual  labor,  and  to  widows  dependent  upon  their  own  daily 
toil.     Pensions  paid,  1889,  {$89,132,000  ;  1892,  $141,087,000. 

July  2.  Anti-trust  (Sherman)  lavsr  ;  all  trusts  or  combinations  to 
restrain  or  monopolize  interstate  or  foreign  trade  declared 
illegal. 

July  3.     Idaho  (43d  state). 

July  10.     "Wyoming  (44th  state). 

July  14.  Sherman  silver  purchase  law  ;  fixed  amount  of  silver 
to  be  purchased  each  month  and  silver  Treasury  notes  issued 
equal  to  its  bullion  value  ;  notes  to  be  redeemed  in  coin  and 
reissued. 

Oct.  1.  McKinley  tariff  la"W  ;  reduction  in  revenue  but  increase  in 
protection,  free  raw  sugar  and  bounty  on  home  production,  pro- 
vision for  limited  reciprocity  treaties,  several  of  which  were 
concluded. 

1891,  March  3.     International  copyright  law. 

March  14.     Lynching  in  New  Orleans  of  Italians,  members  of  the 

"  Mafia."  Italy  protested  and  closed  her  legation  (March  31). 

April  12,  1892,  the  United  States  paid  an  indemnity. 
June  15.     Modus  vivendi  with  Great  Britain  on  Bering  sea  sealing. 
Oct.  16.    Attack  on  American  sailors  in  Valparaiso  by  mob  and  police, 

resulting  from  conditions  during  a  recent  civil  war  in  Chile. 

War  imminent,  but   Chih  finally  apologized  (Jan.  25,  1892), 

and  paid  an  indemnity. 

1892,  Feb.  29.     Beting   sea  arbitration   convention   signed   with 

Great  Britain  ;  right  of  the  United  States  to  protect  seals 
from  pelagic  fishing  in  Bering  sea  referred  to  a  tribunal, 
which  decided  (Aug.  15,  1893)  against  any  such  right  outside 
the  three-mile  limit.  United  States  paid  damages  for  seizures 
made. 

June-Aug.  Strikes  and  rioting  at  Ccfeur  d'Alene  mines  in  Idaho 
(employment  of  non-union  miners)  ;  at  Homestead,  Pa. 
(wages,  non-union  laborers,  private  detectives^  ;  and  in  west 
Tennessee  mines  (convict  labor).  Martial  law  declared,  mili- 
tia and  regulars  called  out. 

June  10.  Republican  convention  at  Minneapolis  renominated  Har- 
rison and  supported  protection  and  bimetallism.  Democrats  at 
Chicago  renominated  Cleveland  and  denounced  the  McKinley 
tariff,  the  FoYce  bill,  and  also  upheld  bimetallism.  A  third  party 
(people's  party)  nominated  James  B.  Weaver  (July  5),  and 
declared  for  labor  unions,  free  silver,  no  national  banks,  and 
national  ownership  of  railroads.  Cleveland  was  elected 
(Nov.  8),  by  277  electoral  votes  to  145  for  Harrison  and  22 
for  Weaver. 

Feb.  14.  Treaty  of  annexation  with  Hawaii  signed  at  Wash- 
ington. Reform  party  in  Hawaii,  aided  by  tlie  United  States 
minister  (Stevens)  and  marines,  had  deposed  the  queen  (Lili- 


A.  D.  United  States.  589 

uokalani)  (Jan.  17).  President  Cleveland  (March  9)  "with- 
dre^w  the  treaty  from  the  Senate,  and  after  investigation 
proposed  to  reinstate  the  queen  under  certain  conditions.  She 
refused  the  conditions  (Nov.  13)  and  the  independent  repub- 
lican government  of  Hawaii  was  recognized  (Aug.  7,  1894). 

1893,  March  4-1897,  March  4.  Grover  Cleveland  presi- 
dent for  second  time.  A.  E.  Stevenson  vice-president  ;  W.  Q. 
Gresbani,  later  Richard  Olney,  secretary  of  state.  Democrats 
controlled  the  legislative  and  executive  departments  for 
first  time  since  1858. 

May-Oct.  World's  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago  to  com- 
memorate the  400tli  anniversary  of  the  discovery  of  America. 

June  27.  Disastrous  panic,  following  a  heavy  export  of  gold  and  news 
that  India  had  suspended  the  free  coinage  of  silver  ;  fear  of  a 
silver  basis. 

Aug.  7.  Extra  session  of  congress  to  consider  financial  matters. 
President  advocated  repeal  of  silver  purchase  law  to  stop 
drain  on  gold  reserve;  alternative,  sale  of  bonds  to  replenish 
gold  reserve  continually  or  payment  of  obligations  in  depreciated 
silver.  Repeal  passed  House,  Aug.  28  (239-108),  and  Senate, 
Oct.  30  (43-32).  Public  opinion  sharply  divided;  agitation 
for  free  silver. 

1894,  Feb.,  Nov.     Sale  of  government  bonds  to  replenish  gold  reserve, 

$100,000,000. 

Feb.-June.  Great  coal  strike  affecting  six  states,  mining  trouble  in 
Colorado;  disorder,  and  militia  called  out. 

March  17.  Treaty  with  China  signed,  renewing  the  exclusion  of 
Chinese  laborers. 

March  24-May  1.  March  of  "  Coxey's  army;"  demonstration  of 
unemployed. 

March  30.  Veto  of  a  bill  to  coin  the  seigniorage  of  the  purchased  sil- 
ver bullion. 

June  26-July  19.  American  Railroad  Union  strike.  Trains 
were  blocked  and  riots  ensued,  especially  at  Chicago.  Federal 
injunction  issued  against  the  sinkers  to  prevent  interference 
with  interstate  commerce  and  the  mails  (July  2) ;  later,  leaders 
were  arrested  for  contempt  of  the  injunction  ("  government 
by  injunction"),  and  also  for  conspiracy  to  block  the  mails. 
United  States  troops  sent  to  Chicago  (July  3)  and  other  places. 
Strike  extended  to  the  Pacific  coast.     Strike  failed. 

Aug.  27.  Wilson-Gorman  tariff  law  enacted  without  president's 
signature;  some  reductions  in  protective  schedules,  but  raw 
material,  except  wool,  still  taxed ;  tax  on  sugar;  income  tax  to 
make  revenue;  reciprocity  repealed. 

1895,  Jan.  9.     Presidential  recommendation    of   national   and  state 

bank  notes  defeated  in  the  House  (124-130),  also  bill  for  low- 
rate  gold  bonds  (Feb.  7)  (135-162).  Coin  bonds  ($62,000,000) 
sold  to  a  syndicate  to  replenish  gold  reserve  ;  discussion  of 
•  legality  of  issue.  Free  silver  bill  in  the  ^Qwaie  prevented  (Feb.} 
by  filibustering. 


590  Modern  History.  A.  d* 

Feb.  Outbreak  of  rebellion  in  Cuba  ;  carried  on  by  guerrilla 
warfare,  assisted  by  a  junta  in  tlie  United  States,  and  attended 
by  much  devastation  and  suffering,  especially  in  the  reconcentration 
camps  established  by  the  Spanish  captain-general  (Weyler).  The  in- 
surgents had  no  real  government,  and  various  efforts  of  congress  (1896, 
1897)  to  accord  them  the  right  of  belligerents,  or  to  recognize  their 
independence,  were  opposed  by  the  president.  Filibustering  expeditions 
were  guarded  against,  but  many  of  them  reached  Cuba.  Diplomatic 
Jriction  with  Spain.  Relief  sent  to  the  destitute. 
May  20.  Income  tax  declared  unconstitutional  by  the  supreme  court. 
July-1896,  Jan.  Venezuela-British  Guiana  boundary  contro- 
versy. Great  Britain  refused  to  submit  to  arbitration,  and 
secretary  Olney  considered  (July  20)  the  Monroe  doctrine  involved, 
as  the  United  States  was  "  practically  sovereign  on  this  con- 
tinent "  and  her  safety  was  endangered  by  Great  Britain's  attitude 
{Olney  doctrine).  Dec.  17  Cleveland  asked  congress  to  authorize  a 
commission  to  determine  the  rights  of  the  controversy;  "the  duty  of 
the  United  States  to  resist  .  .  .  the  appropriation  by  Great  Britain 
of  any  .  .  .  territory  which  after  investigation  we  have  determined 
of  right  belongs  to  Venezuela."  Commission  authorized  and  ap- 
pointed (Jan.  4,  1896),  but  Great  Britain  and  Venezuela  signed  an 
arbitration  treaty,  Feb.  2,  1897.  The  award  gave  most  of  the  dis- 
puted territory  to  Great  Britain  (Oct.  3,  1899). 
1896.  Rural  free  delivery  of  mail  began;  in  1902  there  were  11,650 
routes. 

1896,  Jan.  4.     Utah  (45th  state)  ;  constitution  forbids  polygamy. 

Feb.  5.  Popular  issue  of  bonds  (^100,000,000),  largely  oversub- 
scribed above  par.  After  the  election  in  Nov.  the  drain  of  gold 
for  hoarding  and  export  ceased. 

June  18.  Republican  convention  at  St.  Louis  nominated  William 
McKinley  for  president  and  declared  for  protection  and  a  gold 
standard.  The  democrats  at  Chicago  nominated  William  J. 
Bryan  (July  10)  and  declared  for  free  silver.  The  populists 
supported  Bryan.  McKinley  was  elected  (Nov.  3),  by 
271  electoral  votes  to  176. 

1897,  Jan.  11.     General  arbitration  treaty  signed  with  Great  Britain, 

but  rejected  by  the  Senate,  May  5. 
1897,  March  4-1901,  Sept.  14.  William  McKinley 
(b.  1843;  t  1901)  (Ohio),  republican,  24th  president  ;  Garret 
A.  Hobart  (f  Nov.  21,  1899),  vice-president  ;  John  Sherman, 
later  John  Hay,  secretary  of  state.  Republicans  regained  control 
of  executive  and  legislative  departments. 

1897,  July  24.     Dingley  tariff  act ;  intended  to  increase  the  revenue 

(which  had  been  below  the  expenditures  since  1893)  and  also 
increase  the  protection  ;  provision  for  reciprocity  treaties. 

1898,  Jan  1.     Inauguration  of  Greater  New  York  government;  New 

York  City,  Brooklyn,  and  vicinity  in  one  municipal  govern- 
ment.    Area,  359  square  miles  ;  population  (1900),  3,437,202. 
1898.     Spanish  War. 

Rebellion  in  Cuba  (above)  made  no  progress,  nor  was  Spain 


A.  D.  Spanish  War.  591 

able  to  end  it ;  contest  became  one  of  famine  and  annihilation.    Ameri- 
can sympathy  was  with  the  Cubans,  American  interests  deeply  in- 
volved, and  Spain  uniformly  refused  offers  of  friendly  mediation. 
A  new  ministry  {Sagasta)  announced  an  autonomous  government  for 
Cuba  (Oct.  6,  1897),  but  it  satisfied  neither  party  there. 
Feb.  15.     U.  S.  S.  Maine  was  blo-wn  up  in  Havana  harbor,  arous- 
ing national  resentment  ("  remember  the  Maine  !  ").     McKin- 
ley  sent  to  Congress  a 
April  11.     "war  message,  declaring  that  the  intolerable  conditions 
in  Cuba  must  cease,  and  asking  authority  for  forcible  inter- 
vention.    Congress  passed 
April  20.     a  resolution   recognizing  the  independence  of  the  people  of 
Cuba  (but  not  of  the  so-called  republic),  authorizing  inter- 
vention,  and   disclaiming    any    intention   of    annexing 
Cuba.     Spain  considered  this  a  declaration  of  war.     Later 
both  nations  made 
April  24,  25.     formal  declarations  of  -war. 

May  1.  Battle  of  Manila  Bay.  Commodore  George  Dewey 
with  7  cruisers  destroyed  the  Spanish  fleet  of  10  inferior  vessels 
and  held  Manila  at  his  mercy,  but  with  no  troops  to  occupy  it.  Rein- 
forcements and  an  army  were  sent  to  him.  Admiral  Cervera  sailed 
for  Cuba  from  Cape  Verde  Islands  with  a  Spanish  fleet  of  4  armored 
cruisers  and  2  destroyers  (April  29),  and  admiral  Sampson,  searching 
for  him,  bombarded  Sati  Juan  (May  12),  and  finally  blockaded  him 
at  Santiago  (June  2).  An  army  of  16,000  men  under  gen.  Shafter 
landed  near  Santiago  (June  22),  and  in  advancing  defeated  the 
Spaniards  at  the 

July  1.     battles  of  El  Caney  and  San  Juan  Hill,  and  demanded 
the  surrender  of  the  city  (July  3).     Cervera  made  a  dash 
from  the  harbor,  and  in  the 
July  3.     naval  battle  of  Santiago  his  fleet  was  utterly  destroyed. 
July  17.     Santiago  surrendered.     General  Miles  landed  in  Porto 
Rico  (July  25),  but  his  advance  on  San  Juan  was  stopped  by 
the  signing  of  the 
Aug.  12.     peace   protocol.     Before    this   was   known  the   army 

gathered  in  the  Philippines  under  gen.  Merritt 
Aug.  13.     captured  Manila. 

Dec.  10.     The   treaty   of   peace    was   signed   at   Paris.      Spain 
retired  from  Cuba,  ceded  to  the  United  States  Porto  Rico, 
Guam,  and  the   Philippines,  receiving   $20,000,000   for  the   last. 
Pending  the  organization  of  its  government,  Cuba  was  ruled  by  the 
United  States  war  department,  and  a  commission  was  appointed  (Jan. 
20, 1899)  to  study  conditions  in  the  Philippines.     The  administration 
of  the  army  during  the  war  was  sharply  criticised. 
1898,  July  1.     Law  for  a  uniform  system  of  bankruptcy. 
July  7.     Annexation  of  Hawaii  by  joint  resolution  ;   possession 
taken,  Aug.  12.     Territorial  government  established,  April 
30,  1900. 
Aug.  25.     Anglo-American  commission  met  at  Quebec  to  consider 
pending  questions  with  Canada.     Reassembled  at  Washing- 


592  Modern  History.  A.  d. 

ton  (Nov.  1),  but  disagreed  on  the  question  of  Alaskan  bound- 
ary (Feb.  20,  1899). 

1899-1902.  Philippine  Insurrection.  A  body  of  Fili- 
pinos under  Emilio  Aguinaldo  were  in  revolt  against  Spain  before 
the  American  war,  and  during  it  possessed  themselves  of  all 
of  Luzon  except  the  capital.  They  objected  to  American 
sovereignty  and  made  an 

1899,  Feb.  4.  attack  on  Manila,  where  the  American  army  was, 
but  were  beaten  off.  Severe  fighting  continued  during  the 
year,  the  rebels  being  driven  into  the  mountains.  In  1900 
the  insurgents  adopted  guerrilla  warfare,  bushwhacking,  and 
terrorism,  and  the  American  army,  averaging  over  60,000,  was 
distributed  in  many  posts. 

1901,  March  23.     Aguinaldo  was  captured  by  stratagem,  and  other 

leaders  then  surrendered,  but  the  insurrection  was  not  finally 
suppressed  until  April,  1902. 

1902,  July  4.     Proclamation  of  amnesty. 

1899,  Sept.  6.     Open-door  policy  (p.  597). 

Oct.  20.  Modus  vivendi  on  Alaska;  provisional  boundary  through 
the  passes  beyond  Lynn  Canal. 

Dec.  2.  Disturbances  continuing  in  Samoa  under  the  tridominium 
(p.  687),  a  treaty  was  signed  at  Washington  dividing  the 
islands.  United  States  received  Tutuila  and  Germany  the  other 
two  islands  J  England  compensated  by  receiving  the  Howe 
Islands  from  Germany. 

1900,  Boxer  rising  (p.  597). 

March  14.  Gold  standard  act ;  all  paper  money  to  be  redeemed 
in  gold,  provision  for  maintaining  gold  reserve,  increase  in 
national  bank  notes. 

March  16.  President,  as  commander-in-chief,  appointed  a  second 
Philippine  commission  of  five,  William  H.  Taft,  president, 
to  continue  the  establishment  of  civil  government.  After  Sept. 
1,  it  exercised  legislative  authority  and  established  courts,  local 
governments,  civil  service,  and  schools,  and  controlled  finances. 

April  12.  Civil  government  for  Porto  Rico  ;  the  act  also  provided  that 
temporarily  import  duties  between  the  island  and  the  states 
should  be  15%  of  the  regular  rates,  but  on  July  25,  1901, /ree 
trade  was  proclaimed. 

June  1.  Population,  76,303,387,  not  including  Porto  Rico  or  Philip- 
pines (12th  census). 

June  21.  McKinley  renominated  by  the  republicans  at  Philadelphia  ; 
the  democrats  renominated  Bryan  at  Kansas  City,  and  upheld 
free  silver  and  anti-imperialism.  McKinley  elected  by  292 
electoral  votes  to  155  (Nov.  6). 

Sept.  8.     Tornado  wrecked  Galveston,  with  great  loss  of  life. 

1901,  Feb.  2.     Act   to  reorganize   the  army  ;  maximum  of  100,000 

men. 
March  2.     Piatt  amendment  on  Cuba  ;  as  conditions  of  withdrawal 
from  the  island,  Cuba  to  grant  naval  stations  siud  right  of  inter- 
vention  to  protect   life,   property,   or   Cuban   independence. 


A.  D  United  States.  593 

These  conditions  were  embodied  in  the  Cuban  constitution, 
June  12. 

March  2.  President  authorized  (Spooner  amendment)  to  establish 
such  temporary  civil  government  for  Philippines  as  he 
saw  fit.  He  continued  the  commission  (p.  592),  and  made  its 
president  the  civil  governor,  replacing  the  military  executive 
(July  4).  Sept.  1  three  Filipinos  were  added  to  the  commission 
and  executive  departments  created,  to  which  members  of  the 
commission  were  assigned. 

March  4.  Second  administration  of  McKinley  began ;  Theodore 
Roosevelt,  vice-president. 

May  27.  Insular  cases  decided  by  the  supreme  court  ;  congress 
has  authority  to  make /br  new  territory  laws  (including  a  tar- 
iff) different  from  those  applicable  to  the  states  (constitution  does 
not  follow  the  flag),  but  until  congress  acts  goods  imported 
from  the  territory  cannot  be  taxed  as  foreign. 

Sept.  6.     President  McKinley  shot  by  an  anarchist;  f  Sept.  14. 

1901,  Sept.  14-x.  Theodore  Roosevelt  (b.  1858  )  (New 
York)  republican,  25th  president. 

1901,  Nov.  18.     Treaty  signed  with  Great  Britain  abrogating  the  Clay- 

ton-Bulwer  treaty  (p.  555)  ;  isthmian  canal  to  be  under  the  sole 
jurisdiction  of  the  United  States. 

1902,  Jan.  1.     In  Cuba,  presidential  election  ;  May  20,  American 

occupation  ended. 

Jan.  24.  Danish  West  Indies  purchased,  but  the  Rigsdag  refused  to 
ratify  the  cession  (Oct.  22). 

March  8.     Imports  from  the  Philippines  to  pay  75%  of  usual  rates. 

May  12-Oct.  15.  Anthracite  coal  miners  strike,  threatening  a  coal 
famine  in  winter.  Through  the  influence  of  Roosevelt,  the 
matter  was  referred  to  a  commission  appointed  by  him,  and 
the  men  returned  to  work  pending  the  decision. 

June  17.     Act  for  the  reclamation  of  arid  public  lands. 

June  28.  Isthmian  canal  act ;  president  authorized  to  construct  a 
canal  at  Panama,  if  he  could  acquire  the  right  of  the  French 
company  for  $40,000,000  and  the  cession  from  Colombia  of 
the  right  and  necessary  territory  ;  if  not,  to  construct  the 
Nicaragua  canals 

1902,  July  1.     Act  for  civil   government  in  the   Philippines. 

Civil  government  established  by  the  president  confirmed  (pp. 
592,  593)  ;  bill  of  rights  except  as  to  right  to  bear  arms  and 
trial  by  jury  ;  provision  for  future  bicameral  legislature 
of  commission  and  an  elected  house;  two  resident  commis- 
sioners in  the  United  States. 

Dec.     Coercion  of  Venezuela  (p.  585). 

Dec.  11.     Reciprocity  treaty  with  Cuba  signed;  in  force  Dec.  27, 1903. 

1903,  Jan.  22.     Canal  treaty  signed  with  Colombia,  but  Colombian 

,1  For  the  French  canal,  see  p.  578.  An  American  company  had  acquired 
the  Nicaragua  right,  but  the  grant  had  been  cancelled.  Several  commissions 
had  reported  on  the  canal  project,  the  last  (1900)  favoring  Panama  under  the 
conditions  named  in  the  act. 


594  Modern  History.  a.  d. 

congress  refused  to  ratify  it  (Aug.  12).  Purchase  made  from 
the  French  company. 

Jan.  24.  Alaskan  boundary  question  referred  to  a  tribunal  of 
six  ;  award  (Oct.  20)  sustained  the  claim  of  the  United 
States,  Canada  being  barred  from  the  ocean  inlets. 

Feb.  14.     Department  of  commerce  and  labor  created. 

Feb.  14.     General  staff  authorized  for  the  army. 

May-July.     Postal  scandal. 

July  4.  American  Pacific  cable  opened  between  San  Francisco  and 
Manila. 

Nov.  3.  Revolt  of  Panama  ;  independence  declared.  United 
States  troops  were  landed  to  prevent  hostilities,  and  the  new 
government  was  recognized  on  Nov.  6. 

Nov.  18.  Canal  treaty  signed  with  Panama  ;  United  States  to 
have  sovereignty  over  the  canal  strip  and  to  safeguard  inde- 
pendence of  Panama. 

Dec.  Agreement  of  the  Philippine  commission  with  the  Roman 
Catholic  authorities  for  the  purchase  of  the  friars^  lands,  which 
had  been  a  cause  of  disturbance  under  Spanish  rule. 

§11.    ASIA. 

1883— X.  (See  pp.  562,  564.} 

1883.     Corea  opened  to  western  trade.^ 
1883-1885.     France  and  China  (pp.  573-575). 

1883,  Aug.  27.     Eruption  of  Krakatua  in  Java;  great  loss  of  life 

from  tidal  waves. 

1884,  Dec.  4.     Insurrection  in  Corea  ;  Japan  and  China  both  sent 

troops,  then  signed 

1885,  April  18.     a  treaty  by  which  China  acknowledged  Japan's 

interest  in  Corea.  Attempt  by  Russia  to  gain  a  protectorate 
over  Corea  prevented.  Great  Britain  occupied  Port  Hamilton 
(April),  but  withdrew  (Feb.  27,  1887),  China  guaranteeing 
Corea's  territorial  integrity. 

1886,  July  24.     Anglo-Chinese  agreement  on  Burma  ;  British  rule 

recognized,  also  China's  formal  suzerainty. 
1887-1889.     Floods  and  famine  in  China;  millions  perished. 

1888,  Oct.  Railway  between  Kaiping  (Chili)  and  Tientsin  opened, 
first  permanent  line  in  China.^ 

1889,  Feb.  11.     Constitution  of  Japan  proclaimed.     Emperor's 

powers  carefully  guarded,  including  right  of  peace  and  war, 
and  power  to  issue  ordinances  having  force  of  laws.  Bicameral 
diet  ;  upper  house  of  peers  and  representatives  of  merit  and 
wealth;  lower  house  elected  through  limited  suffrage;  diet  has 
a  restricted  control  of  finances.  Bill  of  rights,  religious  free- 
dom.    First  diet  met  Nov.  29,  1890. 

1  The  first  treaty  was  with  the  United  States,  signed  May  22,  1882.  ; 

2  The  Shanghai  line  (p.  562)  was  abandoned,  A  portion  of  the  Tientsin 
line  was  opened  in  1882.  In  1881  there  was  a  telegraph  line  between  Shanghai 
and  Tientsin. 


A.  D.  Chinese- Japanese  War.  595 

Feb.  Kwangsu,  Chinese  emperor,  assumed  the  government,  em- 
press dowager  retiring. 

1890,  March  31.     Chungking,  on  upper  Yangtze,  made  a  treaty  port. 

1891.  Outbreak  of  rioting  against  missionaries  in  China,  incited  by  a 
body  of  literati;  ineffectual  decree  issue  against  the  rioters 
(June  13). 

1893,  Oct.  3.     French- Siamese  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Bangkok,  after 

short  period  of  hostilities.     France  obtained  all  the  territory 
east  of  the  Mekong  and  military  control  of  the  west  bank. 

1894,  March  1.     Anglo-Chinese  treaty  on  Burma  boundary;  territory 

east  of   the   Mekong   ceded   to   China  on  condition  of  nou- 
alieuatiou. 

1894-1895.    Chinese-Japanese  War. 

Causes  :  China's  claim  of  suzerainty  in  Corea  and  denial  of  Japan's 
equal  interest  there;  conviction  in  Japan  that  a  military  success  was 
necessary  to  her  recognition  as  a  power  by  the  Occident.  China  sent 
troops  to  suppress  an  insurrection  in  Corea,  and  Japan,  protesting 
that  Corea  was  independent,  also  sent  troops  (June  9,  1894).  Japan 
proposed  reforms  to  prevent  future  disturbances  (July  3),  but  Corea, 
backed  by  China,  refused,  upon  which 

1894,  July  23.     Japanese  troops  seized  the  palace  and  the  king  at 

Seoul.     Both  nations  prepared  to  pour  troops  into  Corea  and 

July  25.     actual  war  began  with  a  naval  victory  for  Japan. 

Aug.  1.  Both  nations  declared  -war  (contrasting  declarations). 
The  Japanese  under  Nodzu 

Sept.  15.  captured  Piengyang,  the  Chinese  fleeing  across  the  Yalu 
River.     In  the 

Sept.  17.  naval  battle  of  Yalu  River  (first  battle  of  modern 
men-of-war),  the  fleets  being  of  about  equal  size  (12  vessels 
each),  the  Japanese  under  Ito  dispersed  the  enemy's  fleet 
(Ting)  and  destroyed  five  of  the  ships.  The  Japanese  army 
(  Yamagata) 

Oct.  25.  forced  the  Yalu  and  invaded  Manchuria,  meeting  with  little 
resistance.  A  second  army  of  20,000  under  Oyama  landed  on 
Liaotung  peninsula  (Oct.  24),  and,  after  capturing  Kingchau 
(Nov.  6)  and  Talien  (Nov.  7),  began  the 

Nov.  21.  attack  on  Port  Arthur,  the  strongest  port  in  China, 
with  modern  defences.  Several  forts  were  stormed  during 
the  day,  and  at  night  the  Chinese  garrison  of  10,000  abandoned 
the  rest.     The  Japanese  army  and  navy  then 

1895,  Jan.  30- Feb.  12.     besieged  and  captured  Weihaiwei  and 

Tinges  fleet  there.  The  feature  of  the  siege  was  the  night 
attacks  by  Japanese  torpedo  boats  (Feb.  5,  8).  Meanwhile  the  first 
army  (Yamagata)  captured  Haicheng  (Dec.  13,  1894);  A^o^rt,  ad- 
vancing from  Port  Arthur,  occupied  Kaiping  (Jan.  10, 1895) ;  and  the 
united  forces  took  Niuchuang  (March  4)  and  its  port  (March  7). 
Tiie  war  had  shown  the  rottenness  of  China's  military  strength  and 
the  impotence  of  her  administration.  The  burden  of  it  fell  on  Li 
Hungchang  (b.  1823;  f  1901),  who  was  also  sent  to  make  peace. 
By  the 


696  Modem  History.  A.  d. 

April  17.  treaty  of  Shimonoseki,  China  acknowledged  the  inde- 
pendence of  Corea,  ceded  Formosa,  the  Pescadores,  and  Liao- 
tung  peninsula  (Port  Arthur)  to  Japan,  and  paid  an  indemnity  of 
^158,000,000.  But  Russia,  France,  and  Germany  protested 
against  the  cession  of  the  peninsula  ("  integrity  of  Chinese 
territory"),  and  Japan  yielded  (May  10),  receiving  an  additional 
indemnity  of  $22,200,000.  Japan  began  to  reform  Corea,  but 
queen  Min  espoused  a  reaction,  and  was  murdered  (Oct.  8)  by 
natives  and  Japanese  partisans  (soshi).  This  destroyed  Japan's 
prestige,  but  there  was  a  gradual  extension  of  the  reforms. 

1894,  July  16.  Japanese  treaty  of  commerce  signed  with  Great 
Britain.  Cessation  of  the  right  of  exterritoriality  in 
Japan,  freedom  of  trade  and  residence.  Similar  treaties 
were  made  by  Japan  with  the  other  maritime  powers  (1894- 
1897),  and  all  of  them  went  into  effect  (July  17,  Aug.  4, 1899) 
after  the  new  code  of  civil  procedure  and  commercial  law  had 
been  tested. 

1895,  June- Aug.     Attack  on  missionaries  in  China. 

June  20.  China  ceded  to  France  territory  acquired  from  England 
(p.  595),  and  concessions  and  railway  rights  in  southern 
China  (reward  for  intervention). 

1896,  Japan  entered  upon  an  elaborate  policy  of  military  and  naval 
expansion. 

Jan.  1.  Convention  between  France  and  Great  Britain.  Spheres  of 
influence  in  Siam  and  independence  of  that  nation.  No  exclusive 
privileges  to  be  sought  in  southern  China. 

Feb.  10.  A  Small  Russian  force  landed  and  marched  to  Seoul,  and 
next  day  the  king  (  Yi  Hi)  fled  to  the  Russian  legation,  where 
he  remained  until  Feb.  20,  1897.  While  there,  he  granted  to 
Russians  the  right  to  cut  timber  in  the  Yalu  valley. 

May  1.  Shah  of  Persia  (Nasr-ed-din)  assassinated,  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Muzaffar-ed-din. 

May  14,  June  9.     Russian-Japanese  agreements  on  Corea  signed. 

June  15.     Tidal  wave  in  northern  Japan,  30,000  perished. 

Sept.  8.  Chinese-Russian  rail"way  convention  signed  at  Peking. 
Chinese  Eastern  Railway  Company  to  build  the  Transsi- 
berian  rail"way  across  Manchuria. 

1896-1898.  Railway  concessions  granted  by  China  to  French,  Bel- 
gian, American,  British,  Russian,  and  German  companies;  also 
for  exploiting  mines. 

1897,  Feb.  20.     King  of  Corea  returned  to  his  palace,  but  Russian 

ascendency  continued.  On  Nov.  5  a  Russian  agent  was  ap- 
pointed to  control  the  finances,  but  the  British  incumbent  re- 
fused to  resign,  England  and  Japan  sent  ships  to  Chemulpo, 
and  the  Russian  agent  was  dismissed  (March  15,  1898)  after 
anti-Russian  demonstrations. 

March  29.     Japan  adopted  the  gold  standard ;  ratio,  32-|  to  1. 

Nov.  14.  Germany  seized  Kiaochau,  because  of  the  murder  of 
two  German  missionaries  in  Shantung.  Prince  Henry,  brother 
of  the  emperor,  sent  to  command  the  German  fleet  in  Chinese 


A.  D.  Asia.  ,597 

waters,  the  emperor  speaking  of  his  intention  to  extend  the 
empire  ("mailed  fist"). 
Dec.  18.     A  Russian  fleet  entered  Port  Arthur  to  winter. 

1898.  A  series  of  progressive  edicts  issued  by  the  emperor  of 
China;  but  a  reaction  ensued,  the  empress  do-wager  ob- 
tained control,  and  virtually  deposed  the  emperor  (Sept.  21). 
The  reforms  were  repealed  (Sept.  27),  and  anti-Christian  riots 
ensued. 

March  6.  China  leased  Eiaochau  to  Germany  for  99  years, 
with  a  sphere  of  influence  30  miles  inland,  and  railway  and 
mining  concessions.     Kiaochau  a  treaty  port  (Sept.  2). 

March  27,  May  7.  China  leased  to  Russia  for  25  years  Port 
Arthur,  Talien-wan,  and  the  territory  and  waters  north  to  Port 
Adams,  with  a  neutralized  zone  beyond,  within  which  conces- 
sions to  other  powers  were  forbidden.  Port  Arthur  to  be  a 
closed  naval  base,  but  Talien-wan  to  have  an  open  port.  Rus- 
sia also  received  the  right  to  connect  the  leased  territory 
■with  the  Transsiberian  railway  in  Manchuria. 

April  10.  China  leased  to  France  Kwangchau-wan  for  99 
years,  with  railway  concessions.  Kwangchau  a  free  port 
(1900). 

April  25.  Russian-Japanese  agreement  on  Corea  ;  Japanese  para- 
mount interest  recognized,  Corea  temporarily  out  of  Russians 
sphere. 

June  9.  Territory  on  mainland  adjoining  Hongkong  leased  to 
Great  Britain,  also 

July  1.     Weihaiwei  for  as  long  as  Russia  occupied  Port  Arthur. 

1899.  Feb.  28.     Italy  demanded  the  lease  of  Sammun  Bay,  but  China 

refused. 

April  29.  Agreement  between  Russia  and  Great  Britain;  the  former 
not  to  seek  concessions  in  the  Yangtze  valley,  and  the  latter 
not  to  seek  them  north  of  the  Great  Wall. 

July  17.     End  of  exterritoriality  in  Japan  (p.  596). 

Sept.  1.     First  Corean  railroad  opened  from  Seoul  to  Chemulpo. 

Sept.  6.  Open-door  policy.  Secretary  Hay  of  the  United  States 
asked  assurance  from  the  Powers  that  there  should  be  no  in- 
terference with  free  commerce  or  vested  interests  within  leased 
territory  or  spheres  of  influence  in  China.  Favorable  responses 
were  received  (1899-1900)  from  London,  Paris,  Berlin,  Rome, 
St.  Petersburg,  and  Tokio. 

1900.  Boxer  Rising. 

Causes  :  Reaction  against  drastic  reforms;  antagonism  oi  foreign 
exploitation  of  the  country  and  the  efforts  of  the  missionaries,  whose 
actions  sometimes  gave  an  excuse  for  the  false  charges  made  against 
them.  A  secret  society  called  the  Boxers  ("  patriotic  harmonious 
fists  ")  spread  throughout  China,  especially  in  the  northern  provinces, 
committing  outrages  on  missionaries  and  converts.  Countenanced 
by  the  government  and  aided  by  the  army,  they  cut  the  communica- 
tion between  Peking  and  the  coast  (June  6),  and  threatened  the 
foreign  legations,  for  whose  defense  450  legation  guards  had  been  sent 
by  the  different  nations. 


598  Modem  History.  A.  d. 

Juue  10.     An  international  relief  column  of  2000  started  from  the 

coast  under  admiral  Seymour,  but  it  was  obliged  to  retreat. 
June  17.     The  Taku  forts  were  bombarded  and  captured  by  the  allied 

ships,  which  increased  the  rage  of  the  Boxers,  and 
June  20.     baron  v.  Ketteler,  the  German  minister,  was  slain  in  the 
street  in  Peking.    The  same  day  the  legations  were  besieged. 
The  allied  nations  (Japan,  Russia,  Great  Britain,  United  States, 
France)  sent  a  relieving  force  of  18,000,  which,  after  the 
July  14.     reduction  of  Tientsin,  marched  to  Peking  and 
Aug.  14.     rescued  the  legations.     The  empress  dowager  and  em- 
peror fled  to  Singan-fu,  and  the  allied  forces  occupied  the 
Sacred  City.     Li  Hungchang  and  prince  Ching  were  appointed 
envoys  to  negotiate  a  peace.     The  joint  powers  presented  an 
ultimatum  (Dec.  22),  and 
1901,  Sept.  7.     a  protocol  was  signed  embodying  these  condi- 
tions :  an  expiatory  mission  to  Germany  and  monument  to 
Ketteler;  punishment  of  the   chief  Boxers    (this   had  already  been 
done);    prohibition  of   the   importation  of   arms;    an   indemnity  of 
$334,000,000  in  gold;  the  forts  between  Peking  and  the  sea  to  be 
razed;  anti-foreign  societies  to  be  forbidden,  and  provincial  and  local 
officials  made  responsible  for  good  order;  reform  in  the  foreign  office 
and  court  ceremonial. 

1900,  July.     Massacre  of   Chinese   at  Blagovestchensk  by  Russian 

troops,  followed  by  an  invasion  of  Manchuria,  which  the 
Russians  occupied  and  held  on  the  plea  of  protecting  the 
railway  and  preserving  order.  The  opposition  of  the  other 
powers  especially  Japan,  prevented  China  from  acquiescing 
in  this. 
Oct.  16.  Germany  and  Great  Britain  signed  an  agreement  upholding 
the  territorial  integrity  of  China,  the  "  open  door,''*  and  non-inter- 
ference in  her  internal  affairs. 

1901,  July  6.     A  mission  from  the  Dalai  Lama  of  Lhasa  was  received 

by  the  tzar ;  political  significance  idisavowed.     Great  Britain 

(Sept.  2)  protested  against  any  proceedings  tending  to  disturb 

existing  conditions  in  Thibet. 
Oct.  1.     t  Ahdurrahmanj  ameer  of   Afghanistan;  succeeded   by  his 

son,  Habibullah. 
Nov.  9.     Persian- Russian  treaty  secretly  signed,  giving  Russia  in- 

creased  control  over  Persian  trade. 

1902,  Jan.     Transsiberian  rail-way  opened. 

Jan.  30.  Anglo-Japanese  defensive  alliance  concluded  to  main- 
tain the  territorial  integrity  of  China  and  Corea.  Assist- 
ance to  be  given  if  either  signatory  power  in  defending  this 
integrity  was  opposed  by  two  nations.  This  alliance  was 
answered  by  the 

March  16.     declaration  of  "  allied  "  Russia  and  France. 

April  8.  Russia  agreed  to  restore  Manchuria  to  China;  evacu- 
ation to  be  completed  by  Oct.  9,  1903. 

Sept.  5.  Anglo-Chinese  commercial  treaty  signed ;  uniform  coinage 
in  China,  abolition  of  transit  dues  (likin),  improvement  in  navi- 
gation, protection  of  investments,  new  treaty  ports,  mission- 


A.  D.  Asia,  599 

aries,  trade  marks,  copyright,  tariff,  mining,  exterritoriality. 
Similar  treaties  with  Japan  and  United  States  (Oct.  8, 1903). 
Oct.  7.     Siamese-French  treaty  signed;  caused  by  French  encroach- 
ments.    Siam  ceded  additional  territory. 

1903.  Russian-Japanese  Crisis. 

Russia  not  withdrawing  from  Manchuria  as  agreed,  and 
showing  evidences  of  settlement  and  fortification  at  Yogarapo  in 
Corea,  Japan  remonstrated,  considering  her  own  independence  in- 
volved.    As  a  basis  of  agreement 

Aug.  12.  Japan  proposed  that  the  territorial  integrity  and  in- 
dependence of  China  and  Corea  and  the  '*  open  door  "  should 
be  recognized,  also  the  preponderating  interest  of  Russia  in  Manchuria 
and  of  Japan  in  Corea,  subject  to  the  first  stipulation.  Japan  to 
have  the  exclusive  right  to  aid  Corea  when  necessary,  and  the 
right  to  connect  the  Corean  and  Manchurian  railway  systems. 
Oct.  3.  Russia's  reply  ignored  Manchuria  and  China,  and  pro- 
posed restrictions  on  Japanese  rights  in  Corea.  Nego- 
tiations continued  until  Feb.  6,  1904,  when  Japan,  her  last  note 
of  Jan.  13  not  having  been  answered,  severed  diplomatic  relations  and 

1904,  Feb.  8.    began  the  war. 


INDEX. 


Abbkeviatioits  !  a.  «=  abbot ;  adm.  =  admiral ;  b.  =  bishop  ;  burgr.  =  barggrave ;  c.  =  count  t 
d.  =  duke;  e.  =  earl;  el.  =  elector;  g.  d.  =  grand  duke;  H.  R.  E.  =  Holy  Roman  Empire;  k.  = 
king;  landg.  — landgrave;  margr.  =  margrave ;  pr.  =  prince;  4.  =  queen;  U.S.  =  United  State* 
of  America;  vise.  =  viscount. 


Aachen,  186, 195.     See  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Aahmes,  kings  of  Egypt  :  I.,  4;  II.,  7. 

Abbasides,  rule  of  the,  183. 

Abdel-Kader  captured  by  the  French,  527. 

Abd-er-Rahman  :  I.,  founded  caliphate  of 
CordoTa,  183,  209 ;  III.,  209. 

Abdul-Aziz,  deposition  of,  521. 

Abdul  Hamid,  II.,  521 ;  Kerim,622. 

Abel,  k.  of  Denmark,  236. 

Aberdeen  administration,  543. 

Abo,  Peace  of,  409. 

Abolitionists,  organization  of  the,  553. 

Aboukir,  battle  of,  460. 

Abraham,  7. 

Absalon,  bishop,  235. 

Abu-Bekr,  192. 

Abul  Abbas,  overthrows  Ommiads,  183. 

Abydos,  battles  of,  68. 

Abyssinia,  Christian  kingdom  of,  190, 

Abyssinian  expedition,  545. 

Acad^mie  Fran9aise  founded,  326. 

Acadia,  explorations  in,  290  ;  French  claims 
to,  363 ;  limits  of,  364,  n. ;  granted  to 
St.  Etienne,  364  ;  ceded  to  England,  363, 
419;  dispersion  of  the  French  inhabit- 
ants, 421. 

Achaean  League,  43,  48  ;  under  Aratos,  79 ; 
under  Philopoemen,  80 ;  fall,  80 ;  first 
Macedonian  war,  118. 

Achaean  War,  80, 122. 

Achaemenidae,  25-27. 

Achaia,  39,  48 ;  Roman  province,  80,  146; 
duchy  of,  216. 

Achilles,  47. 

Acilius  Glabrio,  119,  135. 

A^oka,  emp.  of  Magadha,  23. 

Acre,  conquest  of,  in  3d  crusade,  215 ; 
taken  by  Mamelukes,  217  ;  repulse  of 
Napoleon,  460. 

Act  for  the  better  government  of  India, 
544 ;  of  confederation,  483 ;  of  grace, 
387  ;  of  mediation,  464 ;  for  perpetual  par- 
liament, 345  ;  of  settlement,  388  ;  of  su- 
premacy under  Henry  VIII.,  335,  under 
Elizabeth,  338 ;  of  uniformity,  338,  en- 
forced by  James  I.,  340,  under  Charles 
II.,  379  ;  of  Vienna,  482;  final  act,  483, 
487. 

Actium,  Corcyraeans  victorious  at,  66  ;"  de- 
feat of  Antonius,  146. 

Adalbert,  archb.  of  Bremen,  199. 

Adams,  John,  defends  Preston,  425  ;  mem- 
ber of  Continental  Congress,  426,  427  ; 
negotiates  treaty  with  France,  429  ;  vice- 
pres.,  547,  548  ;'pres.,  648. 


Adams,  John  Quincy,  sec.  of  state,  551 ; 
pres.,  552. 

Adams,  Samuel,  426. 

Addington  administration,  636. 

Addison,  Joseph,  436. 

"  Addled  "  parliament,  341. 

Adelheid,  empress,  married  Otto  I.,  196 
regent  in  Italy,  197. 

Adhemar  of  Puy,  214. 

Adherbal,  126. 

Adlerkreuz,  Gen.,  472. 

Adolf  of  Nassau,  elected  k.  of  Germany,  244. 

Adolf  Frederic,  k.  of  Sweden,  409. 

Adriauople,  battle  of,  159, 171 ;  peace  oi, 
489 ;  agreement  of,  523. 

iEdiles,  plebeian,  96 ;  curule,  101 ;  pay  for 
the  great  games,  120. 

.^atian  Islands,  victory  of  Catulus,  111. 

.^gina,  Doric  community,  63 ;  war  with 
Athens,  57 ;  tributary  to  Athens,  63 ;  as- 
signed to  Athenian  citizens,  65. 

^gospotami,  battle  of,  69. 

JElfred  the  Great,  k.  of  England,  204. 

Mlia,  Capitolina,  12, 153. 

Mile,  leader  of  the  South  Saxons,  177. 

iEmilianus,  156. 

^neas,  87. 

Mneas  Sylvius,  253.     See  Pius  II. 

^olian  tribes,  43  ;  colonies,  49. 

.ffiqui,  wars  with  Rome,  97, 98, 100 ;  receive 
Roman  citizenship,  105. 

^rarii,  92. 

.^scendun,  Danes  defeated  at,  204. 

.SEschines,  72. 

.^chylus,  64. 

.^thelflaed,  lady  of  the  Mercians,  204. 

^thelred,  kings  of  England,  I.,  203,  204  ; 
II.,  the  Unready,  205. 

.Jlthelstan,  k.  of  England,  204. 

iEthelwulf,  k.  of  England,  203. 

Aetius,  172  ;  defeats  Attila,  173. 

.Xtolian  League  founded,  79 ;  assists  Rome, 
116. 

Afghan  war,  first,  546  ;  second,  547. 

Afghans  of  Ghor,  supremacy  in  India,  211. 

Africa,  circumnavigated  by  Egyptians  (?), 
6 ;  by  Portuguese,  279,  280 ;  Roman 
province,  121 ;  Caesar "s  war,  142  ;  Octavi- 
anus  administers,  146;  Vandal  king- 
dom, 172 ;  fall  of  the  Vandal  power,  174. 

Agamemnon,  47. 

Agathocles,  k.  of  Syracuse,  20. 

Age  of  Augustus,  147 ;  of  Louis  XIV., 
371 ;  of  Pericles,  64. 

Agesilaua.  k.  ofSriftrta,  70, 71. 


602 


Index. 


Agincourt,  battle  of,  259,  271. 
Agnes  of  Meran,  226 ;  of  Poitou,  199. 
Agrarian  laws,  95,  97 ;  Licinian,  101 ;  re- 
forms of  the  Gracchi,  124, 125  ;  of  Dru- 

sus,  128 ;  of   Sulla,  132 ;  of  Pompeius, 

137. 
Agricola,  in  Britain,  37,  152 ;  his  death, 

152  ;  his  wall  in  Britain,  176. 
Agrigentum,  84 ;  captured  by  Carthaginians, 

20  ;  by  Romans,  110. 
Agrippa,  M.  Vipsanius,  146. 
Agrippina,  the  elder,  148;  the  younger,  148, 

150. 
Aguirre,  Lope  de,  288. 
Ahmad  Shah,  emp.  of  India,  442 ;  Durani, 

invades  India,  442,  443. 
Ahmednagar,  kingdom,  353,  389. 
Ahuramazda,  24,  25. 
Ainos,  33. 

Aistulf ,  k.  of  Langobaids,  175, 184. 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  peace  of    1668,  367;    of 

1748,  403,  419,  438 ;  congress,  487.     -See, 

also,  Aachen. 
Ajax,  47. 

Akbar  the  Great,  353,  354. 
Akkad,  13. 

Alabama,  admitted  to  the  Union,  662. 
Alabama  claims  settled,  545,  560. 
Alamanni,    on    the    Rhine,   170;    occupy 

Germania    superior,  172 ;    defeated   by 

Chlodwig,  173. 
Alamgir  II.,  emp.  of  India,  442. 
Alani,  170,  171. 

Alar^on,  explores  the  Colorado,  287. 
Alaric,  k.  of  West  Goths,  171. 
Alaska  purchase,  559. 
Ala-ud-d^n,  sultan  of  Delhi,  241. 
Alba  Longa,  87  ;  destruction,  89. 
Albanian  league,  525. 
Albemarle,  d.  of,  379.     See,  also,  Monk. 
Alberoni,  card.,  397. 
Albert,  the  Bear,  margr.  of  Brandenburg, 

218,  219. 
Albert  I.,  emp.  of  H.  R.  E.,  of  Austria, 

245;  n.,253. 
Albert,  c.  of  Holstein,  236. 
Albert,  d.  of  Mecklenburg,  237,  238. 
Albert,  of  Saxe-Coburg,   marries  Victoria, 

542 ;  dies,  544. 
Albertine  line,  in  Saxony,  305. 
Albigenses,  227. 
Albinus,  Clodius,  155. 
Albion,  36. 

Alboin,  k.  of  Langobards,  175. 
Albuera,  battle  of,  473. 
Albuquerque,  280,  355. 
Alcantara,  order  of,  240,  328. 
Alcibiades,  66 ;  trial  and  flight,  68  ;  death, 

69. 
Alcolea,  battle  of,  512. 
Alcuin,  186. 
Alembert,  448. 
Aleppo,  sultanate  of,  210. 
Alesia,  siege  of,  139. 
Alessandria  built,  221. 
Alexander,  prince  of  Bulgaria,  524. 
Alexander,  the  Great,  k.  of  Macedonia,  73  ; 

expedition  to  Persia,  20,  29,  73  ;  invades 

India,  23,  75  ;  plans  to  Hellenize  the  East, 

75 ;  his  death,  76. 
Alexander,  Popes :  III.,  221;  V.,251;  VI. 


Alexander,  tsar   of   Russia:    I.,  accedes, 

403  ;  defeated  at  Austerlitz,  467 ;  in  the 
war  of  1813,  477  ;  in  London,  482,  500  ; 
II.,  500  ;  murder,  625  ;  III.,  525. 

Alexandria,  founded,  74  ;  capital  of  Egypt, 
77 ;  Vespasian,  151 ;  captured  by  Per- 
sians, 191 ;  captured  by  Arabs,  182 ;  by 
the  French,  460  ;  bombarded  by  the  Eng« 
lish,  546. 

Alexandrine  library  founded,  77. 

Alexandrine  war,  142. 

Alexis,  tsar  of  Russia,  374. 

Alexius  Comnenus,  Greek  emp.,  214. 

Alfonso  III.,  k.  of  Aragon,  276. 

Alfonso  X.,  k.  of  CastUe,  225,  240. 

Alfonso  XII.,  k.  of  Spain,  621. 

Alford,  battle  of,  348. 

Algarbe,  kingdom  of,  276. 

Algeria,  exp.  of  Charles  V.,  304 ;  French 
expedition,  489,  627. 

Ali,  182. 

Alien  bill,  535. 

Alien  and  sedition  laws  in  U.  S.,  549. 

Alkassor,  battle  of,  332. 

Alkmar,  battle  of,  461. 

"  Alleluia  victory,"  38. 

Allen,  Ethan,  427. 

Allersheim,  battle  of.  315. 

AUia,  battle  of  the,  100. 

"  Alliance  of  the  three  kings,"  497. 

Allouez,  in  New  France,  3^. 

"  All  the  talents'  "  ministry,  637. 

Alma,  battle  of  the,  500. 

Almagro,  Diego  de,  286,  287. 

Almanza,  battle  of,  434, 

Almanzor  209. 

Almeida,  280  ;  siege  of,  473. 

Almoadan.     See  Tooran-shah. 

Almohades,  conquer  Spain,  240. 

Almoravides,  conquer  Spain,  209,  240. 

Alp  Arslan,  210. 

Alsace,  formerly  Germania  superior,  172; 
ceded  to  France,  316  ;  protestants  in, 
369  ;  ceded  to  the  German  empire,  619. 

Alsen,  island  of,  506. 

Altranstadt,  peace  of,  395, 

Alva,  duke  of,  in  the  Netherlands,  330. 

Alvarado,  287. 

Alyattes,  k.  of  Lydia,  21,  25. 

Amadeus  I.,  k.  of  Spain,  512,  520. 

Amagro,  287. 

Amalaric,  k.  of  West  Goths,  174. 

Arnalasuntha,  174. 

Amalric,  k.  of  Jerusalem,  214. 

Amasis.     See  Aahmes. 

Amazon,  discovery  of,  284,  288. 

Amazons,  45. 

Amberg,  battle  of,  458. 

Ambiorix,  139. 

Amboise,  conspiracy  of,  321 ;  peace  of,  32L 

Amboyna,  massacre  of,  342,  354. 

Ambrosius,  b.  of  Milan,  161. 

Amendments  to  U.  S.  Constitution,  first 
ten,  547;  11th,  548;  12tb,  549;  13th, 
558  ;  14th,  559  ;  15th,  560. 

Amcnemhat,  kgs.  of  Egypt:  I.,  conquers 
Nubia  ;  II,   III.,  built  lake  Meri,  4 

Amenhotep,  III.,  k.  of  Egypt,  war  with 
Syrians,  etc.,  4  ;  his  statue  (Memnon),  5. 

America,  alleged  discovery,  280  n.  ;  dis- 
covery by  Northmen,  280  ;  by  Columbus, 
279 ;  named,  283  ;   conquest  of  Mexico^ 


Index, 


603 


285 ;  conquest  of  Peru,  286  ;  Coligny's 
colonies,  288 ;  Virginia  explored,  289 ; 
foundation  of  Port  Royal  by  French,  290  ; 
English  colonies,  291 ;  Dutch  and  Swed- 
ish settlements,  union  of  the  colonies, 
298  ;  New  France  and  the  Arctic  re- 
gion, 299  ;  British,  Dutch,  and  Swedish 
colonies,  367  ;  King  Philip's  war,  359  ; 
King  William's  war,  361 ;  Queen  Anne's 
war,  363  ;  French  settlements  and  dis- 
coveries, 363  ;  King  George-s  war,  419. 
French  and  Indian  war,  42U  ;  Stamp  act, 
423  ;  Continental  Congress,  war  of  inde- 
pendence, 426  ;  signing  the  Constitution, 
433.  See  Canada,  United  States,  Spanish 
colonies. 

American  Association,  426. 

Amherst,  lord,  gov.  gen.  in  India,  541. 

Amherst,  gen.,  421. 

Amida,  sack  of,  188, 190. 

Amiens,  peace  of,  1802,  464,  536 ;  battle  of, 
518. 

Ammon,  2, 5. 

Amnias,  battle  of,  129. 

Ampfing,  battle  of,  247. 

Amphictyonic  council,  42  ;  first  holy  war, 
51,  52  ;  2d  holy  war,  72  j  Philip  a  mem- 
ber, 72. 

Amphipolis,  battle  of,  66. 

Amroo,  conquers  Egypt,  182. 

Amulius,  k.  of  Alba  Longa,  87. 

Amyrtaeus,  29. 

Anabaptists,  304. 

Anagawa,  battle  of,  355. 

Anastasius,  Greek  emp.,  190. 

Anaxagoras,  64. 

Ancus  Marcius,  k.  of  Rome,  89. 

Andelot,  Francois  d',  321. 

Andernach,  139  ;  battle  of  193,  195. 

Andr^,  major,  431. 

Andrew  II.,  k.  of  Hungary,  crusade,  216. 

Andriscus  (Pseudo-Philippus),  122. 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  361. 

Angelus,  dynasty  of,  240. 

Anglas,  Boissy  d',  456. 

Angles,  settle  in  Britain,  172,  176;  east, 
north,  178  ;  middle,  179. 

Anglican  Church,  338. 

Anglo-Saxon  chronicle,  204. 

Anglo-Saxons.  See  Angles,  Saxons,  Jutes, 
England. 

Angora,  battle  of,  278. 

Angouleme,  c.  See  Francis  I.,  k.  of 
France. 

Angouleme,  house  of,  317. 

Angromainyu,  24. 

Anjou,  house  of,  England,  231  ;  France, 
231 ;  Hungary,  277 ;  Naples,  225,  263. 

Ankarstrom,  409. 

Anna,  of  Brittany,  262,  318. 

Anna  Ivanovna,  of  Russia,  410. 

Anna-Dido,  17. 

Annam,  French  in,  535. 

Anne  of  Austria,  365. 

Anne  Boleyn,  334,  335  ;  of  Cleves,  33f. 

Anne,  q.  of  England,  as  princess  deserts 
James  II.,  384  ;  acknowledged  successor 
of  William  III.,  371 ;  her  reign,  433 ; 
death,  436. 

Anno,  archb.  of  Cologne,  199. 

Annus  normalis,  317. 

Anselm,  archb.  of  Canterbury,  280. 


I  Ansgarius,  207, 208. 
i  Anson,  voyage  of,  438. 

Antalcidas,  peace    of,  70. 

Anthemius,  Roman  emp.,  162. 

Anti-corn  law  league,  542. 

Anticosti,  discovery  of,  287. 

Antietam,  battle  of,  557. 

Antigonus,  76,  77  ;  Gonatas,  77. 

Antiochia,  77  ;  capture  of,  190. 

Antiochus,  III.,  the  Great,  k.  of  Syria,  29, 
119. 

Antipater,  76,  79. 

Anti-reformation,  306. 

Antium,  104. 

Anton,  k.  of  Navarre,  321. 

Antoninus,  emp.  of  Rome,  rebuilds  Agrico- 
la's  wall,  38  ;  reign,  154. 

Antonius,  C,  consul,  136, 137. 

Antonius,  M.,  war  with  Pompeius,  141 ;  as- 
sumes control  upon  Caesar's  death,  144; 
follows  Cleopatra,  145;  second  triumvi- 
rate, 145  ;  governor  of  the  East,  145 ; 
Parthian  war,  80, 146 ;  defeat  and  death, 
146. 

Antwerp,  capture  of,  331. 

Anville,  d',  in  America,  419. 

Apepi,  k.  of  Egypt,  8. 

Aphrodite,  3, 17. 

Apis,  sacred  bull,  2,  27. 

Apollo,  saves  Croesus,  26 ;  oracle  of,  51. 

Appius  Claudius,  decemvir,  98  ;  the  censor, 
102, 106 ;  caecus,  108 ;  caudex,  110. 

Apries.     See  Hophra, 

Apulia,  83, 141. 

Aquae  Sextiae,  battle  of,  127 ;  colony  of, 
125. 

Aquillius,  129. 

Aquilonia,  battle  of,  106. 

Aquitania,  34, 182. 

Arabia,  tributary  to  Assyria,  14 ;  invaded 
by  Seti  I.,  5;  by  Romans,  148;  Roman 
province,  153  ;  invaded  by  Chosroes,  190. 

Arabian  dynasty  in  Chaldea,  13. 

Arabs,  conquest  of  Africa,  182  ;  of  Spain, 
183;  war  with  the  Greek  empire,  210  ; 
crusades  against,  213  ;  conquest  of  Per- 
sia, 193  ;  invasions  of  India,  211 ;  dy- 
nasties in  India,  241 ;  capture  of  Con- 
stantinople, 260j  278.    See  Moors. 

Aragon,  united  with  Catalonia,  240  ;  wars 
with  the  Moors  and  with  Castile,  276; 
united  with  Castile,  328.     See  Spain. 

Aranda, 415. 

Aratus,  79. 

Arausio,  battle  of,  127. 

Arbela,  battle  of,  74. 

Arc,  Joan  of.     See  Dare. 

Arcadius,  Greek  emp.,  161. 

Archelaus,  130. 

Archidamus,  65. 

Archons,  development,  51 ;  elected  by  all 
citizens,  53 ;  reduction  of  their  power, 
55. 

Arcis-sur-Aube,  battle  of,  481. 

Arcole,  battle  of,  458. 

Arcot,  Nawab  of,  443. 

Ardaghan,  523,  524. 

Ardoin  of  Ivrea,  197. 

Areopagus,  53,  62. 

Argal,  deputy  gov.  of  S.  "Virginia,  292  ;  al- 
leged submission  of  Dutch  to,  298  ;  ezpe* 
dition  to  Mt.  Desert,  299. 


604 


Index. 


Argaum,  battle  of,  541. 

Argiausae,  battle  of,  69. 

Argonauts,  expedition  of,  46. 

Argos,  chief  town  in  Peloponnesus,  48 ; 
decline  of  power,  56  ;  allied  with  Athens, 
62. 

Argyle,  d.  of,  346,  437. 

Argyle,  e.  of,  trial,  382,  383. 

Arianism,  159. 

Ariosto,  328. 

Ariovistus,  138, 167. 

Aristagoras,  28. 

Aristion,  130. 

Aristobulus,  k.  of  the  Jews,  11. 

Aristodemus,  51. 

Aristogiton,  54. 

Aristomenes,  51. 

Aristophanes,  64. 

Aristotle,  73. 

Ark  of  the  Covenant,  8. 

Arkansas  admitted  to  the  Union,  553. 

Aries,  kingdom  of,  198. 

Arlington,  380. 

Armada,  Great,  331,  339. 

Armagnacs,  attack  Basle,  253  :  massacred, 
259. 

Armed  neutrality,  412  ;  renewed,  536. 

Armenia,  12,  78  ;  invaded  by  Asshur-natzir 
pal  I.,  14 ;  subject  to  Assyria,  14,  to  Me- 
dia, 25,  to  Cyrus  the  Persian,  26  ;  attacked 
by  the  Parthians,  30 ;  Roman  province, 
153  ;  conquered  by  Sapor,  188 ;  reduced 
by  M.  Aurelius,  193  ;  ceded  to  Russia, 
523. 

Arminius  defeats  Varus,  149 ;  after-history, 
167. 

Armorica,  Venetii  in,  138;  Britons  emi- 
grate to,  172. 

Arnim,  312. 

Arnold  of  Brescia,  221. 

Arnold,  Benedict,  siege  of  Quebec,  427 ; 
defeat  on  Champlain,  428 ;  his  treason, 
430. 

Arnulf  of  Carinthia,  193. 

Arpads  in  Hungary,  277. 

Arques,  battle  of,  324. 

Arsaces,  founder  of  the  Parthian  mon- 
archy, 29 ;  dynastic  name  of  all  the  Par- 
thian monarchs  (I.-XXX.),  29,  30. 

Arsacidae,  155. 

Arses,  emp.  of  Persia,  29. 

Art  in  Greece,  64  ;  in  Italy,  327. 

Artabanus  I.,  k.  of  Parthia  (Arsaces  VIII., 
30 ;  III.  (Arsaces  XXX.),  last  k.  of 
Parthia,  defeated  by  Artaxerxes,  30, 187. 

Artaphernes,  57. 

Artavasdes,  k.  of  Armenia,  146. 

Artaxata,  135  ;  captured,  150,  154. 

Artaxerxes,  k.  of  Persia,  I.,  28  ;  II.,  defeats 
the  younger  Cyrus,  29;  III.,  29  ;  Artax- 
erxes I.  founds  the  new  Persian  empire, 
30, 187;  II.,  189. 

Artemis,  21. 

Artemisium,  battle  of,  59. 

Artenay,  battle  of,  518. 

Artevelde,  Jacob  van,  257. 

Arthur,  k.  of  the  Silures,  37;  traditions 
concerning  him  in  the  N.  and  S.,  178; 
cycle  of  romances,  235. 

Arthur,  d.  of  Brittany,  226 ;  death,  233. 

Arthur,  Chester  A.,  pres.  of  the  United 
States,  660. 


Articks  of  confederation,  429 ;  of  Perth, 
341. 

Artois,  c.  of,  450. 

Arundel,  e.  of,  impeached,  270  ;  executed, 
339. 

Aryans,  uncertainty  concerning,  Introd. 
iv. ;  in  Asia  Minor,  21  ;  primitive  home, 
24 ;  Celts,  34. 

Aschaffenburg,  battle  of,  510. 

Asculum,  battle  of,  108. 

Ashantee  war,  545. 

Ashburton  treaty,  554. 

Ashby  and  White,  case  of,  434. 

Ashera,  Phoenician  goddess,  17. 

Ashikaga  shoguns,  278,  355. 

Ashley,  380. 

Asia,  Roman  province,  124. 

Aske,  Robert,  rebellion  of,  335 

Aspasia,  64. 

Aspem,  battle  of,  472. 

Assam,  389,  641. 

Assandun,  battle  of,  205. 

Assaye,  battle  of,  541. 

Asshur,  12,  13. 

Asshurbanipal,  emp.  of  Assyria,  6, 16. 

Asshur-ebil-lli,  k.  of  Nineveh,  15. 

Asshur-natzir-pal  I.,  emp.  of  Assyria,  14. 

Assignats,  issued,  450  ;  decline  two  thirds, 
454 ;  total  amount  issued,  457.  See 
Mandats. 

Assizes  of  Clarendon,  232. 

Associations  of  nobles,  250. 

Assyria,  geography,  religion,  12 ;  civiliza- 
tion, chronology,  13 ;  art,  15 ;  no  Assyr- 
ian conquest  of  Egypt  under  Shashang 
I.,  6  n.  2  ;  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Esar- 
haddon,  6  ;  independent  empire,  13  ; 
height  of  power,  15  ;  fall  of  the  empire, 
15,25 ;  attacks  Iran,  25  ;  northern  A.  sub- 
ject to  Rome,  30, 153. 

Astarte,  16,  17. 

Asturia,  kingdom  of,  183,  209. 

Astyages,  k.  of  Media,  21,  25,  26. 

Atahuallpa,  inca  of  Peru,  287. 

Athalaric,  k.  of  West  Goths,  174. 

Athanasius,  159. 

Athaulf,  171, 172. 

Athena,  identified  with  Neith,  2. 

Athenion,  128. 

Athens,  ally  of  the  Ionian  cities,  28,  40 ; 
founded,  44 ;  old  constitution,  51 :  re- 
forms of  Solon,  52  ;  Pisistratus,  reforms 
of  Clisthenes,  54 ;  burned  by  Xerxes, 
59 ;  hegemony  of,  61 ;  war  with  Sparta, 
64  ;  under  Pericles,  64  ;  surrender  of, 
69  ;  thirty  tyrants,  69  ;  Demetrius  Po- 
liorcetes  in,  79;  captured  by  Sulla, 
130  ;  adorned  by  Hadrian,  153 ;  duchy  of, 
216 ;  captured  by  Venetians,  416.  Set 
Greece. 

Athos,  Mt.,  66,  58. 

Atlanta  evacuated,  658. 

Atlantic  cable  laid,  487,  644. 

Atreus,  44. 

Attaius,  kings  of  Pergamus,  78 ;  I.  joins 
^tolian  league,  116  ;  implores  aid  of 
Rome,  118  ;  III.  bequeaths  Pei^mus  to 
Rome,  124. 

Attaius,  appointed  emp.  of  Rome  by  Ala- 
ric,  171. 

Attila  in  Gaul  and  Italy,  173. 

Attyadae,  first  Lydian  dynasty,  21. 


Index. 


605 


Auckland,  lord,  gov.  gen.  in  India,  546, 

Auerstadt,  battle  of,  469. 

Aughrim,  battle  of,  387. 

Augsburg,  founded,  167  ;  diet  at,  303  ; 
confession  of,  303 ;  religious  peace  of, 
306  :  peace  of,  317  ;  league  of,  370. 

Augures,  college  of,  85. 

Augustine  in  Britain,  179. 

Augustus,  Caesar  Octavianus,  emp.  of  Rome, 
his  reign,  147  ;  family,  148  ;  death,  149. 

Augustus  II.,  elector  of  Saxony,  elected  k. 
of  Poland,  374 ;  part  in  northern  war, 
394,  395  ;  III.,  elected  k.  of  Poland,  398 ; 
claimant  for  the  Austrian  succession, 
400  ;  death,  411. 

Aurangzeb,  emp.  of  India,  deposes  his 
father,  354  ;  his  reign,  389. 

Aurelianus,  emp.  of  Rome,  157;  Persian 
war,  and  death,  188. 

Aurelius,  Marcus,  Rom.  emp.,  war  with 
Parthia,  30  ;  reign,  154. 

Aurunci,  86, 103. 

Austerlitz,  battle  of,  467. 

Australia,  first  convicts  sent  to,  535. 

Austrasia,  181-183, 187. 

Austria,  Ostmark  reestablished,  196  ;  made 
a  duchy,  221 ;  house  of  Hapsburg,  244  ; 
Hungarian  succession  secured  to,  278  ; 
circle  of,  300;  anti-reformation  in,  309  ; 
peace  of  Carlowitz,  372  ;  war  of  the  Span- 
ish succession,  391;  peace  of  Rastadt, 
S94  ;  peace  of  Passarowitz,  397 ;  alliance 
with  Spain,  398;  pragmatic  sanction,  398  ; 
war  of  Austrian  succession,  400;  seven 
years' war,  403;  reforms  of  Joseph  II., 
406 ;  alliance  with  Prussia,  452 ;  first  co- 
alition against  France,  452;  peace  of 
Campo  Formio,  469 ;  second  coalition, 
460  ;  peace  of  Luneville,  462  ;  indemnifi- 
cations, 455  ;  third  coalition,  467  ;  peace 
of  Pressburg,  467 ;  Francis  I.,  resigns  the 
crown  of  the  H.  R.  E.,  becomes  emperor 
of  Austria,  468  ;  war  with  France,  471 ; 
peace  of  Vienna,  472  ;  alliance  with  Na- 
poleon, 474 ;  war  of  liberation,  477  ;  con- 
gress of  Vienna,  482 ;  influence  in  Ger- 
many and  Italy,  487  ;  Ferdinand  I.,  491  ; 
revolutionary  movements,  491,  493  ;  war 
with  Sardinia,  494 ;  Hungarian  revolt,  494 ; 
Francis  Joseph  I.,  495;  general  constitu- 
tion, 495 ;  abolished,  495  ;  German  em- 
pire, 497  ;  war  with  France  and  Sardinia, 
loss  of  Lombardy,  502  ;  February  consti- 
tution, 504 ;  war  with  Denmark,  505  ; 
with  Prussia,  507  ;  with  Italy,  510  ;  with- 
draws from  German  confederation,  510  ; 
union  of  crowns  of  Austria  and  Hun- 
gary, 511 ;  occupies  Bosnia  and  Herzego- 
vina, 524  ;  alliance  with  Prussia,  h% ; 
disturbances  in  Bosnia,  525. 

Austrian  succession,  war  of,  400, 438,  446. 

Austro-Prussian  war,  507. 

Austro-Sardinian  war,  532. 

Authari,  175. 

Avars,  assist  Alboin,  175  ;  subjugated  by 
Charles  the  Great,  185,  192. 

Avesta,  24. 

Avignon,  Popes  at,  263 ;  annexed  to  France, 
452. 

Avitus,  Roman  emp.,  162. 

Ayllon,  Lucus  Vasquez  d',  286. 

^ymer  de  Valence,  267. 


Ayoubites,  dynasty  of,  215,  217. 

Ayub  Khdn,  547. 

Azermidocht,  reign  of,  192. 

Azoff,  gained  by  Turkey,  376;  conquered 

by  Peter  the  Great,  374 ;  finally  gained 

by  Russia,  410. 
Azores,  discovery  of,  276,  279. 

Baal,  9,  10,  16, 18. 

Babar,  founds  Mughal  empire,  353. 

Babenberg,  house  of,  feud  with  house  of 
Conrad,  194 ;  receives  the  Eastmark,  196  ; 
becomes  extinct,  244. 

Babington,  conspiracy  of,  339. 

Babylon,  capital  of  Babylonia,  12 ;  centre 
of  the  Chaldean  empire,  13  ;  founded  by 
Ninus  (?),  14  ;  adorned  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, 16  ;  captured  by  Cyrus,  26  ;  revolt 
and  recapture,  27. 

Babylonia,  geography,  12  ;  religion,  12 ;  civ- 
ilization, chronology,  13;  dependent  on 
Elam,  independent  (old  or  Chaldean  em- 
pire), 13  ;  subordinate  to  Assyria,  13,  14 ; 
revolt  under  Nabopolassar,  15,  26  ;  new 
empire,  the  leading  Eastern  power,  16 ; 
becomes  a  Persian  province,  16,  26  ;  re- 
volt against  Darius,  27  ;  subject  to  Mith- 
ridates  I.  of  Parthia,  30. 

Babylonish  captivity  of  the  Jews,  11 ;  of 
the  papacy,  263. 

Bacallaos  (Newfoundland),  288. 

Bacon,  Francis,  lord  chan.,  341 ;  im- 
peachment of,  342. 

Bacon's  rebellion,  359. 

Bacon,  Roger,  235. 

Bactria,  geography,  24  ;  religion,  24  ;  em- 
pire of,  25  ;  subject  to  Parthia,  30. 

Badajos,  geographical  congress,  286 ;  siege, 
473. 

Baden,  peace  of,  394 ;  becomes  an  electo- 
rate, 464 ;  joined  allies,  479. 

Baecula,  battle  of,  117. 

Baeda,  180. 

Baffin,  voyage  of,  299. 

Bagdad,  caliphate  of,  183 ;  under  the  Ab- 
basides,  210 ;  destroyed  by  Mongols,  241. 

Bagleme,  238. 

Bagradas,  141. 

Bahadur  Shah,  emp.  of  India,  442,  546. 

Bahamas,  368. 

Bahram  (Varahrau  VI.),  191. 

Bailly,  mayor  of  Paris,  450,  451, 456. 

Bajasid,  523. 

Bajazet  I.,  278. 

Baji  Rao,  443. 

Balaclava,  battle  of,  500. 

Bilaji  Baji  Rao,  443. 

Balas,  emp.  of  Persia,  189. 

Balbinus,  Caelius,  156. 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de,  284. 

Baldur,  164,  166. 

Baldwin,  k.  of  Jerusalem,  I.,  214,  234 :  11 
to  v.,  214. 

Baldwin,  of  Flanders,  216. 

Balfour,  defeats  Claverhouse,  381. 

Baliol,  Edward,  k.  of  Scotland,  264,  268. 

Ball,  John,  268,  269. 

Ballard,  conspiracy  of,  339. 

Baltimore,  Lord,  293. 

Bamberg,  diet  of,  221. 

Ban<sr,  Swedish  general,  312,  314. 

Bank  of  England,  chartered,  888 ;  stopped 


606 


Index. 


specie  payment,  535 ;  resumed,  539 ; 
charter  renewed,  544. 

Bankruptcy  bill  in  England,  545. 

Bannockburn,  battle  of,  267 

Bar,  confederacy  of,  411. 

Bar,  duchy  of,  398. 

Barcelona,  county  of,  209;  united  with 
Aragon,  240. 

Bardija,  27. 

Barebone-s  parliament,  376, 

Barlow,  sir  G.,  gov.  gen.  in  India,  541. 

Barnet,  battle  of,  274. 

Baronets,  creation  of,  341. 

Barras,  459. 

Bar  re,  colonel,  423. 

Barrier  treaties,  371,  393. 

Barry,  countess  du,  446. 

Bar-sur-Aube,  battle  of,  480. 

Barthelmy,  469. 

Basentello,  battle  (?),  197  n. 

Basle,  council  of,  319 ;  peace  of,  457. 

Bassein,  treaty  of,  541. 

Bastidas,  de,  voyage  of,  284. 

Bastile,  destruction  of,  449. 

Batavian  republic,  founded,  456;  trans- 
formed to  kingdom  of  Holland,  468. 

Batavians,  revolt  of,  151. 

Bates,  trial  of,  340. 

Batoum,  Russians  attack,  523;  ceded  to 
Russia,  524. 

Batthyanyi,  count,  494,  496. 

Batu,  240. 

Baum,  colonel,  429. 

Bautzen,  battle  of,  476. 

Bavaria,  Bavarians,  duchy  established,  185  ; 
growth  of  power,  194  ;  granted  to  Otto  of 
Nordheim,  then  to  Welf,  199  ;  Henry  the 
Proud  dispossessed,  219  ;  Henry  the  Lion 
reinstated,  221;  given  to  Otto  of  Wit- 
telsbach,  222;  duke  Maximilian,  309  ; 
war  of  Spanish  succession,  390  ;  extinc- 
tion of  electoral  house,  war  of  Bavarian 
succession,  406 ;  to  be  exchanged  for 
Netherlands,  408  ;  allied  with  Napoleon, 
467  ;  with  Austria,  478  ;  allied  with  Aus- 
tria in  Austro-Prussian  war,  507  ;  joins 
Prussia  in  the  Franco-German  war,  514  ; 
vote  in  Bundestag,  520. 

Baxar,  battle  of,  444. 

Bayard,  chev.,  302,  318. 

Bayonne  decree,  550. 

Bazaine,  marshal,  at  Metz,  514,  516 ;  sur- 
renders Metz,  518  ;  trial,  533. 

Beachy  Head,  battle  of,  387. 

Beaconsfield,  lord  (Disraeli),  sketch  of  life, 
543;  chan.  of  exch.,543;  premier,  545; 
raised  to  peerage,  545. 

Beaufort,  cardinal,  271. 

Beaune  la  Rolande,  battle  of,  518. 

Beausejour,  421. 

Becket,  Thomas,  archb.  of  Canterbury, 
231 ;  murdered,  232. 

Bedford,  d.  of,  260. 

Bedford,  ministry  of,  438. 

Bedloe,  381. 

Beheim,  Martin,  280. 

Bel,  12,  13. 

Belfort,  battle  of,  619. 

Belgii,  37  ;  subjugation  of,  138. 

Belgium,  Belgians,  34  ;  annexed  to  "France, 
453 ;  revolution  of  1830,  489 ;  conflict 
with  papacy,  525. 


Belgrade,  battle  of,  278,  397  ;  peace  ot 
397,398.  '         '  .  1-  t 

Belisarius,  174,  190. 

Bellona,  84. 

Belshazzar,  16. 

Bem,  Polish  general,  496,  496. 

Benedetti,  at  Ems,  513. 

Benedict,  popes,  V.,  176  ;  IX.,  199;  XI., 
254  ;  XIII.,  251 ;  deposed,  252. 

Benedek,  general,  508,  509. 

Beneventum,  battle  of,  108  ;  (Manfred), 
226.  " 

Bengal,  22  ;  Muhammedan  sultans  in,  353 : 
British  in,  443. 

Bennington,  battle  of,  429. 

Bentinck,  earl  of  Portland,  386. 

Bentinck,  lord  William,  gov.  gen.  in  India, 
641. 

Berengar  II.  (of  Ivrea),  196. 

Berezina,  passage  of  the,  475. 

Berg,  grand  duchy  of,  468,  478. 

Bergen,  405. 

Bergerac,  peace  of,  322. 

Berkeley,  lord,  grant  in  America,  358. 

Berkeley,  sir  William,  358. 

Berlin,  in  Hanseatic  league,  249 ;  univer- 
sity founded,  471 ;  conflicts  in  the  streets, 
492 ;  peace  of,  401 ;  truce  of,  496 ;  con- 
gress of,  524 ;  conference  of,  525. 

Berlin  decree,  537,  650. 

Bermudas,  292. 

Bernadotte,  on  middle  Rhine,  460;  on  up- 
per Danube,  467;  crown  prince  of  Swe- 
den, 473  ;  acts  with  allies,  476,  477. 

Bernard,  a.  of  Clairvaux,  214. 

Bernard,  gov.  of  Mass.,  424. 

Berne,  joins  Swiss  confederacy,  248 ;  ob- 
tains the  Waadtland,  327 ;  confederate 
council  in,  492. 

Bernhard,  of  Ascania,  222 ;  k.  of  Italy, 
186  ;  d.  of  Saxe- Weimar,  312,  313. 

Bemicia,  178. 

Bernstorff,  c,  409. 

Berry,  d.  of,  murdered,  627. 

Berthier,  prince  of  Neuchatel,  468. 

Berthold  of  Zahringen,  receives  Carinthia. 
199  ;  aids  Lothar,  218. 

Berwick,  English,  268  ;  capture  of,  264, 274; 
treaty  of,  338  ;  pacification  of,  345. 

Berwick,  marshal,  445. 

Bessarabia,  ceded  by  Russia,  501  ;  taken 
back  in  treaty  of  San  Stefano,  523 ;  in 
congress  of  Berlin,  524. 

Bessus,  the  satrap,  29,  74. 

Bestushef ,  411. 

Bethlen  Gabor,  pr.  of  Transylvania,  309, 
310. 

Beust,  v.,  511. 

Beziers,  storm  of,  227. 

Bhartpur,  battle  of,  541. 

Biarni,  discovers  America,  281. 

Bible,  translated  by  Luther,  302  ;  English 
translation  completed,  341. 

Bibracte,  battle  of,  138. 

Bidar,  kingdom  of,  353  ;  conquered  by  Au- 
rangzeb,  389. 

Bijapur,  kingdom,  353  ;  annexed  to  Mughai 
empire,  3^. 

Bill  of  Attainder,  last  used,  388. 

Bill  excluding  bishops  from  House  ol 
Lords,  347. 

Bill  of  Rights,  386. 


Index. 


607 


Bills,  the  four,  presented  by  parliament  to 
Charles  I.,  350. 

Birger  Jarl,  237. 

Birkebeneme,  238. 

Birou,  410,  411 ;  invested  with  Curland,  414. 

Birthen,  battle  of,  195. 

Biscop,  Benedict,  180. 

Bismarck,  count  v.,  early  life,  504;  chan. 
of  the  confederation,  511 ;  negotiations 
■with  Favre,  5L7  ;  chan.  of  the  empire, 
520  ;  at  congress  of  Berlin,  524 ;  at  Vien- 
na, 525  ;  defeated  in  Reichstag,  526. 

Bithynia,  subjugated  by  Alyattesof  Lydia, 
21 ;  kings  of,  78 ;  war  with  Mithridates, 
129  ;  bequeathed  to  Rome,  134,  136. 

Bla,  Lydian  goddess,  21. 

Black  Death,  in  England,  268,  269  ;  in 
France,  258. 

Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,  443. 

Black  rrince.     See  Edward,  the. 

Blackheath,  battle  of,  333. 

Bladensburgh,  battle  of,  551. 

Bladud,  37. 

Blake,  376. 

Blanche,  regent,  227. 

Blanket  meeting  at  Manchester,  538. 

Bleking,  joined  to  Sweden,  236 ;  ceded  to 
Denmark,  '238. 

Blenheim,  battle  of,  392,  434. 

Block,  Adrian,  296,  298. 

Bloody  Assize,  383. 

Bldcher,  surrenders,  469;  occupies  Dres- 
den, 476 ;  in  the  war  of  liberation,  477- 
484 ;  created  Prince  of  Wahlstadt,  477 ; 
at  Waterloo,  484. 

Blumenau,  battle  of,  509. 

Boadicea,  revolt  of,  37. 

Bobadilla,  283. 

Boccaccio,  Giovanni,  263. 

Bocchus,  k.  of  Mauritahia,  127. 

Bocholt,  battle  of,  185. 

Bockelsohn,  Johann,  304. 

Bodenstein,  301. 

Body  of  Liberties,  298. 

Boeotia,  40  ;  conquered  by  .^olians,  48  ; 
submits  to  Xerxes,  58  ;  allied  with  Sparta, 
62  ;  aristocracies  in,  63  ;  war  with  Sparta, 
77,  80. 

Bohemia,  occupied  by  Boii,  167 ;  by  Mar- 
comanni,  167  ;  by  Slavs,  168  ;  war  with 
Henry  I.,  194 ;  does  homage  to  empire, 
218  ;  dukes  created  kings,  221 ;  Ottokar's 
war  with  Rudolph,  244  ;  Luxembourg 
house,  247  ;  Charles  IV.,emp.,  248  ;  iius- 
eites,  252 ;  united  with  Hungary,  278  ; 
Ferdinand  I.  elected  king,  306  ;  in  Thirty 
Years'  War,  308,  309  ;  in  Austro-Prussian 
war,  509 ;  Bohemian  language  in  Univer- 
sity of  Prague,  526. 

Bohemond  of  Tarentum,  214. 

Bohmisch-Brod,  battle  of,  252. 

Boii,  in  Gaul,  34,  35;   in  Bohemia,  167. 

Boilleau,  371. 

Boleslav,  k.  of  Poland,  197. 

Bolingbroke,  Henry.  See  Henry  IV.  of 
England,  270. 

Bolingbroke,  vise,  St.  John  created,  436; 
impeached,  437. 

Bolivar,  488. 

Bolivia,  independent,  488. 

Bombay,  271  ;  British  in,  443. 

Bonaparte,  Jerome,  k.  of  Westphalia,  470. 


Bonaparte,  Joseph,  468;  k.  of  Naples, 
470;  of  Spain,  470;  driven  from  Spain, 
479. 

Bonaparte,  Louis,  k.  of  Holland,  468,  470 ; 
abdication,  473. 

Bonaparte,  Lucien,  461. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon,  first  appearance,  455 ; 
in  command  for  the  convention,  457  ; 
marriage  to  Josephine,  458 ;  crossed  the 
Alps,  ^8  ;  Egyptian  exp.,  460  ;  regent  of 
the  consulate,  461 ;  campaign  in  Italy, 
462  ;  passage  of  the  Gt.  St.  Bernard,  462  ; 
consul  for  life,  464  ;  hereditary  emp.  of 
the  French,  485.     See  Napoleon  I. 

Bonaparte,  Prince  Napoleon,  marriage,  531. 

Bonaparte,  Pierre,  512. 

Bonapartists,  527,  530,  534. 

Bond  of  association,  339. 

Bonder,  family  of,  237. 

Boniface,  apostle  of  the  Germans,  180, 184. 

Boniface,  marquis  of  Montferrat,  216. 

Boniface  VIll.,  pope,  254. 

Bonifacius,  Roman  governor,  184. 

Bonner,  b.  of  London,  336. 

Boon,  Daniel,  425. 

Bordeaux,  d.  of,  527,  529. 

Borgia  family,  327. 

Bornhoeved,  battle  of,  224,  235. 

Borodino,  battle  of,  475. 

Boroughbridge,  battle  of,  267. 

Bosnia,  occupied  by  Austriana,  524 ;  dis- 
turbances, 525. 

Bosphorus,  bridge  of  boats  over,  28  ;  king* 
dom  of  the,  129. 

Bossuet,  371. 

Boston,  settlement  of,  296;  massacre,  425; 
tea-party,  425  ;  port-bill,  425,  440;  siege 
and  surrender,  427. 

Bosworth  Field,  battle  of,  275. 

Bothwell,  338. 

Bothwell-Brigg,  battle  of,  381. 

Bouillon,  Godfrey  of,  214. 

Bourbaki,  514,  519. 

Bourbon,  card,  of,  322 

Bourbon,  constable  of,  defection,  302; 
death,  303. 

Bourbon,  d.  of,  445,  446. 

Bourbon  family  compact,  439. 

Bourbon,  house  of,  contest  with  Catherine 
de'  Medici,  321  ;  descent,  324;  in  Spain, 
414  ;  in  Naples,  416,  468 ;  return  to 
France,  481,  526  ;  final  expulsion,  529. 

Bouvines,  battle  of,  223,  227,  233. 

Bovianum,  capture  of,  106. 

Boyne,  battle  of  the,  370,  387- 

Braddock's  defeat,  421. 

Bradford,  William,  295. 

Bradstreet,  421. 

Braganza,  house  of,  in  Portugal,  332,  415. 

Brahma,  religion  of,  23. 

Brahmans,  caste  of,  23. 

Brandenburg,  conquered  by  Albert  the 
Bear,  218  ;  falls  to  Ludwig  the  Bavarian, 
247  ;  an  electorate,  248  ;  falls  to  Charles 
IV. ,  249  ;  given  to  Frederic  of  Nuremberg 
(IlohenzoUern),  252  ;  this  not  a  sale,  252 
n.  ;  joins  peace  of  Prague,  314  ;  indem- 
nifications in  peace  of  Westphalia,  316 ; 
great  elector,  368 ;  elector  becomes  king  of 
Prussia.  372  ;  East  Prussia,  secured  ta 
377. 

Brandt,  409. 


608 


Index. 


Brandywine,  battle  of,  429. 

Brasidas,  66. 

Bravalla,  battle  of,  207. 

Brazil,  discovered,  284  ;  independent,  488. 

Breda,  compromise,  330  ;  declaration  of, 
378 ;  treaty  of,  358,  364,  379. 

Bremen,  free  city,  222  ;  in  league  of  Rhine 
cities,  249;  not  ceded  to  Sweden,  316; 
remains  free  in  1803,  464. 

Bremen,  bishopric,  ceded  to  Sweden  as  a 
duchy,  316 ;  Danes  capture  and  sell  to 
Hanover,  396. 

Brennus,  British  prince  (?)  37;  at  Rome, 
100. 

Brentford,  affair  of,  347. 

Breogan,  39. 

Breslau,  battle  of,  404  ;  peace  of,  401 ;  fall 
of,  469. 

Bretigny,  peace  of,  258,  268. 

Bretwalda,  178. 

Brienne,  de,  447. 

Bright,  John,  542 ;  resignation,  546. 

Brissot,  Girondist  451,  452,  454. 

Bristol,  captured,  267  ;  by  Rupert,  347  ;  sur- 
rendered, 349. 

Britain,  geography,  religion,  mythical  his- 
tory, 36 ;  probable  history  to  the  year 
411,  37;  Irish  invasion,  39;  expedition 
of  Caesar,  139  ;  conquest  begun,  150  ;  de- 
scription, 163,  164  ;  Roman  Britain,  176 ; 
Teutonic  conquest,  176.     See  England. 

Britannicus,  150. 

Brithnoth,  death  of,  205. 

British  Museum  founded,  439. 

Brittany  (Bretagne),  independent,  182,  201 ; 
under  Henry  II.  of  England,  231 ;  con- 
tested succession,  257  ;  final  union  with 
French  crown,  320 ;  annexed  to  France, 
333. 

"  Broad  Bottom  Ministrv,"  433. 

Broglie  ministry,  527,  529,  533. 

Bromsebro,  peace  of,  315,  352. 

Brook,  Lord,  grant  in  Conn.,  296. 

Brougham,  lord  chancellor,  539. 

Brown,  John,  hanged,  556. 

Bruce,  claimant  for  Scottish  crown,  264. 

Bruce,  Robert,  coronation,  269 ;  wins  Ban- 
nockburn,  '267  ;  death,  268. 

Bruhl,  c,  403. 

Brunanburh,  battle  of,  205. 

Brundisium,  siege  of,  141. 

Brunhilde,  181. 

Brunswick,  222,  316,  490. 

Brunswick,  d.  of,  manifesto,  452  ;  com- 
mands Prussians,  469  ;  expedition,  472. 

Brunswick-Liineburg,  duchy  of,  224. 

Brute,  37. 

Brutus,  Decimus,  144, 145. 

Brutus,  L.  Junius,  89;  consul,  93;  puts 
his  son  to  death  in  509  (accidentally 
omitted  from  the  first  paragraph  in  page 
95). 

Brutus,  M.  Junius,  133 ;  murder  of  Caesar, 
144 ;  death,  145. 

Brythonic  Celts,  37. 

Buccaneers,  417. 

Buchanan,  James,  U.  S.  sec.  of  state,  664 ; 
pres.,656. 

Bucharest,  peace  of,  473. 

Buckingham,  d.  of:  (1)  favorite  of  Richard 
III.,  275;  (2)  d.  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VHI.,334  ;  (3)  Villiers,  favorite  of  James 


I.,  341 ;  assa-isination,  343  ;  (4)  favorite  of 
Charies  II.,  380. 

Buddha,  23. 

Buddhism,  its  origin,  23 ;  introduced  into 
China,  31 ;  into  Japan,  33. 

Buena  Vista,  surrender  of,  554. 

Bulgaria,  revolt  in,  521 ;  principality  of, 
523,524. 

Bull  of  Alexander  VI.,  dividing  the  world, 
282;  ausculta  fili,  254;  clericis  laicos, 
264,  266. 

Bull,  golden,  of  the  H.  R.  E.,  248 ;  of  Hun- 
gary, 277. 

Bull  Run,  battles  of,  657. 

Bunker's  Hill,  battle  of,  427. 

Bunyan,  John,  389. 

Bunzelwitz,  405. 

Burford,  battle  of,  180. 

Burghley,  baron,  338. 

Burgoyne,  gen.,  428  ;  surrender  of,  429. 

Burgundians,  on  the  Oder,  164 ;  around 
Worms,  170,  171;  on  the  Rhone  and 
Saone,    172 ;    subjugated,  181. 

Burgundy  (see  Burgundians),  part  of 
Frankish  kingdom,  in  the  second  divis- 
ion, 181 ;  in  the  third,  182 ;  given  to 
Lothar  in  the  treaty  of  Verdun,  187; 
after  his  death,  assigned  to  the  west 
Franks,  193  ;  divided  into  transjurane 
under  Rudolf,  209 ;  and  cisjurane  under 
Boso,  19b,  201 ;  these  two  united  into  the 
kingdom  of  Burgundy  or  Aries,  198; 
which  Rudolf  III.  bequeathed  to  Henry 
II.,  198  ;  and  which  was  united  with  the 
empire,  198  ;  the  duchy  of  Burgundy  re- 
mained with  France,  was  seized  by  John 
II.,  and  given  to  Philip  the  Bold,  258  ; 
growth  of  its  power,  strife  with  kings  of 
France,  259 ;  Burgundy  and  Orl«^ans,  259  ; 
in  the  Hundred  Years'  War,  260 ;  death  of 
Charles  the  Bold,  the  duchy  united  with 
France,  262 ;  the  other  Burgundian  lands 
fell  to  Maximilian  of  Germany,  253,  301 ; 
the  duchy  claimed  by  Charles  V.,  302; 
these  claims  renounced  by  Charles,  305; 
new  kingdom  of  Burgundy  proposed  by- 
Joseph  II.,  408. 

Burke,  Edmund,  441. 

Burkersdorf,  battle  of,  406. 

Burleigh,  baron,  sec.  of  state,  338. 

Burlingame,  Anson,  562. 

Burma,  22,  30 ;  invasion  of,  444  ;  1st  Bur- 
mese war,  641 ;  2d,  546 ;  annexed  to  In- 
dia, 546. 

Burnet,  b.  of  Salisbury,  386. 

Burnet,  William,  gov.  of  New  York,  417; 
of  Mass.,  418. 

Burnside,  gen. ,  557. 

Burr,  Aaron,  vice-pres.  of  U.  S.,  549;  duel 
with  Hamilton,  549 :  trial,  550. 

Burs-Nimrud,  ruins  of,  12  n.  2. 

Bute,  lord,  439. 

Butler,  Irish  gen.,  313. 

Button's  Bay,  discovery  of,  299. 

Buzzard's  Bay,  discovery  of,  290. 

"  Bye  "  or  "  Surprising  "  treason,  340. 

By  lot,  voyage  of,  299. 

Bvng,  admiral,  434. 

Byron,  lord,  488. 

Byzantium,  captured,  61,  68  ;  Importance  t« 
Athens,  72;  name  changed  to  Constanti« 
nople,  159 ;  capital  of  eastern  empire,  161, 


Index. 


609 


«  Cabal  "  ministry,  380. 

Cabochians  overthrown,  259. 

Cabot,  John  and  Sebastian,  discover  North 
America,  283,  333 ;  Sebastian,  voyage  of, 
283 ;  alleged  voyage,  285 ;  voyage  to 
South  Amarica,  286. 

Cabral,  discovers  Brazil,  284,  353. 

Cade,  Jack,  rebellion  of,  271. 

Cadiz,  expedition  of  Wimbledon,  342 ;  siege 
of,  473 ;  capture,  527.     See  also  Gades. 

Cadmus,  18,  45. 

Cadoudal,  executed,  465. 

Caedmon,  180. 

Caesar,  C.  Julius,  leader  of  the  democrats, 
136;  consul,  137;  triumvir,  137;  re- 
ceives Gallia  Gisalpina  and  Narbonen- 
eis,  138 ;  conquest  of  Gaul,  visits  to 
Britain,  139;  war  with  Pompeius,  140; 
Pharsalus,  141 ;  in  Egypt,  142 ;  veni, 
vidi,  vici,  142;  African  war,  142;  war 
with  sons  of  Pompeius,  143  ;  C.  impera- 
tor,  143 ;  reform  of  the  calendar,  143 ; 
assassination,  144. 

Caesar,  G.  and  L.,  adopted  by  Augustus,  148. 

Caffir  war,  543. 

Cairo  captured  by  the  French,  460. 

Cajetanus.     See  Vio. 

Calais,  captured  by  Edward  III.  of  Eng- 
land, 257 ;  only  English  posgession  in 
France,  272;  lost,  321,  338. 

Calatrava,  order  of,  240,  328. 

Calcutta,  22,  390. 

Calendar,  reformed  by  Caesar,  144;  by 
Gregory  XIII.,  327 ;'  republican  c.  in 
France,  455. 

Calhoun,  John  C.,  U.  S.  sec.  of  war,  551 ; 
vice-pres.,  552. 

California,  discovered  by  Cortez,  285,  287  ; 
by  Drake,  289 ;  gold  discovered  in,  555 ; 
31st  State  of  the  Union,  555. 

Caligula,  150. 

Caliphate,  early  history,  182,  183 ;  Haroun- 
al-Rashid,  186 ;  division  into  c.  of  Bag- 
dad, 183;  under  Abbasides,  210;  de- 
stroyed, 241;  and  the  c.  of  Cordova, 
founded  and  broken  up,  209. 

Calixtinians,  252. 

Calixtus  II.,  Pope,  201. 

Calniar,  union  of,  237,  238,  276,  351 

Calonne,  197,  447. 

Calonnes,  449. 

Calpurnius,  C.,118. 

Calvin,  304. 

Calvinists,  not  included  in  contention  of 
Passau,  305  ;  nor  in  peace  of  Augsburg, 
306 ;  included  in  peace  of  Westphalia, 
317. 

Camaret,  of  Rouen,  284. 

Camargo,  Alonzo  de,  287. 

Cambray,  league  of,  300, 318, 326 ;  peace  of, 
303. 

Cambyses,  k.  of  Persia,  defeats  Psamethik, 
7  ;  attempted  conquest  of  Carthage,  19  ; 
conquest  of  Egypt,  slaughter  of  Api8{?), 
27. 

Camden,  battle  of,  430. 

Camillus,  M.  Furius,  100,  103. 

Campania,  81,  83,  104. 

Campbell,  lord  chan.,  544. 

t'ampeggio,  302. 

Camperdown,  battle  of,  536. 

Campo  Formio,  peace  of,  458,  459,  463,  463. 


Canaan,  7,  8,  16. 

Canada.  See  New  France,  French  in, 299-, 
P'rench  claims  to,  363 ;  wars  with  Iro- 
quois, 364,  365  ;  with  British  colonies,  see 
King  VVilliam's  war.  Queen  Anne's  war, 
George's  war,  old  French  and  Indian 
war  ;  in  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  362,  371, 
388 ;  in  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  363,  393, 
435  ;  in  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  404, 
419,438  ;  Seven  Years' War,  420  ;  peace  of 
Paris,  422,  439 ;  ceded  to  Great  Britain 
receives  representative  gov.,  535  ;  divided 
into  upper  and  lower  C.,  542  ;  dominion 
of  C,  545. 

Canaris,  488. 

Canary  Islands,  discovery  of,  279. 

Candaules,  k.  of  Lydia,  21. 

Candia.     See  Crete. 

Cannae,  battle  of,  115. 

Cannibals,  283. 

Canning,  e.,  gov.  gen.  in  India,  546. 

Canning,  George,  home  sec,  587 ;  foreign 
sec,  539. 

Canossa,  castle  of,  200. 

Canrobert,  500,  502,  514. 

Cantabri,  148. 

Canterbury,  38 ;  captured  by  Danes,  203  ; 
archb.  of,  see  Dunstan,  Anselm,  Becket, 
etc. 

Canton,  31,  561. 

Canusium  (Marcellus  defeated  at,  in  209 
B.C.,  accidentally  omitted  on  p.  117). 

Canute.     See  Kuut. 

Cape  Ann,  settlement  of  Puritans  at,  295  ; 
Augustine,  discovery  of,  284;  Cod,  dis- 
covered by  Northmen  (?),  281 ;  by  Gos- 
nold,  290;  surveyed,  294;  Florida,  285 ; 
Good  Hope,  rounded,  280  ;  seized  by 
England,  535,  see  CafBi  war,  Zulu  war ; 
Mendocino,  discovered,  288 ;  Peregrine, 
300;  Vela,  283;  Verde,  discovery  of, 
276. 

Capet,  Hugo,  272. 

Capetian  dynasty,  202,  206,  257. 

Capitolinus,  M.  Manlius,  100. 

Capitularii,  186. 

Capo  d'Istria,  489. 

Cappadocia,  conquered  by  Cyrus,  26 ;  occu- 
pied by  Tigranes,  134  ;  subject  to  Rome, 
156  ;  Roman  prov.,  149. 

Capua,  battle  of,  105 ;  secession  of,  116 ; 
surrender,  116. 

Caracalla,  Roman  emp.,  Parthian  exp.,30; 
reign,  155. 

Caractacus,  37. 

Caraffa.     See  Paul  IV. 

Carbury  Hill,  battle  of,  338. 

Carchemish,  battle  of,  6, 11, 16. 

Carew,  sir  Thomas,  336. 

Caria,  20  ;  subdued  by  Alyattes,  21 ;  by 
Ilarpagus,  26. 

Caribs,  282. 

Carinthia,  made  a  duchy,  196 ;  surrendered 
by  Bohemia,  244. 

Carinus,  158. 

Carisbrooke  castle,  350. 

Carlos,  don,  son  of  Philip  II.,  revolt  and 
arrest,  380  ;  leader  of  the  absolutists  in 
Spain,  490  ;  Carlists,  520,  521. 

Carlowitz,  peace  of,  372,  374,  375,  416. 

Carlsbad,  congress  of  ministers  at,  487. 

Carlatadt.     Ste  Bodeusteiu. 


610 


Index. 


Carnatic,  443. 

Carnot,  454,  457,  459. 

Carolana,  288;  granted  to  Heath,  293; 
claimed  by  Coxe,  365. 

Carolina,  Carolana  regranted  under  this 
name,  293 ;  granted  to  Clarendon,  358 ; 
fundamental  constitution  adopted,  358  ; 
invaded  by  French  and  Spanish,  363  ; 
Indian  war,  417  ;  proprietary  gov.  over- 
thrown, 417  ;  divided  into  North  and 
South  C.  (q.  v.),  417 ;  boundary  rectified, 
425. 

Carolina,  fort,  288. 

Caroline,  q.  of  England,  539 

Carolingians,  Austrasian  mayors  of  the  pal- 
ace, 182 ;  kings  of  the  Franks,  184 ;  in 
Italy  and  Germany,  193  ;  in  France,  201. 

Carpi,  battle  of,  392. 

Carrhae,  battle  of,  140. 

Carteret,  Sir  George,  358. 

Carthage,  founded,  18  ;  Meltzer's  view  con- 
cerning, 18,  n.  1;  constitution ,  19  ;  oppo- 
sition to  Grecian  colonization,  19  ;  threat- 
ened by  Cambyses,  19,  27  ;  wars  with 
Sicilian  Greeks,  ^0;  defeat  at  Himera, 
20  ;  treaty  of  commerce  with  Rome,  103  ; 
allied  with  Rome,  108 ;  war  with  Rome. 
See  Punic  wars ;  destroyed,  12 ;  occu- 
pied by  Vandals,  172.     See  Phoenicia. 

Carthage,  New,  taken  by  Scipio,  117. 

Carthagena,  285  ;  sack  of,  290  ;  sacked  by 
Drake,  339  ;  attacked  by  Vernon, 419, 438. 

Cartier,  Jacques,  voyages  to  America,  287. 

Carus,  Roman  emp.,  157 

Carver,  John,  gov.  of  Plymouth,  294. 

Casco,  destruction  of,  361. 

Casimir  the  Great,  k.  of  Poland,  277. 

Casimir,  John,  373,  374. 

Cassander,  76. 

Cassiterides,  visited  by  Phoenicians,  17  n. 

Cassius,  144,  145. 

Cassius,  Sp.  97. 

Cassivelaunus,  37, 189. 

Castelfidardo,  battle  of,  603. 

Ca.stes,  in  Egypt,  3  ;  in  India,  23. 

Castile,  county,  afterwards  kingdom  of,  209 ; 
final  union  with  Leon,  240  ;  kings  of,  276 ; 
united  with  Aragon,  328  ;  supports  Philip 
of  Anjou,  392. 

Castillon,  battle  of,  272, 

Castlereagh,  at  Vienna,  482;  foreign  sec, 
537 ;  suicide,  539. 

Catalaunian  fields,  battle  of  the,  173. 

Catalonia,  240;  royal  house  extinct,  276; 
invaded  392. 

Cateau-Cambr^sis,  treaty  of,  321,  327,  338. 

Catesby,  Robert,  340. 

Cathari,  227. 

Cathay,  30. 

Catherine  de'  Medici,  321,  324. 

Catherine,  emp.  of  Russia,  I.,  reign,  410; 
II.,  in  seven  years'  war,  406  ;  reign,  411 ; 
war  with  the  Turks,  412,  413. 

Catholic  league,  308. 

Catholic  relief  act,  539. 

Catiline,  conspiracy  of,  136. 

Catinat,  370,  392. 

Cato,  M.  Porcius,  tke  elder,  in  Spain,  118 ; 
accuses  Scipio,  120  ;  "  Carchaginem  esse 
delendam,"  121 ;  the  younger,  absent  ivova. 
Rome,  138 ;  returned,  139 ;  at  Dyrra- 
chium,  141 ;  suicide,  142. 


Cato  street  conspiracy,  538. 

Cattle  plague,  544. 

Catullus,  C.  Valerius,  148. 

Caudine  Pass,  105. 

Caulaincourt,  477,  480. 

Causa  fidei,  reformationis,  unionis,  251|3S9l 

"  Cavalier  "  parliament,  378,  381. 

Cavendish,  F.,  sec-  for  Ireland,  546. 

Cavour,  c.  503,  531. 

Cawnpore,  massacre  at,  546. 

Caxton,  William,  275. 

Ceawlin,  k.  of  VVessex,  178. 

Cecil.     See  Burghley. 

Cecrops,  44. 

Celibacy  introduced,  200. 

Celtiberians,  35. 

Celts,  migrations  of,  35  ;  Goidelic  and  Bry- 
thonic,  35 ;  Celts  of  Gaul.  See  Gauls. 
Celts  of  British  isles,  36.  See  also  Brit- 
ain. Celts  in  Italy,  35,  86;  join  Hanni- 
bal, 114  ;  annihilated  as  a  nation,  188. 

Censor,  creation  of  the  office,  99  ;  one  cen- 
sor plebeian,  102  ;  power  limited,  132 ;  re- 
stored, 133  ;  given  to  Caesar,  143. 

Censorship  of  the  press  abolished  in  Eng- 
land, 388. 

Census  of  American  colonies,  423 ;  of  In- 
dia, 1881, 547  ;  of  Ireland,  543 ;  of  Japan, 
445 ;  of  New  France,  365  ;  Roman  c,  92 ; 
of  U.  S.  1st,  547 ;  2d,  549  ;  4th,  552 ;  5th, 
553;  6th,  554;  7th,  555;  8th,  556;  9th 
and  10th,  560 ;  of  Virginia,  292,  293. 

Ceorl,  177. 

Cerausius,  emp.  of  Britain,  38. 

Cerdic,  178. 

Cerealis,  152. 

Ceres,  84. 

Cerro  Gordo,  battle  of,  554. 

Ceylon,  Buddhism  in,  23 ;  seized  by  Eng- 
lish, 535. 

Chabrias,  70,  71. 

Chseronea,  battle  of,  73,  131. 

Chaireddin  Barbarossa,  304. 

Chait  Sinh,   raja  of  Benares,  444. 

Chalcedon,  battle  of,  134  ;  fall  of,  191. 

Chaldea,  13. 

Chaleur  Bay,  294. 

Chalons,  battle  of,  173 ;  516. 

Chambers  of  Reunion,  368. 

Chambord,  c.  of.     See  Bordeaux,  d.  of,  529. 

Champigny,  storm  of,  518. 

Champlain,  Samuel,  voyage,  290  ;  discoT> 
ers  the  lakes,  299 ;  death,  300. 

Chancellorsville,  battle  at,  558. 

Chandra-gupta,  23. 

Chanzy,  defeat  of,  519. 

Chapultepec  captured,  554. 

Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade,  500. 

Charibert  I.,  k.  of  Franks,  181, 

Charlemagne.     See  Charles  I.,  emp. 

Charles  of  Anjou,  225,  226. 

Charles,  archd.  of  Austria,  392,  458,  460, 
467,  471,  472. 

Charles  of  Bavaria,  509. 

Charles  the  Bold,  d.  of  Burgundy,  260. 

Charles  I.,  k.  of  England,  government  iu 
Virginia,  293 ;  in  Spain,  342 ;  marriage, 
342  ;  reign,  342-351 ;  surrenders  to  Scots, 
849 :  escapes,  350  ;  execution,  351. 

Charles  II.,  defeat  and  flight,  375;  pro- 
claimed k. ,  378 ;  marriage,  379 ;  treaty  ol 
Dover,  380;  death,  383. 


Index, 


611 


Charles  III.,  k.  of  France,  202;  IV.,  the 
Fair,  265;  V.,  the  Wise,  258 ;  VI.,  259; 
VII.,  269,  260;  VIII.,  262;  IX.,  321; 
"X.",  cardinal  of  Bourbon,  324;  X.,  488; 
abdicates,  489,  527. 

Charles  I.,  emp.  of  the  H.  R.  E.,  the  Great 
(Charlemagne),  184,  193  :  II.,  the  Bald, 
186,  187,  201;  III.,  the  Fat,  193,  201; 
IV.,  248;  v.,  ancestor  of  the  Span- 
ish  line  of  Hapsburg,  301 ;  reign,  3u2 ; 
Charles  and  Luther,  302 ;  wars  with 
Francis  I.,  302,  303,  304  ;  with  Henry  II., 
306;  Schmalkaldic  war,  305;  abdica- 
tion, 306.  Ste  Charles  I.,  of  Spain  ;  VI., 
claims  to  Spanish  succession,  390  ;  reign, 
397  ;  pragmatic  sanction,  398 ;  death, 
400 ;  VII, ,  election,  401 ;  exile,  death,  402. 

Charles,  card,  of  Lorraine,  319. 

Charles,  d.  of  Lorraine,  last  CaroUngian 
heir  to  French  crown,  202. 

Charles  of  Lorraine,  Austrian  gen.,  372, 404, 

Charles,  k.  of  Navarre,  the  Bad,  258. 

Charles,  k.  of  Spain,  I.,  possessions  in  the 
Netherlands,  329  ;  reign,  330.  See,  also, 
Charles,  emp.  of  H.  R.  K.,  V. ;  II.,  390  ; 
III,,  414;  IV.,  abdicates,  470. 

Charles,  k.  of  Sweden,  IX.,  362;  X.,  373  ; 
XI.,  373;  XIL,  894;  wars  with  Peter 
the  Great,  894,  Varna,  395;  in  Turkey, 
death,  896  ;  XIII.,  472. 

Charles  Albert,  e.  of  Bavaria,  claimant  for 
Austrian  inheritance,  400. 

Charles  Albert,  k.  of  Sardinia,  494. 

Charles  Edward,  young  pretender,  438. 

Charles  Gustavus  of  Pfalz-ZweibrUcken, 
k.  of  Sweden,  352. 

Charles  M&Ttel,  183,  184. 

Charles  Theodore,  406;  elector  palatine, 
claimant  for  the  Spanish  .succession, 406. 

Charleston,  Carolina,  foundation  of,  358, 
359;  capture  by  ('linton,  430;  evacua- 
tion, 431 ;  in  the  civil  war,  537  ;  evacua- 
tion, 659. 

Charter  Oak,  361. 

Chattists,  642. 

Chase,  Salmon  P.,  U.  S.  sec  of  thetrea8^656. 

Chastenoy,  peace  of,  322. 

Chateaubriand,  527. 

Chatham,  e.  of,  as  Wm.  Pitt  in  Broad  Bot- 
tom ministry,  438 ;  sec.  of  state,  439  ; 
sketch  of  life,  439  ;  prime  minister,  424. 

Chatillon,  congress  at,  480. 

Chattanooga,  battle  of,  558. 

Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  270. 

Chaumont,  alliance  of,  480. 

Chedorlaomer^.  of  Babylon,  13. 

Cheops.    (See  Khufu. 

Chephran,    See  Khafra, 

Cheraaco,  treaty  of,  311,  325. 

Cherry  Valley,  massacre  of,  430. 

Cherusci,  1G8. 

Chester,  battle  of,  179, 

Chevy  Chase,  battle  of,  269. 

Che-wang-te,  emp.  of  China,  built  the 
Chinese  wall ;  destroyed  books,  32. 

Chiari,  battle  of,  392. 

Chiersi,  dietof,  201. 

Childebert  L,  k.  of  the  Franks,  181. 

Childeric  III.,  k.  of  the  Franks,  184. 

Chili,  invaded  by  Almagro,  287  ;  indepen- 
dent. 488. 


Chilperic  I.,  k.  of  the  Franks,  18L 

China,  ge»ography,  30 ;  religion,  31 ;  chro- 
nology, 31  •,  origin  of  Chuiese,  31 ;  early 
dynasties,  8*? ;  brilliant  epoch,  32 ;  the 
three  kingdoms,  32  ;  Buddhism  in,  23 ; 
brilliant  period,  211 ;  conquered  by  Mon- 
gols, 242  ;  in  the  15th  cent.,  278 ;  Tatar 
conquest,  354  ;  war  with  Russia,  390 ; 
French  and  English  exp.  against,  501  ; 
opium  war,  542, 561 ;  treaties  with  France 
and  U.  S.,  561;  war  with  Great  Britain 
and  France,  661 ;  famine,  662  ;  treaty 
with  Russia,  662. 

Chinese  emigration  to  U.  S.  suspended, 
660. 

Chios,  battle  of,  412 ;  416 ;  revolt,  488. 

Chippewa,  battle  of,  561. 

Chlodwig,  k.  of  the  Franks,  173. 

Chlopicki,  490. 

Chlotar  I,,  k,  of  Franks,  181. 

Choiseul,d.  de.,  446. 

Chosroes,  k.  of  Parthia,  war  with  Trajan, 
80;  k.  of  Armenia,  153;  deposed,  189. 

Chosroes,  k.  of  Persia,  I.,  (Anushirwan), 
reign,  190, 191 ;  IL,  Eberwiz,  191. 

Chotusitz,  battle  of,  401. 

Chow  dynasty  in  China.  82 ;  later  Chow, 
211. 

Chowaresmians,  empire  of  the,  240. 

Chremonides,  79. 

Christ,  birth  of ,  11,  149, 

Christian  of  Anhalt,  309;  of  Brunswick, 
defeated  by  Tilly,  310. 

Christian,  k.  of  Denmark,  I.,  of  Olden- 
burg, 351;  II.,  union  of  Calmar  broken, 
351,352;  III.,  352;  IV.,  head  of  lower 
Saxon  circle,  in  thirty  years'  war,  310 ; 
war  with  Sweden,  314,  352 ;  VI.,  VII., 
409;  VIII.,  annexes  Schleswig-Holstein, 
409 ;  IX.,  accepts  the  constitution,  606, 
506. 

Christiania  founded,  209, 

Christianity,  first  persecution,  151  ;  under 
Decius,  166  ;  under  Diocletian,  168  ;  made 
state  religion  by  Constantino,  169 ;  aban- 
doned by  Julian,  160;  reinstated  by  Jovi- 
anus,  160 ;  adoption  of  pagan  customs, 
166;  conversion  of  Goths,  170;  of  the 
Franks,  173  ;  of  Langobards,  175 ;  begin- 
ning of  the  papacy,  175 ;  conversion  of 
Britons,  38  ;  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  179  ;  of 
the  Germans,  184 ;  Christians  persecuted 
in  Persia,  189  ;  tolerated  in  Persia,  190  ; 
conversion  of  the  North,  207,  »)8,  209  ; 
tolerated  in  China,  211 ;  conversion  of  Po- 
land, Prussia,  Hungary,  277  ;  preached  in 
China,  366  ;  introduced  in  Japan,  but  re- 
jected, 356;  Jesuits  in  Canada,  364  ;  per- 
secution in  China,  444;  Christians  in 
Turkey,  522,  624 ;  toleration  secured  in 
China,  562. 

Christina  of  Sweden,  352. 

Christopher  II.,  k.  of  Denmark,  236. 

Chrysanthemums,  war  of  the,  243. 

Church,  high  and  low,  4^3. 

Churchill.     See  Marlborough. 

Cibola,  seven  cities  of,  287. 

Cicero,  birthplace  of,  82;  sketch  of  life; 
136;  speeches  against  Catiline,  137; 
banished,  1-38  ;  recalled,  139 ;  proconsul, 
1^ :  murdered,  146. 


612 


Index. 


Cid,  209. 

Cilicia,  Semitic,  21 ;  under  Persia,  26,  27, 
134  :  Roman  province,  136. 

Cimbri,  invade  Italy,  127,  128, 167. 

Cimon,  57,  61 ;  rivalry  with  Themistocles, 
62;  recalled  to  Athens,  death,  63. 

Cimon,  peace  of,  63. 

Cincinnati,  society  of  the,  432. 

Cincinnatup,  L.  Quinctins,  98. 

Cineas,  108. 

Cinna,  130, 131. 

Cinq-Mars,  marquis  of,  326. 

Cinque  Ports,  264. 

Circles  of  the  H.  R.  E.,  300. 

Cisalpine  republic ,  founded,  459  ;  included 
in  Italian  republic,  454. 

Ciudad  Rodrigo,  captured,  473. 

Civil  marriage  compulsory,  521. 

Civil  rights  bill,  559. 

Civil  service  act,  560. 

Civil  war,  in  England  (Roses),  272 ;  great 
rebellion.  347,  850  ;  in  France,  321,  322  ; 
in  Portugal,  488 :  In  Rome,  130,  140  ;  in 
Spain,  490,  520  ;  in  Switzerland,  492  ;  in 
United  States,  Shays's  rebellion,  433  ; 
whiskey,  548  ;  great  rebellion,  657. 

Civilis,  CI.,  168. 

Clarence,  d.  of,  274. 

Clarendon,  e.  of,  first  interview  with  the 
king,  346  ;  receives  grant  of  South  Caro- 
lina, 358  ;  chancellor,  378  ;  fall,  379. 

Clark,  John,  settles  Rhode  Island,  297. 

Claudia,  148,  319. 

Claudius,  Roman  emp.,  conquest  of  Brit- 
ain, 37 ;  reign,  157. 

Claudius  Pulcher,  111. 

Claverhouse,  defeat,  381  ;  victory  and 
death,  386. 

Clay,  Henry,  U.  S.  sec.  of  state,  552. 

Clay's  compromises,  555. 

Clayton-Bulwer  treaty,  555. 

Clemens  Maximus,  161. 

Clement  II.,  pope,  199  ;  III.,  200 ;  V.,  254 ; 
goes  to  Avignon,  263  ;  XIV.,  416. 

Cleomenes,  k.  of  Sparta,  55  ;  III. ,  79. 

Cleon,  65,  66. 

Cleopatra  placed  over  Egypt  by  Caesar, 
142  ;  meets  Antonius,  145  ;  fails  to  charm 
Octavian,  death,  147. 

Clermont,  council  of,  214. 

Cleve- Jiilich,  contested  succession  begun, 
308  ;  ended,  372.   [Geneal.  table,  307.] 

Clientes,  90. 

Cliff  temples  in  India,  23. 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  429,  430. 

Clisthenes,  reforms  of,  54. 

Clitus,  murder  of,  75 

Clive  ,  lord,  442  ;  sketch  of  life,  443  ;  in 
India,  443,  444. 

Clodius,  P.,  135  ;  tribune  exiles  Cicero, 
128  ;  ultra  democrat,  139  ;  death,  140. 

Cloten,  37. 

Clovis.     See  Chlodwig. 

Cnut.     See  Knut. 

Coalition  ministry,  441. 

Gobbet,  William,  538. 

Cobden,  Richard,  542. 

Cochin  China,  30  ;  annexed  to  China,  278 ; 
invasion  of,  444. 

Code  Napoleon,  462. 

Codrus,  k.  of  Athens,  48. 

Coercion  act,  546. 


Coke,  Sir  Edward,  341,  342. 

Colbert,  366. 

Colchester,  taken  by  Fairfax,  351. 

Coleman,  execution,  381. 

Coligny,  adm.  de,  attempts  to  found  a 
Huguenot  colony  in  America,  288  ;  mur- 
dered, 321. 

Collatinus,  89,  93. 

College,  execvition  of,  383. 

Colleges  of  sacred  lore,  85;  founded,  170. 

Colmar,  186. 

Cologne,  diet  of,  300  ;  archbishop  of,  elec- 
tor, 248. 

Colombia,  488. 

Colonies,  Greek,  48,  49  ;  Roman  and  Latin, 
109;  in  America:  Spanish,  282,  etc.; 
English,  291;  Dutch,  Swedish,  298; 
French,  299,  363. 

Colosseum,  82,  152, 

Columbey-Nouilly,  battle  of,  516. 

Columbus,  BartholoTnew ,2SS  ;  Christopher, 
voyages  to  America,  282,  283,  284  ;  state 
of  Japan  at  the  time  of  his  vovage,  278  ; 
I>/e^o,  284. 

Comitia,  centuriata,  origin,  92  ;  growth  of 
power,  94,  102  ;  chooses  censors,  99  ;  de- 
cline, 107  ;  democratic  reform  of,  112 ; 
reformed  by  Sulla,  130  ;  further  conser- 
vative changes,  132  ;  powers  transferred 
to  the  senate,  149  :  curiata,  original  con- 
stitution, 91,  92;  changes  in  the  consti- 
tution, 94  and  n. ;  constitution  in  the  4th 
cent.  B.  c,  102  :  tributa,  established,  96 ; 
summons  Coriolanus,  97 ;  made  equal 
with  centuriata,  98 ;  constitution  in  4th 
cent.  B.  c,  102  ;  resolves  made  univer- 
sally binding,  107. 

Commercial  panic  in  England,  539  ;  in  U. 
S.,  556,  560. 

Committee  of  public  safety,  in  England, 
347  ;  in  France,  453,  455. 

Commodus,  Roman  emp.,  154. 

Common  law,  266. 

Commune  of  Paris  451,  454,  455;  upris- 
ing, 532. 

Comnenes,  dynasty,  240  ;  house.  240. 

Compton,  b.  of  London,  383,  384. 

Compurgation,  abolition  of,  232. 

Concilium  Germanicum,  184. 

Concini  (Marechal  d"Ancre),  325. 

Concord,  battle  of,  426. 

Concordat  in  France,  319,  463. 

Cond6,  315,  366,  368,  450. 

Condillac,  448. 

Confederate  States  of  America,  556  ;  recog- 
nized by  Great  Britain,  555. 

Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  establishment, 
468 ;  dissolution,  479. 

Confession  of  faith,  338. 

Confirmatio  chartarum,  266. 

Conflans,  treaty  of,  250. 

Confucius,  32. 

Congress,  Continental,  426, 427  ;  of  United 
States,  547. 

Connecticut,  colony  of,  296  ;  charter,  358; 
united  with  New  Haven,  858  ;  govern- 
ment, 361,  362;  slavery  partially  abol- 
ished, 432. 

Conrad,  emp.  of  the  H.  R.  E.,  I.  (of  Fran' 
conia),  194  ;  II.  (the  Salian),  198  ;  III, 
crusade,  215;  reign,  219  ;  IV.,  225. 

Conrad  the  Red,  of  Lotharingia,  195. 


Index, 


613 


Conntdin,  225, 226. 

Conseil  du  Roi,  446. 

Consistorium  principis,  159. 

Constance,  council  of,  251 ;  peace  of,  222. 

Constance,  of  Sicily,  married  Henry  VI., 
222. 

Constans,  Roman  emp.,  160. 

Constant,  B.,  527. 

Constantine,  Roman  emp.,  I.  (the  Great), 
159:  II.,  160. 

Constantinople,  fall  of,  260,  278 ;  palace, 
revolution  in,  521 ;  conference  of,  522. 
See  Byzantium. 

Constantius,  Roman  emp.,  158,  160;  Per- 
sian war,  188. 

Constantius  Chlorus,  158. 

Constituent  assembly  in  France,  447,  449. 

Constitutio  Antoniana,  155. 

Constitution  of  Austria,  of  1849,  495 ;  Feb- 
ruary c,  504  ;  c.  of  1866,  511. 

Constitution,  French,  first,  accepted  by 
Louis  XIV.,  450 ;  second  (Republican), 
never  executed,  454 ;  tkird  (of  1795), 
457;  fourth,  461;  fifth,  464;  of  the 
First  Empire,  465;  c  of  Louis  XVIII., 
665  ;  c.  of  Louis  Philippe,  529  ;  c.  of  1848, 
531 ;  c.  of  Louis  Napoleon,  531 ;  third  re- 
public, 532  ;  c.  of  1875,  533. 

Constitution  of  Germany.  See  Bull,  Gold- 
en, and  diet  of  Regensburg.  End  of  the 
H.  R.  E.,  464;  German  confederation, 
483 ;  attempt  to  frame  a  new  c,  493  ; 
new  c.  completed,  497  ;  return  to  the 
confederation,  498;  confederation  dis- 
solved, 459 ;  North  German  confedera- 
tion, 511 ;  c.  of  the  German  empire,  520. 

Constitution  of  Hungary.  See  Bull,  gold- 
en. Under  Joseph  II.,  408  ;  in  1848, 494  ; 
abrogated,  495;  in  1861,  504;  restored, 
611. 

Constitution  of  Naples,  493. 

Constitution  of  Poland,  old,  374 ;  c.  of  1791, 
413  ;  abrogated,  490. 

Constitution  of  Prussia,  497. 

Constitution  of  1812  in  Spain  formed,  473  ; 
abrogated,  483  ;  restored,  487  ;  abrogated, 
488. 

Constitution  of  United  States  signed,  433. 
See  Amendments. 

Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  232. 

Consulate,  French,  448,  461 :  Roman,  es- 
tablished, 93  ;  first  plebeian  consul,  101  ; 
age  of  eligibility,  120 ;  treatment  under 
the  empire,  147- 

Conventicle  act,  379. 

Convention  parliament,  378,  385. 

Convocation,  340,  437. 

Convulsionnaires,  446. 

Cook,  James,  voyages  of,  442. 

Coote,  Sir  Eyre,  444. 

Copenhagen,  capture  of,  249;  1st  bom- 
bardment, 470  ;  battle  of,  536 ;  2d  bom- 
bardment, 537  ;  peace  of,  373. 

Corey ra,  64,  66. 

Corday,  Charlotte,  454. 

Cordeliers,  451. 

Cordova,  Caliphate  of,  183,  209. 

Cordova,  Gonsalvo  de  818. 

Corea,  conquered  by  Chinese,  32  ;  by  Jap- 
anese, 33  ;  treaty  with  Japan,  564. 

Corfinium,  capital  of  Italia,  129. 

Corinth,  origin,  48  ;  national  assembly  at, 
37 


73  ;  joins  Achaean  league,  79 ;  destroyed, 

80,  122. 
Corinthian  war,  70. 
Coriolanus,  97. 
Com  laws  repealed,  542. 
Comaro,  Catherine,  262. 
Corneille,  371. 
CornwaUis,  lord,  in  the  Southern  States, 

430 ;  surrender  of,  431,  441 ;    in  India, 

541. 
Coroebus,  61. 

Coronado,  Francisco  Vasqnez,  287. 
Coronea,  battle  of,  63,  70. 
Corporation  act,  379,  5-39. 
Corpus  Catholicorum,  371. 
Corpus  Evangelicorum,  371. 
Corpus  juris  civilis,  210. 
Correggio,  328. 
Corsica,  Phocaeans  driven  ft^m,  19,  26,  84 ; 

assigned  to  Sextus  Pompeius  146 ;  king- 
dom of,  415. 
Cortenuova,  battle  of,  224. 
Cortereal,  Gaspar  and  Miguel  de,  284. 
Cortes  at  Cadiz,  473. 
Cortez,  Hernando,  conquers  Mexico,  285; 

discovers  Lower  California,  287. 
Corvinus,  Matthias,  k.  of  Hungary,  253. 
Cosa,  Juan  de  la,  284. 
Council  of  ten,  262. 
Council  of  the  church,  first  oecumenical, 

159  ;  last,  159,  512. 
Count  of  the  Saxon  Shore,  38. 
Courcelles,  gov.  of  New  France,  364. 
Court  of  Common  Pleas,  Exchequer,  King's 

Bench,  266. 
Courtrai,  battle  of,  264. 
Couthon, 454,  456. 
Covenant.     See  Solemn  League. 
Covenanters,  defeat  of,  379. 
Covilham,  353. 
Cowpens,  battle  of,  431. 
Coxe,  365. 

Cracow,  414  ;  free  state  of,  483. 
Cradock,  Matthew,  gov.  of  Mass.  Bay,  296. 
Cranmer,  archb.  of  Canterbury,  335  ;  burnt 

338. 
Crassus,    expedition    against  Parthia,  30, 

133  ;  democrat,  136, 137  ;  consul,  140. 
Craterus,  74 ;   regent  of  VVest,  76 ;  in  the 

Lamian  war,  79. 
Craven,  gov.  of  Carolina,  417. 
Crawford,  VV.  H.,  U.  8.  sec.  of  the  treas., 

551. 
Cr^cy,  battle  of,  248,  257. 
Crefeld,  battle  of,  405. 
Cremona,  35 ;  founded,  112 ;  battle  of,  151 ; 

diet,  224. 
Crescentius,  197. 
Crespy,  peace  of,  305. 

Crete,  Phoenician  settlements  in,  17;  un- 
der Minos,  18,  41;  assigned  to  Brutus, 

144 ;  belongs  to  Venice,  326 ;  yielded  to 

Turks,  416. 
Crimean  war,  499,  500,  543;  end  of,  531. 
Gritias  slain,  69. 
Croatia,  511. 
Croesus,  k.   of    Lydia,    conquers    Grecian 

cities,  intercourse  with  Greece,  war  with 

Persia,  21,  22;  defeated,  22,  26;  story  of 

his  miraculous  rescue,  26, 
Cromwell,  Oliver,  sketch  of  life,  375 :  first 

speech,  343;  "  Ironsides,"  347;  Marston 


614 


Index. 


Moor,  348  ;  lieutenant-general,  349 ;  lord 
protector,  376  ;  turns  out  the  rump,  376 ; 
rejects  title  of  king,  377  ;  death,  377. 

Cromwell,  Richard,  375,  377. 

Cromwell,  Thomas,  835. 

Crown  Point,  421,  428. 

Crozat,  sieur  Antoine,  365. 

Crusades,  cause,  213;  I.,  214;  II.,  III., 
215;  IV.,  v.,  216;  VI.,  VII.,  217;  re- 
sults, 217. 

Ctesiphon,  158, 192. 

Cuba  discovered,  278,  282 ;  circumnavigat- 
ed, 284  ;  conquered,  284;  attack  on,  419. 

Culloden,  battle  of,  438 

Culpepper,  lord,  grant  in  America,  367. 

Cumberland,  d.  ot,  became  k.  of  Hanover, 
542. 

Cumberland  Straits,  discovery  of,  289. 

Cunaxa,  battle  of,  29. 

Cunctator.     See  Fabius. 

Cup-bearer,  195. 

Curi8e,  91. 

Curio  subjugated  Sicily,  141. 

Curius  Dentatus,  M'.,  106. 

Curland,  incorporated  with  Russia,  414. 

Curland,  d  of,  restored,  373. 

Custine,  gen.  463,  454. 

Custozza,  battle  of,  494,  610. 

Cyaxares,  overthrows  Nineveh,  15, 16 ;  war 
with  Alyattes,  21,  25. 

Cybele,  Lydian  goddess,  21. 

Cylon,  insurrection  of,  51. 

Cymbeline,  37. 

Cynoscephalse,  battle  of,  71,  80,  119. 

Cynric,  178. 

Cyprus,  tributary  to  Assyria,  14  ;  Phoeni- 
cian colonies  in,  17,  41  ;  given  to  Guy  of 
Lusignan,  by  Richard  of  England,  215 ; 
given  by  Catherine  Cornaro  to  Venice, 
262;  surrendered  to  the  Turks,  326; 
given  to  England,  524  ;  British  take  pos- 
session, 545. 

Cyrene  in  Africa,  hostilities  with  Egypt, 
6 ;  founded,  19 ;  submits  to  Cambyses, 
27  ;  conquered  by  Darius,  28  ;  assigned 
to  Cassius,  144. 

Cyrus,  emp.  of  Persia,  deposes  Astyages, 
62  ;  defeats  Croesus,  21,  26  ;  takes  Baby- 
lon, 16,  26  ;  death,  27  ;  the  younger,  29. 

Cyzicus,  battle  of,  68, 134. 

Czartoryski,  490. 

Czaslau,  battle  of,  401. 

Czechs,  493. 

Dablon,  364. 

Dacia,  war  with  Rome,  152,  153  ;  made  a 
Roman  province,  152  ;  given  up  by  Au- 
relian,  157. 

Daedalus,  18. 

Dale,  Sir  Thomas,  292. 

Dalecarlians,  revolt  of  the,  352. 

Dalhousie,  e.  of,  gov.  gen.  in  India,  546. 

Dalmatia,  526,  526. 

Dalziel,  379. 

Damascus,  defection  from  Solomon,  9  ; 
captured  by  Ramannarari,  14,  136  ;  sul- 
tanate of,  210. 

Damiens,  446. 

Damietta,  captured,  217. 

Dm  no  ura,  battle  of,  242. 

Dan  the  Famous,  k.  of  Norway,  207. 

Danaus,  44. 


Danby,  impeachment,  381,  383,  384  ;  pres. 
of  privy  council,  385. 

Dandolo,  Henry,  doge  of  Venice,  216,  262. 

Danegeld,  instituted,  205  ;  abolished,  231. 

Danelagh,  204  ;  reconquered  and  lost,  205. 

Danes.  See  Denmark,  Northmen.  In  Eng- 
land ;  three  epochs  of  their  ravages,  203 ; 
treaty  of  Wedmore,  204 ;  massacre  of 
Danes,  805  ;  political  conquest  of  Eng- 
land, 206. 

Dangerfield,  382,  383. 

Danish  vespers,  205. 

Danneborg,  235. 

Dannevirke,  207. 

Dante  Alighieri,  263. 

Danton,  member  of  Cordeliers,  451,  452, 
453  ;  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety, 
454 ;  execution,  455. 

Danzig,  annexed  to  Poland,  413  ;  captured 
by  Napoleon,  469. 

Daras,  battle  of,  190. 

Dare,  Jeanne,  career,  260. 

Dardanos,  peace  of,  131. 

Dare,  Virginia,  289. 

Darien,  discovered  by  Columbus,  284  ;  at- 
tacked by  Drake,  289 ;  Scotch  settlement 
at,  362. 

Darius,  name  of  several  k.'s  of  Persia,  I. 
succeeds  Bardija,  recaptures  Babylon, 
27  ;  war  with  Scythians,  reforms,  war 
with  Ionian  Greeks,  with  European 
Greeks,  death,  28:  II.  Notkus,  29  ;  III., 
Codomannus,  defeated  by  Alexander, 
death,  29,  74. 

Darnley,  murdered,  338. 

Datis,  67. 

Daun,  marshal,  404,  405. 

Dauphin,  title  of  the  heir  to  the  French 
crown,  258. 

Dauphint5  of  Vienne,  transferred  to  the 
crown  of  France,  258. 

David,  k.  of  the  Jews,  8,  9. 

David  II.,  k.  of  Scotland,  capture  of,  268. 

Davila,  285. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  U.  S.  sec.  of  war,  555; 
pres.  of  the  Confederate  States,  556. 

Davis,  John,  Arctic  voyages,  289,  290. 

Davout,  on  the  Rhine,  467  ;  defeated  at 
Eylau,  469  ;  in  Hamburg,  476,  479. 

Day  of  the  sections,  457. 

Decazes,  ministry  of,  527. 

Deccan,  in  India,  geographical  position, 
22  ;  arrival  of  Hindus,  23  ;  state  of,  in 
1498,  353 ;  independence  of,  442 ;  passes 
under  the  control  of  the  British,  541. 

Decebalus,  152, 153. 

Decelean  war,  67. 

Decemvirs,  98. 

Decius,  Roman  emp.,  156. 

Decius  Mus  P.,  108. 

Declaration  of  Independence  in  Belgium, 
489  ;  in  the  United  States  428. 

Declaration  of  indulgence,  380. 

Declaration  of  rights,  385. 

Declaration  of  rights  and  liberties,  424. 

Deerfield,  Indian  attack,  363. 

Defoe,  Daniel,  389,  436. 

Deiotarus,  k.  of  Galatia,  78,  136  ;  submits 
to  Caesar,  142. 

Deira,  178. 

Dejoces,  Median  chief,  26. 

Delaware,  lord,  gov.  of  S.  Virginia,  292. 


Index, 


615 


Delhi,  in  India.  22;  snltans  of,  241,  353  ; 
captured  by  Lake,  541 :  reTolt,  546. 

Delos,  41,  62. 

Delphi,  advice  to  Croesus,  21 ;  attacked  by 
Gauls,  35 ;  oracle,  51 .;  plundered  by 
Krisa,  54  ;  by  Phocians,  72. 

Demades,  peace  of,  73. 

Demaratus,  55,  58. 

Demes,52. 

Demetrius,  the  false,  352. 

Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  77 ;  in  Athens,  79. 

Democratic  party  in  U.  S.,  548. 

Demosthenes,  the  general,  66,  67. 

Demosthenes,  the  oratoi;,  opposition  to 
Philip,  72  ;  forms  alliance  with  Thebes, 
73 ;  poisons  himself,  79. 

Denain,  battle  of,  392. 

Denmark,  people  of,  164;  early  history, 
207 ;  war  with  Charles  the  Great,  185 ; 
with  Otto  I.,  195 ;  with  Otto  II.,  197  ;  in- 
vasion of  England,  203,  204  ;  conquest  of 
England,  205,  206  ;  under  Waldemar  the 
conqueror,  235  ;  capitulation,  236  ;  Union 
of  Calmar,  237,  276;  share  in  thirty 
years'  war,  310  :  war  with  Sweden,  314 ; 
feuds  of  the  counts  in,  352 ;  lex  regia, 
374  ;  treaty  with  Sweden,  397  ;  alliance 
with  France,  470 ;  receives  Lauenberg, 
483  ;  Schleswig-Holstein,  496  ;  incorpora- 
tion of  the  duchies,  505  ;  war  with  Aus- 
tria and  Prussia,  505. 

Dennewitz,  battle  of,  477. 

Denys,  Jean,  284. 

Deorham,  battle  of,  178. 

Derby,  e.  of,  impeachment,  270. 

Derby,  e.,  1st  ministry  of ,  543 ;  2d,  544 ;  3d, 

Dermod,  k.  of  Leinster,  232. 
Derwentwater,  execution  of,  437. 
Desaix,  460. 

Desiderius,  k.  of  Langobards,  184. 
Desmoulins,  Camille,  at  the  storm  of  the 

Bastile,  449 ;  member  of  Cordeliers,  461  ; 

executed,  455. 
Despensers,  267. 
Dessau,  bridge  of,  battle,  310. 
Dessoles-Decazes,  ministry  of,  527. 
Detmold,  battle  of,  185. 
Detroit,  besieged  by  Pontiac,423. 
Dettingen,  battle  of,  402. 
Deutsch-Brod,  battle  of,  252. 
Deuxponts.     See  Zweibriicken. 
Devolution,  war  of,  366. 
Diadochi,  wars  of,  76. 
Diaeus,  122. 
Diana  of  Poitiers,  320. 
Diaz,  Bartholomaeus,  280. 
Dictatorship,  established,  93  ;  nature,  94  ; 

opened  to  plebeians,  101 ;  disappearance, 

123  ;  Sulla  assumes  the  office,  132. 
Diderot,  448. 

Didius,  Julianus,  Roman  emp.,  154. 
Dido,  17,  18. 
Diebitch,  490. 
Dieskau,421. 
Digges,  sir  Dudley,  343. 
Dijon,  battle  of,  174,  25a 
Dillon,  545. 

Dinwiddie,  Robert,  gov.  of  Virginia,  420. 
Diocletianus,  Roman  emp  ,  158. 
Dionysius,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  20. 
Directory,  in  France,  448;  government  of, 


457  ;  18th  Fructidor,  change  within  the 
directory,  459  ;  3d  Prairial,  reorganized, 
18th  Brumaire,  overthrown,  461. 

Disraeli.     See  Beaconsfield. 

Dissenters,  379. 

Dobrudsha,  invaded  by  French ,  500 :  occu- 
pied by  Russians,  522 ;  ceded  to  Russia 
and  exchanged  for  Bessarabia,  523,  624. 

Dodecarchy  in  Egypt,  6. 

Dodona,  43. 

Doffingen,  battle  of,  260. 

Doge  of  Venice,  262. 

Dolabella,  consul,  144. 

Dolgoruky,  family  of,  410. 

Domitianus,  Roman  emp.,  conquest  of  Brit* 
ain,  37;  reign,  162. 

Donau worth,  308. 

Doomsday  book,  229. 

Dorea,  Andrea,  doge  of  Genoa,  303,  326. 

Dorians  in  Asia  Minor,  subjugated  by  Cro»- 
sus,  21;  Dorus,  mythical  ancestor,  43; 
migration  of,  48 ;  Doric  communities. 
48, 49  ;  colonies,  49. 

Dorr  rebellion,  554. 

Dorylaeum,  battle  of,  214. 

Dost  Muhammad,  546. 

Douglas,  e.  of,  270. 

Dover,  secret  treaty  of,  380. 

Draco,  51. 

Dragonnades,  369. 

Drake,  Francis,  voyage  around  the  world, 
289;  New  Albion,  289;  expedition  to 
West  Indies,  rescues  Virginia  colony,  290, 
339. 

Dred  Scott  case.  556. 

Drepanum,  sea-fight  at,  111. 

Dresden,  peace  of,  402  ;  battle  of,  477  ;  up- 
rising in,  497  ;  conference  at,  4i98. 

Drogheda,  statute  of,  333. 

Drogheda,  storm  of,  375. 

Drogo,  199. 

Druids,  34. 

Drumclog,  battle  of,  381. 

Drusus,  M.  Livius,  125,  126,  128. 

Drusus  (the  younger),  eon  of  Tiberiui, 
campaigns  in  Germany,  167 ;  poisoned, 
149. 

Dryden, John,  389. 

Dubienka,  battle  of,  413. 

Dublin,  conquest  of,  208, 209. 

Dubois,  card., 445. 

Ducas,  dynasty,  240. 

Duclerc,  ministry,  636. 

Ducrot,  617,  618. 

Dudley,  Joseph,  pres.  of  New  England, 
361;  gov.  of  Mass.,  363. 

Dufaure,  ministry  in  France,  534. 

Duilius,  Clio. 

Dulcigno,  ceded  to  Montenegro,  626. 

Dumouriez,  452,  453. 

Dunbar,  battle  of,  266,  375. 

Dundee.     See  Claverhouse,  386. 

Dunes,  battle  of  the,  377. 

Dunkirk,  siege  of  j  377 ;   sold  to  France\ 

Dunse,  pacification  of,  345. 
Dunstan,  archb.  of  Canterbury,  205. 
Dupleix,  gov.  of  Pondicherri,  443. 
Diippel,  storming  of,  506. 
Durazzo,  house  of,  in  Naples,  263. 
Dur-Sarrukin,  12,  15. 
Dutch  in  America,  298 ;  in  India,  361 


616 


Index. 


Dutch  war,  376. 

Dutch  West  India  Company,  298. 
Duttlingen,  battle  of,  314. 
Duumviri  Bacrorum,  85. 
Dyaush-pitar,  22. 
Dyrrhachium,  battle  of,  141. 

Eadberht,  180. 

Eadgar,  205. 

Eadgar,  ^theling,  206. 

Eadgar,  k.  of  Scotland,  230. 

Eadmund  Ironside,  205. 

Eadred,  205. 

Eadward  (the  elder),  k.  of  England,  204 ; 
the  confessor,  206. 

Eadwig,  205. 

Eadwin,  earl  of  Mercia,  206 ;  revolt  of  Eng- 
lish under,  229 ;  k.  of  Northumbria,  179. 

Eastern  empire,  separated  from  western, 
161 ;  under  Justinian  I.,  210,  216  ;  under 
Macedonian  house,  210 ;  under  the  houses 
of  Ducas,  Oomnenes,  and  Angelus,  240 ; 
conquest  of  Constantinople,  278  ;  plan 
to  restore,  413. 

East  Groths,  in  Southern  Russia,  170  ;  king- 
dom of,  in  Italy,  174  ;  destroyed  by  Nar- 
ses,  175. 

East  India  bill,  442. 

East  India  Company  of  London,  origin, 
354  ;  charter  renewed,  540  ;  government 
of  India  ceases,  544  ;  exclusive  trade 
with  China  ceases,  561. 

East  Indies,  ocean  route  to,  discovered, 
279.     See,  also,  India. 

Eastphalia,  185. 

East  Roumelia,  province  of,  524. 

Eberhard,  d.  of  Franconia,  195  ;  d.  of 
Wiirtemberg,  wars  with  Rudolf  I.,  244  ; 
der  Greiner,  wars  with  cities,  249. 

Eberwiz.     See  Chosroes  II. 

Ecbatana,  24,  25,  26,  28. 

Ecclesiastical  commission,  new  court  of, 
383. 

Ecclesiastical  titles  bill,  543. 

Ecgberht,  k.  of  Wessex,  lord  of  England 
south  of  the  forth,  180,  181,  203. 

Eck,  301. 

Eckmiihl,  battle  of,  471. 

Eclipse  of  the  sun,  21. 

Ecnomus,  battle  of,  110. 

Ecuador,  republic  of,  488. 

Edda,  elder  and  younger,  165. 

Edessa,  captured,  215. 

Edgehill,  battle  of,  347. 

Edict  of  Nantes,  promulgation,  324;  revo- 
cation of,  369  ;  of  restitution,  310  ;  of 
tolerance  of  Joseph  II.,  407. 

Edinburgh,  treaty  of  338  ;  liturgy  in,  344  ; 
general  assembly,  345. 

Edmund,  St.,  k.  of  England,  203. 

Edward  I.,  k.  of  England,  agreement  with 
Philip  IV.,  of  France,  254  ;  reign,  263, 
264  ;  reforms.  266  ;  II.,  reign,  267  ;  III., 
reign,  268  ;  war  with  France,  257  ;  laws  in 
Ireland,  269 ;  IV.,  reign,  272, 274  ;  invades 
France,  260;  V.,  reign,  275;  VI.,  reign, 
336. 

Edward  the  Black  Prince,  victory  of  Poitiers, 
2.'J8;  aids  Peter  the  Cruel,  276;  death, 
269. 

Egmont,  at  Gravelines,  321  ;  sketch  of  life, 
execution,  330. 


Egremont,  sec.  of  state,  439. 

Egypt,  geography,  religion,  2;  civiliza- 
tion, chronology,  3 ;  old  empire,  new 
empire,  4  ;  stories  of  Sesostris,  5  ;  not  con- 
quered by  Assyrians  961  B.  c,  5  n.  2  ;  con- 
quered by  Ethiopians,  6  ;  by  Assyrians, 
6,  14  ;  revolt  of  Psamethik,  6  ;  becomes 
a  province  of  Persia,  7;  conquered  by 
Cambyses,  27  ;  under  the  Ptolemies, 
conquered  by  Caesar,  143 ;  Roman  prov- 
ince, 147  ;  reconquered  by  Aurelian,  157 
by  Muhammedans,  182 ;  sixth  crusade, 
217  ;  revolt  of  Mehemed  Ali,  491  ;  revolt 
of  Arabi  Pasha,  546. 

Eider-Danes,  505. 

El,  13. 

El  Dorado,  288. 

Elagabalus,  Roman  emp.,  155. 

Elam,  empire  of,  13. 

Elba,  conferred  upon  Napoleon,  481. 

Eldon,  lord  chan.,  536. 

Eleanor  of  Poitou ,  married  Louis  VII.,  and 
afterward  Henry  of  Anjou,  226. 

Eleanor,  wife  of  Edward  I.  of  England, 
death  of,  264. 

Electoral  reform  bill  in  Italy,  526. 

Electors  of  the  H.  R.  E.,  248. 

Electro-magnetism  discovered,  487. 

Elgin,  lord,  viceroy  of  India,  546;  envoy 
to  China,  561. 

Elijah,  9. 

Eliot,  John,  missionary,  357. 

Eliot,  sir  John,  341,  343. 

Elisha,  9. 

Elissa,  founds  Carthage,  18. 

Elizabeth  of  Bohemia,  341. 

Elizabeth  of  Valois,  324,  330. 

Elizabeth,  q.  of  England,  reign,  338,  339. 

Elizabeth,  tsarina  of  Russia,  ally  of  Aus- 
tria, 403  ;  death  relieves  Frederic,  405  ; 
reign,  411. 

Elizabeth  Islands,  290. 

EUenborough,  e.  of,  gov.  gen.  in  India,  546. 

Ellichpur,  kingdom  founded,  353;  con- 
quered by  Auranzeb,  389. 

Elster,  battle  of  the,  478. 

Ely,  capture  of,  229. 

Emadeddin  Zenki,  215. 

Emancipation  of  the  serfs  in  Russia,  500. 

Emancipation  proclamation,  558. 

Embargo  policy  of  U.  8.,  550. 

Emir-al-Mumenin,  182  ;  al  Omra,  210. 

Emmanuel  Philibert,  d.  of  Savoy,  326. 

Emmanuel  the  Great,  k.  of  Portugal,  332. 

Emmet's  insurrection  in  Ireland,  536. 

Emund  Gammle,  k.  of  Sweden,  208. 

Enactment  of  the  delegates,  4G4. 

Encumbered  estates  act,  543. 

Endicott,  John,  295,  296. 

Enghien,  d.  of.     See  Cond<5.    . 

Enghien,  d.  of  executed,  465. 

England.  See  Britain.  Teutonic  conquest, 
176 ;  West  Saxon  kings,  203  ;  Danish  su- 
premacy, 206;  Norman  conquest,  206; 
Norman  kings,  229  ;  house  of  Plantagenet, 
large  possessions  in  France,  231 ;  conquest 
of  Ireland,  232  ;  magna  charta,  233  ;  par- 
liament, 234;  hundred  years'  war,  257: 
loses  French  possessions,  260  ;  annexation 
of  Wales,  264  ;  reforms  under  Edward  I. 
266  ;  first  perfect  parliament,  267  ;  Scot- 
land lost,  268 ;  black  death,  268 ;  peace 


Index. 


617 


of  Bretigny,  268  ;  peasant  revolt,  269  ; 
house  of  Lancaster,  270 :  wars  of  the 
Roses,  272 ;  house  of  York.  272  ;  settle- 
ments in  America,  289,  291-298 ;  house 
of  Tudor,  333;  secession  from  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  church,  335 ;  house  of 
Stuart,  personal  union  with  Scotland, 
339  ;  long  parliament,  345  ;  great  rebel- 
lion, 347;  execution,  of  Charles  I.,  351; 
British  in  India,  354 ;  commonwealth, 
375;  monarchy  restored,  378;  interreg- 
num, 384 ;  rcFolution,  385  ;  bill  of  rights, 
386  ;  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  388, 
390  ;  protestant  succession  secured,  393  ; 
union  with  Scotland,  434 ;  peace  of 
Utrecht,  435  ;  house  of  Hanover,  436  ;  war 
with  Spain,  419,  437 ;  war  of  the  Aus- 
trian succession,  419,  438  ;  peace  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  404,  419,  438 ;  adoption  of 
new  style,  438 ;  seven  years'  war,  404, 
420,  438,  445 ;  peace  of  Paris,  422,  439  ; 
war  with  the  revolted  American  colonies, 
424, 426,  440  ;  peace  of  Versailles,  432, 441 ; 
armed  neutrality,  413,  441 ;  British  in 
India,  443 ;  war  with  France,  453,  535  ; 
with  Holland,  535;  with  Spain,  535; 
union  with  Ireland,  463,  536  ;  Peninsula 
war,  471,  479  ;  treaty  of  Vienna,  482,  537  ; 
Waterloo,  538  ;  war  with  United  States, 
474,  551 ;  commercial  panic,  Catholic 
emancipation,  639  ;  reform  act,  540  ;  ab- 
olition of  slavery,  540 ;  India,  541  ;  Vic- 
toria, 542 ;  quoen,  sovereign  of  India, 
544;  Irish  troubles,  545 ;  India,  546. 

English  Pale,  270. 

Enkoeping,  battle  of,  238. 

Enzio,  k.  of  Sardinia,  226. 

Epaminondas,  71. 

Ephialtes,  law  of,  62. 

Ephialtes,  the  traitor,  59. 

Ephthialites,  wars  with  Pereia,  189,  190. 

Epigoni,  war  of  the,  47. 

Epirus,  41 ;  allied  with  Macedonia,  79  ;  sub- 
dued by  Flamininus,  119  ;  punished,  121. 

Episcopacy  in  England,  338 :  restored  in 
Scotland,  340:  abolished,  344;  attempt 
to  introduce,  379 ;  abolished  386 ;  not 
introduced  at  the  union,  434. 

Equity,  266. 

Eresburg,  captured,  185  ;  battle  of,  195. 

Eretria,  deserts  the  lonians,  28  ;  captured, 
57. 

Erfurt,  assembly  of  princes  at,  471. 

Erfurt,  parliament  of,  498. 

Erie  canal,  552. 

Erigena.     See  Joannes  Scotus. 

Erik,  Ejegod,  k.  of  Denmark,  208 ;  Glip- 
ping,  k.  of  Denmark,  236  ;  Menved,  k.  of 
Denmark,  236. 

Erik,  Blodoxe,  k.  of  Norway,  208  ;  Graa- 
frll,  k.  of  Norway,  208;  Priest-hater,  k. 
of  Norway,  238. 

Erik  Edmundsson,  k.  of  Sweden,  208;  IX., 
the  saint,  k.  of  Sweden,  237;  Eriksson 
Lmspe,  k.  of  Sweden,  287;  XIV.  of 
Sweden,  352. 

Erik  the  Red,  discovery  and  settlement  of 
Greenland  by,  209. 

Erikson,  Leif  and  Thorwald,  281. 

Ermanarich,  k.  of  East  Goths,  170. 

Ermeland,  bishopric  of,  373. 
£mefitine  line  in  Saxony,  305. 


Ernst,  d.  of  Swabia,  revolt  of,  198. 

Ernst  August,  k.  of  Hanover,  491. 

Erskine,  lord  chan.,  537. 

Eryx,  111. 

Esarhaddon,  k.  of  Assyria,  6,  15. 

Espartero,  490. 

Essex,  settled,  178. 

Essex,  e.  of,  rebellion,  339. 

Essex,  e.  of,  in  cabinet,  381 ;  suicide,  882. 

Essling,  battle  at,  472. 

Estaing,  c.  d',  in  America,  430. 

Estaples,  peace  of,  333. 

Este  map,  284. 

Esthonia,  retained  by  Denmark,  236;  r«» 
nounced  by  Poland,  373. 

Estridsen,  dynasty  in  Denmark,  207;  ex- 

,  tinct.  of,  235. 

Etats-Generaux,  summoned  by  Louis  XIII. 
the  last  time  before  1789,  324;  sum- 
moned by  Louis  XVI.,  449. 

Ethandun,' battle  of,  204. 

Ethiopians,  attacked  by  Seti  I.,  5  ;  founda- 
tion of  the  kingdom  of  Napata,  5 ;  con- 
quer Egypt,  expelled  by  Eserhaddon,  6, 
15 ;  war  against,  148. 

Etruria,  kingdom  of,  463. 

Etruscans,  expel  the  Phocaeans  from  Cor- 
sica, 19 ;  country  of,  81 ;  ethnography, 
86;  war  with  Rome,  95;  Veil  taken  by 
Rome,  99;  all  southern  Etruria  submits 
to  Rome,  l(i3 ;  share  in  second  Samnite 
war,  105  :  in  the  second,  106 ;  peace  with 
Rome,  108. 

Euboea,  41;  land  given  to  Athenians,  55; 
Persian  ships  lost  at,  59 ;  second  division 
of  land,  63. 

Euclides,  laws  of,  69. 

Eudes,  c.  of  Paris,  201,  202. 

Eugene,  pr.,  sketch  of  life,  370  ;  war  with 
Turks,  372  ;  head  of  grand  alliance,  391, 
392 :  war  with  Turks,  397,  398. 

Eugene,  viceroy,  472. 

Eugenie  de  Montijo,  531. 

Eugenius,  Roman  emp.,  161. 

Eugenius  IV.,  pope,  253. 

Eumenes,  k.  of  Pergamus,  76,  78 ;  ally  of 
Rome,  119,  120. 

Eumolpus,  44. 

Eupatridae,  45,  51,  54. 

Euphrates,  expedition  of  Seti  I.  to,  5; 
Babylon  built  on,  12 ;  diverted  by  Cy* 
rus,  26 ;  battle  of,  135. 

Euripides,  64. 

Europa,  18. 

Eurybiades,  59. 

Eurymedon,  battle  of  the,  62. 

Eutaw,  battle  of,  431. 

Everett,  Edward,  U.  S.  sec.  of  state,  555. 

Evesham,  battle  of,  234. 

Exarchate,  175  ;  given  to  the  papacy,  184. 

Exchequer,  reestablished,  231 ;  closed  by 
Charles  II.,  380. 

Exodus  of  the  Jews,  8. 

Eylau,  battle  of,  469, 

Ezekiel,  11. 

Fabii,  97,  100. 

Fabius  Maximus,  Q.  (Cunctator),  114,  115; 

Rullianus,  Q.,  inS,  105,  106. 
Pabricius,  C,  victory  of,  107, 108. 
Fairfax,  sir  Thomas,  348,  349 ;  superseded 

by  Cromwell,  375. 


618 


Index. 


Faliero,  Marino,  doge  of  Venice,  262. 

Falk,  525. 

Falkirk,  battle  of,  266. 

Falkirk  Moor,  battle  of,  438. 

Falkland,  lord,  346,  348. 

Falkoeping,  battle  of,  237,  238. 

Farmer,  pres.,  of  Magdalen  college,  383. 

Farnese,  extinction  of  the  family,  3y8. 

Fatima,  182. 

Fatimites,  213,  214. 

Faust.     See  Fust. 

FaTentia,  battle,  131. 

Favre,  512,  517. 

Fawkes,  Guy,  340. 

February  revolution,  492. 

Federalist  party,  548. 

Fehrbellin,  battle  of,  368,  374. 

Fenelon,  371. 

Fenians,  545. 

Fenwick,  condemned,  3^. 

Feodor,  tsar  of  Russia,  374. 

Ferdinand,  archd.  of  Austria,  467. 

Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  k.  of  Aragon,  276, 
318  ;  marries  Isabella  of  Castile,  328. 

Ferdinand  I.,  emp.  of  Austria,  491 ;  abdi- 
cates, 495. 

ferdinand,  d.  of  Brunswick.  See  Bruns- 
wick. 

Ferdinand  emp.  of  H.  R.  K,  relation  to 
Spain,  301,  303;  reign,  306;  II.,  308, 
309;  III.,  314. 

Ferdinand  VI.,  k.  of  Spain,  reign,  414 ;  VII., 
479,  482,  490. 

Ferdinand,  k.'of  Naples,  expelled  by  Napo- 
leon, 468  ;  reinstated,  484. 

Ferdinand,  k.  of  Two  Sicilies,  416. 

Ferdinand  Joseph,  of  Tuscany,  416. 

Ferrex,  37. 

Ferry,  Jules,  ministry  of,  534. 

Ferry  Bridge,  battle  of,  274. 

Fetiales,  college  of,  85. 

Feudal  system  in  China,  32 ;  in  Europe, 
166 ;  in  Japan,  212;  in  Norway,  208 ;  in 
England,  229. 

Feuillants,  451. 

Fidenae,  88. 

Fiefs  declared  hereditary,  201. 

"  Field  of  Lies,"  186. 

Fieschi's  infernal  machine,  629. 

Fiesco,  conspiracy  of,  326. 

Fillmore,  Millard,  555. 

Fimbria,  131. 

Financial  crisis  in  U.  S.,  552, 653. 

Finch,  sir  H,,  e.  of  Nottingham,  380l 

Firbolgs,  in  Ireland,  39. 

Firdusi,  25. 

Fire  worship,  25. 

Fisher's  Hill,  battle  of,  558. 

Fisheries,  in  peace  of  Paris,  432 ;  partially 
settled,  560. 

Fitz  Peter,  Geoffrey,  233. 

Five  Forks,  battle  of,  559. 

Flaccus,  L.  Valerius,  130. 

Flaccus,  M.  Fulvius,  125. 

Flambard,  Ranulf,  230. 

Flamines,  85. 

Flamininus,  T.  Quinctius,  119. 

Flaminius,  114. 

Flanders,  independence  recognized,  254 ; 
acquired  by  Burgundy,  3^;  ceded  to 
France,  456. 

Vlaviau  emperors,  141. 


Fleix,  treaty  of.  322. 

Fletcher,  gov.  of  New  York,  363. 

Fleurus,  battle  of,  370,  456. 

Flenry,  card.,  446. 

Flodden  Field,  battle  of,  334. 

Florence,  under  the  Medici,  263  ;  Savon* 
rola,  327 ;  peace  of,  463 ;  becomes  capi- 
tal of  Italy,  503. 

Florida  discovered,  284 ;  ceded  by  Spain 
to  England  in  1763,  437;  restored  to 
Spain  in  1783,  441 ;  sold  by  Spain  to  the 
United  States,  562 ;  admitted  to  the 
Union,  554. 

Foix,  Gaston  de,  318. 

Fokchany,  battle  at,  418. 

Folkunger  dynasty,  237. 

Fontainebleau,  peace  at,  406  ;  preliminary 
articles,  422  ;  Napoleon  at,  481. 

Fontanetum,  battle  of,  186. 

Fontenoy,  battle  of,  402,  438,  44& 

Formosa,  island  of,  31  ;  conquered,  390  ;  re- 
bellion, 444  ;  Japanese  expedition,  564. 

Forster,  W.  E.,  chief  sec.  for  Ireland,  546. 

Fort  Christiana,  298;  Donelson  surren- 
dered, 557 ;  Du  Quesne,  420 ;  expedition 
against,  421 ;  Edward,  construction,  421 ; 
Erie,  captured,  551 ;  Fisher,  surrendered, 
559;  George,  captured  by  Montcalm, 
421 ;  Henry,  captured  by  Union  forces, 
557 ;  Moultrie,  see  Fort  Sullivan ;  Ne- 
cessity, 420 ;  Orange,  built,  298  ;  St. 
George,  built,  294  (se«  Madras);  Pitt, 
423 ;  Sullivan,  427 :  Sumter  fired  upon, 
557;  Washington,  428  ;  William  Heniy, 
captured  by  Montcalm,  421. 

Forum  Romanum,  82. 

Fossalta,  battle  of,  225. 

Fotheringay,  treaty  of,  274. 

Fouque,  406. 

Fouquier-Tinville,  456,  456. 

Fox,  voyage  of,  300. 

Fox,  Charles  James,  sketch  of  life,  441j 
India  bill,  libel  bill,  535  ;  for.  sec,  537. 

Fox,  Henry.     See  lord  Holland. 

France.  See  Franks.  Capetian  dynasty 
of  French  kingdom,  capital  at  Paris,  202 : 
royal  weakness,  203 ;  loss  of  Poitou^ 
Guyenne,and  Gascony,  226:  administra- 
tion of  Suger,226;  Philip  II.,  Augustus, 
crusades,  226  ;  Bouvines,  St.  Louis, 
growth  of  royal  domain,  227  ;  quarre'.  with 
Boniface  VIII. ,254  ;  Courtrai,254  ;  Salie 
law,  255  ;  house  of  Valois,  257  ;  hun- 
dred years'  war,  Cr6cy,  257  ;  black  death, 
Poitiers,  258  ;  peace  of  Bretigny,  258  •, 
Agincourt,  259 ;  Jeanne  Dare,  English 
expelled,  260;  Burgundy  united  with 
crown  of  France,  262 ;  houses  of  Orleans 
and  Angouleme,  317,  318";  Francis  I., 
319;  wars  with  Charles  V.,  302;  house 
of  Lorraine  and  Guise,  320  ;  Brittany 
united  with  crown,  320  ;  capture  of  Ca- 
lais, 321 ;  St.  Bartholomew,  321 ;  wars  of 
the  Huguenots  321,  324  ;  house  of  Bour- 
bon, 324;  Henry  IV.,   edict  of  Nantes, 

324  ;  last  states-general,  325  ;   Richelieu, 

325  ;  era  of  Louis  XIV.,  365  ;  Mazarin, 
Fronde,  366;  France  in  thirty  years' 
war,  314  ;  peace  of  Pyrenees,  366  ;  peace 
of  Nimwegen,  368  ;  reunions,  368  ;  revo- 
cation of  edict  of  Nantes,  369  ;  peac« 
of  Ryswick,  371 ;  golden  age  of  llter» 


Index. 


619 


ture,  371  •,  war  of  Spanish  succpssion, 
390 ;  partition  treaties,  391 ,  peace  of 
Utrecht  393;  Fleurys  administration, 
446  ;  France  in  Austrian  succession,  400  ; 
seven  years'  war,  404,  424  ;  peace  of 
Paris,  441 ;  Louis  XVI.,  446  ;  France  in 
war  of  American  independence,  431 ;  first 
French  revolution,  448  ;  storm  of  Bas- 
tile,  449;  constituent,  449;  legislative, 
451 ;  convention ,  452  ;  first  coalition,  452; 
first  republic,  453;  directory,  457;  second 
coalition,  460  ,  consulate,  457  ;  third  coa- 
lition, 467  ;  first  empire,  465  ;  wars,  468, 
471',  474,  475 ;  congress  of  Vienna,  482 ; 
hundred  days,  483 ;  restoration  of  the 
Bourbons,  Louis  XVIII.,  529  ;  July  rev- 
olution, 529  ;  second  republic,  530  ;  sec- 
ond empire,  531  ;  Crimean  war,  499; 
Franco  -  German,  513 ;  third  republic, 
532;  excesses  of  the  socialistic  com- 
mune, 532 ;  fall  of  MacMahon,  534  ; 
Tonquin,  535. 

Franche-Comt6,  367,  368. 

Francis,  d.  of  Alen^on,  322. 

Francis,  d.  of  Guise,  319,  321. 

Francis  I.,  emp.  of  Austria,  468. 

Francis  I.,  k.  of  France,  reign,  319  ;  11., 
321  338 

Francis  I.,  emp.  of  H.  R.  B.,  402  ;  II.,  452  ; 
abdicated  the  crown  of  the  H,  R.  E.,  468. 
See  Fi-ancis  I.,  emp.  of  Austria. 

Francis  II.,  k.  of  Two  Sicilies,  503. 

Francis  Joseph  I.,  emp.  of  Austria,  495, 
602,  505,  509  ;  k.  of  Hungary,  511. 

Francis,  Philip,  444. 

Francis  Stephen,  d.  of  Lorraine,  398.  See 
Francis  I.,  emp,  of  H.  R.  E. 

Franco-German  war,  513,  532. 

Franconia,  duchy  of,  181,  194,  313. 

Franconian  or  Salian  emperors,  198. 

Frankfort,  imperial  chamber  at,  300  :  grand 
duchy  of,  468,  478  ;  uprising,  490 :  pre- 
liminary parliament,  492  ;  parliament  re- 
opened, 498 ;  incorporated  with  Prussia, 
510  ;  peace  of,  520. 

Frankland,  organization  of,  432. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  420;  minister  to 
France,  430  ;  death,  547. 

Frank-pledge,  232. 

Franks,  Ripuarian  and  Salian,  170,  171 ; 
Chlodwig,  ruler  of,  173  ;  under  the  Mero- 
vingians, 181 ;  under  tke  Carolingians, 
183;  Charles  the  Great,  184;  treaty  of 
Verdun,  187  ;  later  Carolingians,  201  ; 
Northmen  in  France,  209  ;  extinction  of 
Carolingians,  209.     See  France. 

Fratres  arvales,  85. 

Fredegunde,  181, 

Frederic,  burgr.  of  Nuremberg,  251. 

Frederic  I.,  k.  of  Denmark  and  Norway, 
352  ;  IV.,  394,  409 ;  V.,  409  ;  VII.,  505. 

Frederic  I.,  Barbarossa,  emp.  of  H.  R.  E., 
crusade,  215;  reign,  219  ;  expeditions  to 
Italy,  219,  221,  222,  235;  II.,  223,  224; 
cession  to  the  Danes,  235 ;  charter  to 
Schwyz,  245 ;  III.  (of  Austria),  247  ;  IIL 
(IV.),  reign  of,  253. 

Frederic  of  Hohenstaufen,  200. 

Frederic  of  HohenzoUern,  244. 

Frederic  the  Warlike,  d.  of  Austria,  224. 

Frederi*  the  Warlike,  marg.  of  Meissen, 
251. 


Frederic  the  Warlike,  d.  of  Saxony,  252. 

Frederic  V.,  elector  palatine,  elected  to 
throne  of  Bohemia,  309. 

Frederic  I.,  k.  of  Prussia,  372;  XL,  the 
Great,  reign.  400  ;  first  Silesian  war,  400  •, 
second,  402 ;  seven  years'  war,  403  ;  war* 
of  Bavarian  succession,  406 ;  league  of 
princes,  death,  408. 

Frederic  VIII.,  d.  of  Schleswig-Hol8tei% 
505. 

Frederic,  d.  of  Swabia,  218,  219. 

Frederic  of  Hesse-Cassel,  k.  of  Sweden,  396, 
409. 

Frederic  Charles,  pr.  of  Prussia,  505,  506, 
508,  509,  514,  518. 

Frederic  William,  el.  of  Brandenburg  (tho 
great  elector),  accession,  314 ;  peace  of 
Vossem,  367  ;  Fehrbellin,  368  ;  Polish 
affairs,  373 ;  Silesian  duchies,  401. 

Frederic  William  I.,  k.  of  Prussia,  397  ; 
death,  398;  II.,  451;  III.,  459;  con- 
quered by  Napoleon,  469  ;  appeal  to  the 
people,  475,  476 ;  war  of  liberation,  477  ; 
in  London,  482;  IV.,  491 ;  declines  the 
German  crown,  497  ;  death,  503. 

Frederic  William,  crown  pr.  of  Prussia, 
war  with  Austria,  608 ;  with  France, 
514. 

Fredericia,  siege  of,  496. 

Fredericksburg,  battle  of,  557. 

Free  soil  party,  555. 

Freedmen's  bureau,  559. 

Freiburg,  battle  of,  406 ;  treaty  of  (la  paix 
perpetuelle),  319. 

French  revolution,  448.  See,  also,  France, 
and  Table  of  Contents,  p.  vi. 

French  settlements  in  America,  363. 

Frey  Yngve,  k.  of  Sweden,  208. 

Freycinet,  ministry  of,  534,  535. 

Fribourg.     See  Freiburg. 

Fridigern,  k.  of  West  Goths,  171. 

Friedewald,  treaty  of,  305. 

Friedland,  battle  of,  469. 

Friedrichsburg,  peace  of,  396. 

Fiiedrichshall,  siege,  396. 

Friedrichsham,  peace  of,  473. 

Friedrichstadt,  storm  of,  497. 

Frobisher,  Martin,  voyages,  289. 

Frode  the  Peaceful,  k.  of  Denmark,  207. 

Fronde,  old  and  new,  366. 

Frontenac,  gov.  of  Canada,  362,  364. 

Frontieres  naturelles,  513. 

Fuca,  Juan  de  la,  290. 

Fugitive  slave  act  of  1793,  548  ;  revived  in 
1850, 555. 

Fujiwara,  family  of,  212,  213,  243. 

Fulco  of  Anjou,  k.  of  Jerusalem,  214. 

Fulton,  Robert,  486,  550. 

Fulvius,  M.,  126. 

Fulvius  Flaccus,  Q.,  118. 

Furrukabad,  541. 

Fiirstenwalde,  treaty  of,  249. 

Fushimi,  battle  of,  563. 

Fiissen,  separate  peace  of,  402. 

Fust,  Johann,  263. 

Gabelle,  258. 

Gades,  Phoenician  colony,  17 ;  capture  by 

Scipio,  117, 141. 
Gadsden  purchase,  555. 
Gaekwars,  443. 
Gaels,  38, 176. 


620 


Index, 


Gagta.  siege  of,  503. 

Gag  resolutions,  553. 

Gage,  general,  gov,  of  Massachusetts,  425. 

Gaillard,  Chateau,  erection,  226,  232;  fall, 
227. 

Galatia,  35,  37,  78. 

Galba,  Sulpicius,  Roman  •mp.,  151. 

Galerius,  158,  159. 

Galilaea,  7, 11. 

Galileo  Galilei,  327. 

Gallas,  313,  315. 

Gallatin,  Albert,  U.  S.  sec.  of  treas.,  549. 

Gallia  Cisalpina,  81, 144. 

Gallia  Narbonensis,  36;  Roman  province, 
125. 

Gallienus,  156, 157. 

Gallus,  Roman  emp. ,  156. 

Gama,  Vasco  da,  279,  353. 

Gambetta,  in  opposition,  512;  member  of 
national  defense,  517,  518,  519  ;  speaker, 
534  ;  ministry,  5o4  ;  death,  535. 

Garay,  gov.  of  Jamaica,  285. 

Gardiner,  lord  chan.,  336. 

Garfield,  James  A.,  pres.  U.  S.,  560. 

Garibaldi,  invades  Lombardy,  Sicily,  602  ; 
death,  sketch  of  life,  526. 

Garighano,  battle,  318. 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  553. 

Gasca,  Pedro  de,  pres.  of  Peru,  288. 

Gascony  (Gascogne),  182 ;  gained  and  lost 
with  Eleanor,  226,  231 ;  ceded  to  Eng- 
land, 258  ;  lost  by  England,  260. 

Gaspee,  destroyed,  425. 

Gaspereaux,  421. 

Gast,  Pierre  du,  290. 

Gastein,  treaty  of,  506. 

Gates,  general,  succeeds  Schuyler;  Bur- 
goyne  surrenders  to,  429  ;  defeated  by 
Oomwallis,  430. 

Gaugamela,  battle  of,  29,  74. 

Gauls,  geography,  religion,  34  ;  civiliza- 
tion, chronology,  emigrations,  35 ;  con- 
quest of  Gaul  by  Caesar,  ending  51  b.  c, 
36,  138  ;  in  Asia  Minor,  78  ;  invade  La- 
tium,  100  ;  wars  with  Rome,  103  ;  Cisal- 
pine Gaul  subjugated,  118  ;  Cispadane 
and  Transpadane  Gauls  Latinized,  118. 

Gaurus,  battle  of,  104. 

Gauta,  237. 

Gaveston,  Piers,  267. 

Geert,  c.  of  Holstein,  236. 

Gelimer,  174. 

Gellius  Egnatius,  106. 

Gelon,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  20. 

Genealogies. 
Angouleme,  318. 
Anjou,  261. 

Augustus,  family  of,  148. 
Bonaparte  family,  466. 
Bourbon,  Louis  IX.,  to  Henry  III.,  323  ; 

Henry  IV.  to  "  Henry  V.,"  628. 
Brittany,  descent  of,  320. 
Brunswick,  436. 
Buckingham,  275. 
Burgundy,  261,329. 
Cleves-Jiilich,  307. 
County  Palatine,  369. 
Denmark,  239. 

England,  sovereigns  from  Ecgbehrt  to 
Henry  III.,  228  ;  succession  in  1553- 
1603,  337  ;    descendants  of  Geo.  HI., 


Flanders,  counts  of,  228. 

France,  succession  in  1328,  256. 

France,  succession  from  Louis  VIII.  tO 

Charles  Vlll.,  261. 
Guise,  320 

Hanover  or  Brunswick,  436. 
Hapsburg,  301. 

Hapsburg,  German  branch,  309. 
Hohenstaufen,  220. 
HohenzoUern,  since   the  assumption  of 

the  royal  title,  515. 
Lancaster  and  York,  273. 
Lorraine,  320. 
..Naples,  kings  of,  261. 
Normandy,  dukes  of,  228. 
Norway ,  sovereigns  of,  239. 
Orleans,  318. 
Portugal,  illegitimate  house  of  Burgun- 

dy,  332. 
Russia,  descendants  of  Alexis,  410. 
Scottish  succession,  265. 
Spanish  succession,  390. 
Sweden,  sovereigns  of,  239. 
Valois,  257. 
Welfs,  220. 

General  fundamentals,  297. 

General  warrants,  440. 

Geneva  annexed  to  France,  460  ;  restored 
to  Switzerland,  483  ;  treaty  of,  319. 

Gengis  Khan.     See  Jenghiz  Khan. 

Genji.     See  Minamoto. 

Genoa,  war  with  Venice,  262 ;  government, 
263,  326  ;  republic  of,  415  ;  transformed 
into  Ligurian  republic,  459 ;  given  to 
Sardinia,  483. 

Genseric  conquered  Carthage,  172. 

Geoffrey  of  Anjou,  230 ;  of  Monmouth, 
235. 

George  I.  k.  of  England,  436;  death  of, 
437:  II.,  403,  437  ;  HI.,  439;  insanity, 
537  ;  death,  538 ;  IV.,  538,  539. 

George,  k.  of  Greece,  505. 

George  Podiebrad,  k.  of  Bohemia,  253. 

George  William,  el.  of   Brandenburg,  311. 

Georgia,  in  America,  settlement  of,  418, 
420 ;  Spanish  attack  upon,  419  ;  pro- 
vincial gov.  restored,  430  ;  Sherman's 
march  through,  558. 

Georgia,  in  Europe.     See  Iberia. 

Gepidae,  175. 

Gerbert,  archb.  of  Rheims,  202.  See  Syl- 
vester II. 

Gergovia,  siege  of,  139. 

Germania  magna,  163,  167. 

Germanicus,  expeditions,  149,  167. 

Germantown,  battle  of,  429. 

Germany,  geography,  162  ;  high  and  low 
Germans,  163  ;  ancient  religion,  164  ;  civ- 
ilization, 166 ;  early  history,  167  ;  futile 
attempt  of  Rome  to  subdue,  148  ;  habita- 
tions of  the  tribes  in  4th  cent.,  a.  d.  170 ; 
migrations  and  settlements,  170-175; 
Prankish  empire  under  Merowingians, 
181 ;  under  Carolingians,  183 ;  Charles  the 
Great,  184 ;  renewal  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, 185 ;  treaty  of  Verdun,  separation 
of  French  and  German  nationalities,  187 ; 
Carolingians  in  Germany,  193 ;  Saxou 
house,  194;  Hohj  Roman  empire,  196; 
Frankish,  or  Swabian  emperors,  198  ;  in- 
vestiture strife,  199 ;  concordat  of  VV^orma 
201 ;  house  of  Hohenstaufen,  219 ;  Bar 


Index. 


621 


bardssa,  219  ;  Welf  and  Waiblingen  (Ho- 
lieastaufen),  223  :  interregnum ,  226  ;  Ru- 
dolf o£»  Hapsburg,  244  ;  Ludwig  and 
Frederic,  247  ;  Luxemburg  emperors, 
golden  bull,  248  ;  city  leagues,  249 ; 
council  of  Constance,  251  ;  house  of 
Hapsburg,  253  :  Max,  300 ;  reformation, 
301;  Charles  V.,  302;  peace  of  Augs- 
burg, 306 ;  anti-reformation,  306  ;  thirty 
years'  war,  308 ;  peace  of  Westphalia, 
S15  ;  Leopold  I.,  371;  war  of  the  Span- 
ish succession,  S)0 ;  pragmatic  sanction, 
398 ;  Polish  succession,  398  ;  male  line  of 
Hapsburg  extinct,  400 ;  war  of  Austrian 
succession,  Maria  Theresa,  and  Frederic 
the  Great  of  Prussia,  400  ;  seven  years' 
war,  403  ;  Joseph  II.,  407 ;  war  with  first 
French  republic,  453;  peace  of  Lune- 
Tille,  462;  enactment  of  imperial  dele- 
gates, 464;  end  of  the  Holy  Roman  em- 
pire, 468.  Confederation  of  the  Rhine, 
468 ;  war  of  liberation,  475 ;  congress 
of  Vienna.  482  ;  establishment  of  the 
German  confederation,  483  ;  reactionary 
measures  in  Germany,  487, 490  ;  founda- 
tion of  the  ZoUverein,  491  ;  Gottingen 
professors  expelled,  491 ;  revolutionary 
movements,  492  ;  national  assembly,  493  ; 
constitution  completed,  497  ;  conference 
at  Olmiitz,  498  ;  confederation  renewed, 
498  ;  German  (Austro-Prussian)  war,  5<'7  ; 
North  German  confederation,  510,  511  ; 
Franco-German  war,  513 ;  capture  of 
Paris,  519  ;  German  empire  founded,  519, 
520 ;  Kulturkampf ,  521,  525 ;  congress 
of  Berlin,  524 ;  tobacco  monopoly  de- 
feated, 526. 

Gero,  n»rgr.,  194,  195. 

Gerontes,  50. 

Gerson,  251. 

Gertruydenburg,  393. 

Gessler,  246 

Geta, 155. 

Gettysburg,  battle  of,  558. 

Ghazni,  supremacy  of  the  sultans  of,  211. 

Ghent,  pacification  of,  331  ;  peace  of,  474, 
537,  551. 

Ghibellines,  219. 

Gibraltar,  whence  named,  183  n.  :  taken  by 
English,  392, 434  ;  ceded  to  England,  437  ; 
defended  by  Elliott,  440. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey,  289. 

Gilbert,  Raleigh,  293. 

Ginkell,  387. 

Girondists,  party,  451 ;  execution  of,  455. 

Giselbert,  195. 

Glabrio,  M.  Acilius,  119, 135. 

Gladiators,  war  of  the,  133. 

Gladstone,  W.  E.,  542;  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  543,  544  ;  1st  administration, 
545  ;  2d  administration,  546. 

Glasgow,  general  assemblj'^  at,  344. 

Glaucia,  C.  Servilius,  praetor,  128. 

Glencoe,  massacre  of,  387. 

Glendower,  Owen,  revolt  of,  270. 

Gloucester,  d.  of,  protector,  271. 

Gloucester,  d.  of,  274 ;  becomes  king  Rich- 
ard IIL,  275. 

Bneisenau,  defeats  Kolberg,  469  ;  reforms 
the  army,  471 ;  at  Waterloo,  484. 

<5nesen,  archbishopric,  197- 

Goa,  353. 


Goben,  gen.  von,  519. 

Go-Daigo,  243. 

Goderich,  lord,  premier,  539. 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  213,  214. 

Godfrey,  k.  of  Denmark,  2u7. 

Godfrey  the   Bearded,  d.  of  Lotharingia, 

199. 
Godfrey,  Sir  Edmondbury,  381. 
Godolphin,  e.  of,  in  council,  382 ;   cham* 

berlain,  383;  lord  high  treaa.,433;  dis- 
missed, 435. 
Godoy, 470. 

Godvvine,  e.  of  Wessex,  206. 
Goffe,  359,  360. 
Goidelic  Celts,  37. 

Golconda  kingdom,  353;   annexed  to  Mu- 
ghal empire,  389  :  Niaam  of,  443. 
Golden  bull,  of  H.  R.  E.,  248  ;  of  Hungary, 

2(  I , 
Golden  rule  enunciated  bv  Confucius,  31. 
Gollheim,  battle  of,  245,  246, 
Gomez,  Estevan,  voyage  of,  286. 
"  Good  "  parliament,  269. 
Gordianus  1.,  II.,  III.,  Roman  emp.,  165; 

Persian  exp.,  188. 
Gordias,  kings  of  Phrygia,  22. 
Gordon  assists  Peter  the  Great,  374. 
Gordon,  col.  ("  Chinese  "),  suppresses  Tai- 

ping  rebellion,  562. 
Gordon,  lord  George,  440. 
Gorges,  sir  Fernando,  295-297. 
Gorgey,  495. 

Gorkhas,  conquest  by  Chinese,  444. 
Gorm  the  Old,  k.  of  Denmark,  207. 
Gortschakoff ,  in  Sebastopol,  500 ;   retires, 

526. 
GoK!.  baron  von,  396,  406. 
Gosnold,  Bartholomew,  290,  291. 
Goths,  164 ;  location,  170 ;  defeated  by  De- 

cius,  156  ;   Goths  in  Sweden,  208.     See 

Gauta,  East  Goths,  West  GothB. 
Gourges,  Dominique  de,  289. 
Graagaas,  209. 
Gracchus,  Caius,  attempts  revolutionary 

reforms,  124  ;  tribune,  125  :  death,  126. 
Gracchus,  Tiberius,  victory  over  the  Celti- 

berians,  118. 
Gracchus,  Tiberius  Sempronius,  attempts 

revolutionary  reforms,  124. 
Grafton,   d.  of,  424:  administration,  424, 

440. 
Granada,  kingdom  of,  275 ;   conquest  of, 

276. 
Grand  alliance  between  England,  Holland, 

and  others,  370,  391. 
Grand  remonstrance  presented  to  Charles 

L,  346. 
Granicus,  battle  of  the,  74. 
Granson,  battle  of,  262. 
Grant,   U.    S.,   takes   Fort  Donelson,  557; 

Vicksburg,    558;    lieut.-gen.,  558;    Lea 

capitulates  to,  559;  president  of   U.  S., 

560. 
Granvella.b.,  330. 
Grasse,  de,  441. 
Gratianus,  Roman  emp.,  160. 
Gravamina  ecclesiastica,  317. 
Gravelines,  battle  of,  321. 
Gravelotte,  battle  of,  516. 
Great  Britain.     See  England. 
Great  contract,  341. 
Great  protestation,  342. 


622 


Index. 


Great  rebellion,  in  England,  347;  in  the 
United  States,  657. 

Great  wall  of  China,  32. 

Great  war  of  liberation,  475. 

Greece,  geography,  39;  religion,  41;  my- 
thological history,  43;  Thessalian  and 
Dorean  migrations,  47;  early  constitu- 
tions,  50,  52 ;  Persian  wars,  28,  56-60 ; 
hegemony  of  Sparta,  56 ;  hegemony  of 
Athens,  61 ;  age  of  Pericles,  64  ;  Pelopon- 
nesian  war,  64-69  ;  hegemony  of  Sparta, 
69;  hegemony  of  Thebes,  70;  rise  of 
Macedonia,  71;  Macedonian  supremacy, 
73 ;  empire  of  Alexander,  73-76 ;  strug- 
gles of  the  Diadochi,  76 ;  formation  of 
separate  kingdoms,  77  ;  Lamian  war,  79  ; 
Achaean  and  iEtolian  leagues,  79 ;  de- 
clared independent,  119 ;  Macedonia, 
Roman  province,  122;  Achaia,  Roman 
province,  147  ;  Morea,  conquered  by  Ven- 
ice, 372  ;  by  Turks,  397,  416 ;  war  of  in- 
dependence, 488 ;  revolution,  605. 

Greek  colonies,  19,  20. 

Greene,  gen.,  431. 

Greenland,  discovery  of,  209,  280. 

Gregorian  calendar  introduced,  327 ; 
adopted  by  England,  420,  438. 

Gregory  I.,  pope,  175;  VI.,  199 ;  VII.  (Hil- 
debrand),  199,  200 ;  IX.,  224 ;  XII.,  251 ; 
abdicated,  252  ;  XIII.,  reformed  the  cal- 
endar, 327  ;  XVI.,  492. 

Grenville,  George,  prime  minister,  423; 
leader  of  Commons,  439. 

Grenville,  lord,  prime  minister,  637. 

Grenville,  sir  Richard,  289. 

Gr«5vy,  Jules,  pres.  of  the  French  republic, 
534. 

Grey,e.,  prime  minister,  539  ;  resigned,  640. 

Grey,  lady  Jane,  336. 

Grijalva,  Juan  de,  285. 

Grimoald,  175. 

Grochow,  battle  of,  490. 

Grodno,  diet  of,  413. 

Grosbeeren,  battle  of,  477. 

Gross-Gorschen,  battle  of,  476. 

Grossjagemdorf ,  battle  of,  404. 

Grumbach,  execution  of,  306. 

Guadaloupe,  Hidalgo,  treaty  of,  564. 

Guanahaui,  its  identification,  282. 

Guastalla,  house  of,  311,416. 

Guatimozin,  k.  of  Mexico,  285. 

Gut^briant,  French  marshal,  814. 

Guelfs.     See  Welfs. 

Guesclin,  Bertrand  du,  269,  276. 

Gueux,  330. 

Guilford,  battle  of,  431. 

Guinegate,  "  battle  of  the  spurs,"  319, 334. 

Guinea  captured  from  the  English,  321. 

Guise,  house  of,  319, 321. 

Guizot,  527 ;  ministry  of,  497,  629 ;  with 
Soult,  530 

Gunpowder  first  used,  279, 

Gunpowder  plot,  840. 

Gunther  of  Schwarzburg,  248. 

Guntiam,  181. 

Guptas  in  India,  24,  210. 

Gurko,  522,  523. 

Gustavus  I.,  Vasa,  k.  of  Sweden,  352 ;  II., 
Adolphus,  reign  in  Sweden,  352  ;  in  the 
thirty  yeai^'  war,  311 ;  death  of,  312 ; 
HI.,  409  ;  IV.,  abdication  of,  472. 

Gutenberg,  John,  early  printer,  253, 


Guthorm,  204. 

Guy  of  Lusignan,  k.  of  Jernsalaro,  214 
215,  216. 

Guyenne,  transferred  from  France  to  Eng- 
land, 226,  231;  ceded  to  ikigland,  258; 
lost,  260.     See  Aquitania. 

Guzerat,  expedition  of  Mahmud  to,  211; 
conquest  of,  241 :  Afghan  kings,  353. 

Gyges,  k.  of  Lydia,  6,  21. 

Gylippus,  67. 

Gyulay,502. 

Habeas  corpus  act,  381 ;  suspended,  388L 
535,  536,  538  ;  in  Ireland,  544. 

Hadrian,  Roman  emp.,  revolt  of  Jews  un- 
der, 12, 37  ;  reign,  153  ;  in  Britain,  176l 

Hafurstfjord,  battle  of,  208. 

Hagelberg,  battle  of,  477. 

Hague,  convention  of  the,  396. 

Haidar  Ali  of  Mysore,  442,  444. 

Haidarabiid,  nizam  of,  443. 

Hakem  II.,  209. 

Hakodate,  battle  of,  563 

Hakon,  k.  of  Norway,  208;  IV.,  238;  V, 
238  ;  VII.,  237,  238  ;  VIII..  238. 

Hakon  Jarl,  k.  of  Norway,  208. 

Hale,  Nathan,  428, 

Hales,  sir  Edward,  3«3. 

Halfdan  the  Black,  k.  of  Norway,  208. 

llaliartus,  battle  of,  70 

Halifax,  member  of  council,  381 ;  in  oppo- 
sition, 382 ;  pres.  of  council,  383 ;  pres. 
of  provisional  council,  385  ;  resigns,  387  ; 
impeached,  388;  not  in  council,  433; 
whig  leader,  435  ;  first  lord  of  treas.  436t 

Halifax,  e.  of,  sec,  of  state,  439. 

Halland,  236,  238. 

Halys,  21, 134. 

Hamburg,  free  city,  222;  conquered  by 
Knut  VI.,  235  ;  alliance  with  Lubeek, 
249  ;  Davout  in,  476  ;  siege  of,  479 ;  peace 
of,  405. 

Hamilcar,  20. 

Hamilcar  Barak  or  Barcas,  111,  113. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  547,  549. 

Hampden,  John,  refuses  to  pay  ship  money, 
344 ;  impeached,  346  ;  death,  347. 

Hampden  clubs,  538. 

Hampton  court  conference,  340. 

Han,  dynasty  in  China,  32 ;  later  Han,  211. 

Haiiau,  battle  at,  478. 

Hancock,  John,  424. 

Hanging  gardens  in  Babylon,  12. 

Hannibal,  destroys  Saguntum,  113  ;  crosses 
the  Alps,  113  ;  arouses  the  Gauls,  35, 114 ; 
Cannae,  115  ;  before  the  gates  of  Rome, 
110  ;  leaves  Italy,  117  ;  defeated  at  Zama, 
118  ;  received  by  Antiochus,  119  ;  death, 
120. 

Hanover,    ninth    electorate,   372  ;   treaty 
with  Sweden,  396  ;  allied  with   Prussia, 
404  ;  treaty  with  England,  437  ;  receives 
Osnabriick,  465  ;    Prussia     receives    H 
467  ;  Napoleon  wishes  to  takeaway,  468 
occupied  by  French,  469  ;  becomes  king 
dom  under  Geo.   III.  of   England,  538 
separation  from  Great  Britain,  491,  542, 
invaded  by  Prussians,  508 ;  incorporated 
with  Prussia,  510. 

Hanseatic  cities  annexed  to  France,  473. 

Hanseatic  league,  237,  249. 

Uap&burg  counts  in  Switzerland,  245. 


Index. 


623 


Hapsburg,  house  of,  253;  male  line  ex- 
tinct, 400 ;  deposition,  495. 

Hardeknut.     See  llarthacnut. 

Hardenberg,  457,  482. 

Hardinge,  sir  Henry,  gov.  gen.  in  India, 
646. 

Harley,  Robert,  speaker,  388,  433;  dis- 
missed from  cabinet,  434  ;  attempted  as- 
sassination, 435  ;  created  earl  of  Oxford 
and  Mortimer,  435. 

Harmodius,  54. 

Harold  Hildetand,  k.  of  Denmark,  207 ; 
Blue-tooth,  k.  of  Denmark,  207;  Heyn, 
k.  of  Denmark,  208. 

Harold  I.,  Harefoot  (son  of  Cnut),  k.  of 
England,  206;  II.  (son  of  Godwine), 
206. 

Harold  Haarfager,  k.  of  Norway,  208; 
Hardrada,  k.  of  Norway,  invaded  Eng- 
land, 206  •,  war  with  Denmark,  207; 
founds  Opsla,  209  ;  Gille,  k.  of  Norway, 
238. 

Haroun-al-Rashid,  186,  210. 

Harpagus,  26. 

Harrison,  VV^m.  H.,  pres.  of  U.  S.,  554. 

Hartford  convention,  551. 

Harihacnut,  k.  of  England,  206 ;  k.  of  Den- 
mark (Hardeknut),  207. 

Hartington,  marquis  of,  sec.  for  India,  546. 

Harvard  College,  297. 

Hasdrubal,  in  Spain,  113;  defeated,  115; 
death,  117. 

Hasdrubal,  son  of  Gisgo,  117. 

Hastenbeck,  battle  of,  404. 

Hastings,  battle  of,  206. 

Hastings,  Warren,  sketch  of  life  of,  gov.- 
gen.  of  India,  444. 

Hatto,  archb.  of  Mainz,  194. 

Havana,  surrendered  to  English,  422;  re- 
stored to  Spain,  423. 

Hawaii,  442. 

Hayes,  R.  B.,  pres.  of  the  United  States, 
560. 

Haynau,  495,  496,  498. 

Hayne,  colonel,  553. 

Heathfield,  battle  of,  179. 

Hebert,  451,  454,  455. 

Hebrides,  conquest  of,  209. 

Hector,  47. 

Hegemony  of  Argos,  48  ;  of  Sparta,  56,  69  ; 
of  Athens,  61 ;  of  Thebes,  70  ;  of  Mace- 
donia, 73. 

Hegira,  182. 

Ilei.     See  Heike. 

Ileidelberger  Stallung,  250. 

Heike.     See  Taira. 

Heilbronn,  league  of,  313. 

Heinrich  Raspe,  225. 

Heinsius,  A.,  391. 

Helena,  47. 

Heliasts,  53. 

Heliogabalus.     See  Elagabalos. 

Heliopolis,  battle  of,  4^. 

Helle,  46. 

Hellen,  43. 

Helluland,  281. 

Helots,  50;  revolt,  62. 

Helsingborg,  battle  of,  249. 

Helvetian  republic,  460. 

Helvetius,  448. 

Helvoetaluys,  -384. 

Hemming,  k  of  Denmark,  207. 


Hengestesdun,  battle  of,  181,  203. 

Hengist,  177. 

Hennepin,  discovers  Mississippi,  364. 

Henry,  d.  of  Anjou.  See  Henry  III.,  k. 
of  France. 

Henry  the  Bastard,  k.  of  Castile,  276. 

Henry  the  Quarrelsome,  d.  of  Bavaria,  196, 
197  ;  the  Proud,  d.  of  Bavaria,  218,  219 ; 
Jasomirgott,  d.  of  Bavaria,  219. 

Henry  I.,  k.  of  England,  reign,  230;  IT., 
Benuclerc,  acquired  Poitou,  Guyenne, 
and  Gascony  by  marriage,  226;  rei^n, 
231 ;  conquest  of  Ireland,  Becket,  232  ; 
III.  of  England,  reign,  234;  IV.  (d.  of 
Lancaster),  reign,  270 ;  V.,  war  with 
France,  259  ;  reign,  271 ;  VI.  in  France, 
259;  reign,  271;  captured,  277;  put  to 
death,  274  ;  VII.  (e.  of  Richmond),  275  ; 
reign,  333  ;  VIII.,  alliance  with  Charles 
v.,  305 ;  reign,  334 ;  head  of  church,  335. 

Henry  I.,k.  of  France, 203  ;  II.,  treaty  with 
Charles  V.,  305;  reign,  319  ;  acquisition 
of  Brittany,  320 ;  of  Calais,  Metz,  Toul, 
and  Verdun,  321 ;  III.,  reign,  322  ;  k.  of 
Poland,  352;  IV.  (Navarre),  part  in  the 
wars  of  religion,  322  ;  reign,  324  ;  ''  V.," 
533. 

Henry  I.,  k.  of  Germany,  194, 195  ;  II.  (the 
Saint),  emp.  H.  R.  E.,  197,  198;  III. 
(the  Black),  199  ;  IV.,  199,  200  ;  Y.,  201 ; 
VI.,  222,  223;  VII,,  245. 

Henry  of  Champagne,  k.  of  Jerusalem,  216. 

Henry  of  Guise,  321. 

Henry  of  Navarre.  See  Henry  IV.,  k.  of 
France. 

Henry  of  Plauen,  277. 

Henry,  k.  of  Portugal,  240,  332. 

Henry,  pr.  of  Prussia,  406,  407. 

Henry,  e.  of  Richmond.  See  Henry  VII. 
of  England. 

Henry  the  Lion,  d.  of  Saxony,  219;  fiefs 
forfeited,  222  :  war  with  Henry  VI.,  223. 

Henry  the  Navigator,  276,  279. 

Henry,  pr.  of  Wales,  death  of,  341. 

Henry,  Patrick,  424,  426. 

Henrys,  war  of  the  three,  322. 

Heraclea,  battle  of,  108. 

Heracles,  45. 

Heraclidae,  Lydian  dynasty,  21 ;  Dorian 
dynasty,  45  ;  conquest  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, 48  ;  kings  of  Sparta,  50. 

Heraclius,  Grecian  emp.,  191. 

Herbert,  adm.,  384. 

Herbert  of  Vermandois,  202. 

Herbois,  Collot  d',  453,  454,  466. 

Herculaneum,  83,  152. 

Hercules.     See  Heracles. 

Herdonius,  97. 

Here  ward,  229. 

Hermandad,  328. 

Hermann  of  Balk,  218 ;  of  Salm,  200 ;  of 
Salza,  218  ;  Billung,  marg.  of  Schleswig, 
195. 

Hermann,  d.  of  Swabia,  197. 

Hermanrich.     See  Ermanarich,  170. 

Hermanstadt,  battle  of,  495. 

Herminones,  1G3,  1G4. 

Hermunduri,  104,  1G7,  168. 

Hermus,  battle  on  the,  20. 

Hernici  join  Latin  league,  97 ;  war  with 
Rome,  103  ;  Hernician  league  dissolved, 
106. 


624 


Index. 


Herod  (the  Great),  k.  of  Judea,  11. 

Herod  Agrippa,  I.,  k.  of  Judea,  11. 

Herrenhauseu,  alliance  of,  398. 

Herzegovina,  revolt,  521  ;  given  to  Aus- 
tria, 524 ;  disturbance  in,  525 ;  sup- 
pressed, 526. 

Hesse,  origin,  225,  492. 

Hesse-Cassel,  in  peace  of  Westphalia,  316 ; 
becomes  an  electorate,  464  ;  not  in  con- 
federacy of  the  Rhine,  468  ;  revolution 
in,  492  ;  invaded  by  Prussians,  504  ;  in- 
corporated with  Prussia,  510. 

Hesse-Darmstadt,  joins  confederacy  of  the 
Rhine,  468;  joins  allies,  479. 

Hia,  dynasty  of,  in  China,  31. 

Hideyoshi,  government  of,  366, 356. 

Hiempsal,  126. 

Hienfung,  561. 

Hiero,  k.  of  Syracuse,  110, 115. 

Hieroglyphics,  3. 

High  Commission,  346. 

Hildebrand.     Set  Gregory  VII. 

Himera,  battle  of,  20. 

Hincmar  of  Rheims,  201. 

Hindus.     See  India. 

Hipparchus,  54. 

Hippias,  54, 57. 

Hippo,  17,  19. 

Hiram,  k.  of  Tyre,  18. 

Hirhor,  k.  of  Egypt,  6. 

Hirtius,  144. 

Hispania,  citerior,  118 ;  ulterior,  118, 141. 

Histiseus  of  Miletus,  28. 

Hobkirk's  mil,  battle  of,  431. 

Hoche,  455,  457  ;  expedition  to  Ireland, 
536. 

Hochelaga.     See  St.  Lavyrence. 

Hochkirch,  battle  of,  405. 

Hochst,  battle  of,  310. 

Hochstadt,  battle  of.     See  Blenheim. 

Hofer,  Andreas,  471,  472. 

Hohenfriedberg,  battle  of,  402. 

Hohenlinden,  battle  of,  462. 

Hohenstaufen,  house  of.  See  Frederic  of 
H.,  219,  220. 

Hohenzollern.  See  Frederic,  burggrave  of 
Nuremberg,  244 ;  acquires  Brandenburg  ; 
in  Prussia,  302  ;  in  thirty  years"  war,  311, 
312  ;  in  peace  of  Westphalia,  316 ;  kings 
of  Prussia,  372  ;  in  the  north  and  east,  un- 
der the  great  elector,  368,  373,  374  ;  gene- 
alogy, 515 ;  emperors  of  Germany,  519. 

Hohenzollern,  pr.  of..  512,  513. 

Hojeda,  Alonzo  de,  283,  284. 

Hojo,  family  of,  243. 

Holbach,448. 

Holkar,  443,  541. 

Holland,  kingdom  of,  under  Louis  Bona- 
parte, 468  ;  merged  in  kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands,  483  ;  separated  from  Bel- 
gium, 439.    5fi?e,also,  Netherlands. 

Holland,  lord,  439,  441. 

Holies,  impeachment  of,  346,  351. 

Holstein,  given  to  Adolf  of  Schaumberg, 
218  ;  Adolf  capt.  by  Knut  VI.  of  Den- 
mark, cedes  H.  to  Waldemar,  II.,  k.  of 
Denmark,  235  ;  ceded  to  Adolf  the  young, 
235  ;  peace  of  Travendal,  394 ;  united 
with  Denmark,  409  ;  war  with  Denmark, 
496  ;  occupied  by  the  German  confedera- 
tion, 505  ;  united  with  Prussia,  510. 

flolBtein-Gobtorp,  d.  of,  394,  397. 


Holstein-Gottorp,  house  of  in  Sweden,  409' 
in  Russia,  411. 

Holy  alliance,  485  ;  Monroe's  attitude  con- 
cerning, 552. 

Holy  league  against  France,  300,  318,  326, 
334. 

Holy  league  in  France,  322. 

Holy  Roman  Empire,  revival  of  Roman  em- 
pire under  Otto,  196  •,  end  of,  462,  46a 
See  Germany. 

Holy  wars,  I.,  52  ;  II.,  71 ;  III.,  7^ 

Homer,  49. 

Homildon  Hill,  battle  of,  270. 

Hone,  acquittal  of,  538. 

Honorius,  Roman  emp.,  38, 16L 

Uonorius  III.,  pope,  224. 

Hooker,  gen.,  557,  558. 

Hoorn,  c.  von,  executed,  330. 

Hophra,  k.  of  Egypt,  6. 

Hopital,  de  1',  321. 

Horatii,  89. 

Horatius,  laws  of,  98. 

Horatius,  Flaccus,  Q.,  83, 147. 

Horatius,  Marcus,  93. 

Horatius  Codes,  95. 

Hormisdas  I.,  emp.  of  Persia,  188 ,  11.,  188 
IV.,  191.  .        .       .       , 

Hormuz,  battle  of,  187. 

Hormuzan,  192. 

Horn,  Gustavus,  312, 

Horsa,  177. 

Hortensius,  dictator,  107. 

Hospitalers.     See  Knights  of  St.  John. 

Hotel  de  Ville  destroyed,  533, 

Hotham,  adm.,  484. 

Hotspur.     See  Percy. 

Howe,  lord,  occupies  Philadelphia,  429. 

Howick,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  537^ 
sec.  of  war,  640.     See  earl  Grey. 

Hubert  de  Burgh,  231. 

Hubertsburg,  peace  of,  406. 

Hudson  Bay  Company,  incorporation  ot, 
358. 

Hudson's  Bay,  discovery  of,  299,  363. 

Hudson,  Henry,  voyage  of,  298. 

Hudson  river,  294,  298. 

Hugh  the  White,  d.  of  France,  202. 

Hugh  Capet,  k.  of  France,  202. 

Huguenot  colony  in  America,  288. 

Huguenots,  wars  of  the,  321. 

Humbert  I.,  k.  of  Italy,  524. 

Humboldt,  W.  von,  477,  482,  487. 

Hundred  days  in  France,  526. 

Hundred  years'  war,  257. 

Hungary,  occupied  by  Magyars,  193,  277  ; 
Hungarians  ravage  Germany,  194  ;  de- 
feated by  Henry,  195;  and  Otto  (Lech- 
feld),  196  ;  lose  Styria  to  Bohemia,  244 : 
emp.  Albert,  II.,  k.  of,  253;  history  to 
1490,  277;  golden  bull,  277;  H.  united 
with  Bohemia  and  secured  to  emp.  Max., 
278  ;  war  with  Turks  (Mohacs),  disputed 
election,  303  ;  Ferdinand  I.,  elected  k., 
306 ;  succession  secured  to  Hapsburg, 
372  ;  Maria  Tlieresa,  q.  of  II.,  400  ;  Mo- 
riamur,  etc.,  disputed,  401,  n. ;  revolt 
under  Kossuth,  494  ;  constitution  abol- 
ished,  496;  Feb.  constitution,  504;  con- 
stitution of  H.  restored,  Austrian  emp., 
k.  of  H.  511. 

Hung  Sui-tsuen,  leader  of  the  Tai-ping  r& 
belliou,  561 ;  suicide,  562. 


Index. 


625 


Huns  cross  the  Volga,  170 ;  under  Attila, 

173. 
Hunyadi,  John,  k.  of  Hungary,  278. 
Ilurons,  364. 
Husain  All,  442. 
Huskisson,  539. 
lluss,  Jobn,  252. 
Hussite  war,  262. 

Hutchinson,  gov.  of  Mass,  424,  425. 
Hutten,  Ulrich  von,  302. 
Hwang-ho,  in  China,  30  ;  first  settlements 

of  Chinese  made  along,  31. 
Hydaspes,  battle  of,  75. 
Hyde,  Anne,  383. 

Hyde,  sir  Edward.    See  Clarendon,  earl  of. 
Hyder  Ali.     See  Haidar  All. 
Hyksos,  4. 
Hyphasis,  75. 
Hyrcanus,  136. 

lapygians,  85. 

Iberia,  34,  188. 

Iberville,  362. 

Ibrahim  Pasha,  488,  491. 

Iceland,  settled  by  Northmen,  280  ;  con- 
quered by  Hakon  V.,  of  Norway,  238. 

Iconium,  sultanate  of,  210. 

Iconoclasts,  210. 

Ida,  "  the  flame  bearer,"  178. 

Idistaviso,  battle  of,  149. 

Idstedt,  battle  of,  497. 

Ilerda,  141. 

Illinois,  364  ;  admitted  to  the  Union,  552. 

lUiturgi,  battle  of,  115. 

Illyrian  provinces,  472. 

Illyrians,  war  with  Rome,  112  ;  conquered, 
121. 

Imperial  chamber,  300. 

Impositions,  340. 

Imprisonment  for  debt  abolished  in  Eng- 
land, 545. 

Inaros,  28. 

Independents,  349,  350. 

India,  visited  by  Tyrians,  18  ;  geography, 
early  religion,  22  ;  arrival  of  Hindus  in 
the  Punjab,  22;  settlement  and  con- 
quest, 23  ,  castes,  ib. ;  rise  of  Brahmism, 
ib.  ;  of  Buddhism,  ib. ;  invasion  of  Alex- 
ander, 23,  75 ;  Bactrian  rulers,  24 ;  Scyth- 
ians, Guptas,  ib.;  early  history,  210 ;  sul- 
tans of  Uhazni,  of  Ghor,  211 ;  sultans  of 
Delhi,  Timur  Shah,  241  ;  western  route 
to  India,  282 ;  Mughal  empire,  353  ; 
Portuguese,  Dutch,  English  in  I.,  East 
India  companies,  354  ;  Aurangzeb,  389  ; 
decline  of  Mughal  empire,  442 ;  Mah- 
ratta  power,  443  ;  British  in  India, 
Black,  Hole,  443  ;  Clive,  Hastings,  444  , 
East  India  Company  subordinated  to 
government,  442  ;  Comwallis  and  Wel- 
lington ;  Mahratta  wars,  541  ;  queen  of 
England  proclaimed  sovereign  of  India, 
544  ;  Afghan  wars,  546,  547  ;  Sepoy  re- 
bellion, 546  ;  government  transferred  to 
crown,  544  ;  famine,  547. 

India  bill,  535. 

Indians  of  America  ;  rapid  disappearance 
from  West  Indies,  284  ;  John  Smith  cap- 
tured by,  291  ;  intercourse  with  Plym- 
outh colony,  295 ;  Pequot  war,  297  ; 
Champlain  among,  299 ;  John  Eliot 
among,  357  ;  Hurons  massacre^i  by  Iro-  j 


quois,  357;  King  Philip's  war,  359; 
Penn's  treaty,  360  ,  King  William's  war, 
361 ,  Queen  Anne's  war,  Deertield  de- 
stroyed, 363  ;  Freucn  among  the  Hurons, 
wars  with  Iroquois,  364  ;  war  in  Caro- 
lina, and  New  England,  417  ;  old  French 
and  Indian  war, 420  ;  conspiracy  of  lon- 
tiac,  423  ;  Wyoming  massacre,  4.30;  In- 
dian war,  547;  Seminole  war,  552,  553. 

Indo-European  family.  Introduction,  x., 
85,  86. 

Ine,  king  of  Wessex,  180. 

Inge  Baardsen,  k.  of  Norway,  238. 

Ingebord,  226,  235,  238. 

Ingjald  lU-raada,  k.  of  Sweden,  208. 

Ingaevones,  163. 

Inkermaun,  battle  of,  500. 

Innocent  III.,  pope,  originates  the.  4th 
crusade,  216  ;  obtains  Mathilda's  estates 
from  Otho  IV.,  223;  contest  with  John 
of  En-land,  233  ,  IV.,  225. 

Inquisition,  establishment  of,  by  Gregory 
IX.,  227;  by  Paul  III.,  327;  in  Spain, 
330. 

Interim  of  Augsburg,  305. 

International  postal  congress,  521. 

Interregnum  in  the  Holy  Roman  Empite, 
225  ;  in  England,  384. 

Intibili,  battle  of,  116. 

Inverlochy,  battle  of.  348 

Investiture  strife,  200,  201. 

Ionian  Islands,  retained  by  Venice,  326  ; 
occupied  by  French,  ceded  to  France, 
459;  Republic  of  the  Seven  I.  I.  461; 
forms  a  part  of  the  Illyrian  provinces, 
472 :  protectorate  over,  given  to  Eng- 
land, 483  ;  ceded  to  Greece,  505,  544. 

lonians  in  Greece,  43  ;  colonize  Asia  Mi. 
nor,  49  ;  subdued  by  Croesus,  21 ;  revolt 
from  Persia,  28. 

Ipsus,  battle  of,  77. 

Iran,  plateau  of,  12;  subjugated  by  Tiglath- 
Pileser  II.,  14 ;  inhabited  by  Bactrians, 
Medes,  Persians,  24  ;  attacked  by  Assyr- 
ians, 25  ;  conquered  by  Cyrus,  26  ;  sul- 
tanate of,  210. 

Ireland,  ancient,  geography,  religion,  and 
civilization,  38  ;  mythical  history,  38, 
39 ;  Norwegians  take  Dublin,  209 ;  con- 
quered by  Henry  II.,  232;  English  Pale, 
270 ;  statute  of  Drogheda,  333  ;  rebellion 
of  Tyrone,  339 ;  government  of  Went- 
worth  (Strafford),  344  ;  Ulster  rebellion, 
346,  348  ;  Cromwell  in  Ireland,  storm  of 
Drogheda,  375  ;  war  for  James  II.,  386  ; 
battle  of  the  Boyne,  387  ;  treaty  of 
Limerick,  ib. ;  Irish  catholic  laws,  4-33  , 
United  Irishmen,  536  ;  union  with  Great 
Britain,  ib. ;  Irish  reform  act,  540  ;  fam- 
ine of  1846-47,  543  ;  uprising  under 
O'Brien,  ib. ;  habeas  corpus  act  suspend- 
ed, 544  ;  disestablishment  of  the  Irish 
(Episcopal)  church,  545;  land  league, 
ib. ;  coercion  act,  land  act,  546. 

Irene,  210. 

Ire  ton,  376. 

Iroquois,  war  with  Hurons  and  Canada, 
364.     See  Indians  of  America. 

Isaac,  7. 

Isaac  Angelus,  Grecian  emp.,  216. 

Isabeau  of  Bavaria,  259 

Isabella  heiress  of  Castile  276  328. 


626 


Index. 


Isabella  II  ,  q.  of  Spain,  claims  of  ,490, 512. 

Isagoras,  55. 

Isdigerd  I.,  k.  of  Persia,  189  ;  II.,  189 ;  III. , 
192,  193. 

Isis,  Egyptian  goddess,  3. 

Islam,  182. 

Isle  of  Sable,  290. 

Ismail,  413. 

Israel,  a  separate  kingdom,  9 ;  contest  over 
idolatry,  ib. ;  tributary  to  Assyrians,  10 ; 
destroyed  by  Sargon,  10,  14. 

Issus,  battle  of,  74. 

Istaevones,  163. 

Istar,  Phoenician  goddess,  13, 14, 16. 

Isthmian  festival ,  42. 

Italia,  federal  republic  of,  129. 

Italy,  geographical  survey  of,  81 ;  ethno- 
graphical sketch,  85;  ancient  history, 
see  Rome ;  Odovaker,  ruler,  173 ;  East 
Goths,  Theodoric,  174;  Langobards  in 
Lombardy,  papacy,  175 ;  Charles  the 
Great,  king  of  Italy,  184  ;  Carolingians  in 
Italy,  193;  Berengarof  Ivrea,  195;  Otto, 
II.  III.,  in  Italy,  197  ;  Crescentius,  ib. ; 
Normans  in  Italy,  199 ;  Frederic  Barba- 
rossa  and  the  Lomlaard  cities,  Guelfs  and 
Ghibelins,  221  ;  peace  of  Constance,  222 ; 
Frederic  II.,  in  Sicily,  224,225;  Naples 
conquered  by  Charles  VIII.  of  France, 
262;  league  of  Cambray,  300;  holy 
league,  300,  318  ;  campaigns  of  Napoleon 
in  Italy,  458 ;  Cisalpine  and  Ligurian 
and  Roman  republics  founded,  459  ;  Par- 
thenopsean  republic  founded,  460  ;  abol- 
ished, 461 ;  Roman  republic  abolished, 
461 ;  Napoleon  in  Italy,  462 ;  Cisalpine 
and  Ligurian  republics  recognized,  463  ; 
Napoleon  president  of  Italian  (Cisalpine) 
republic,  464 ;  Napoleon  king  of  Italy, 
Ligurian  republic  incorporated  with 
France,  467  ;  Italy  restored  to  its  condi- 
tion before  1789,  483  ;  ab.solutism,  488 ; 
uprisings  suppressed  by  Austrians,  490  ; 
Austro-Sardinian  war,  494 ;  liberation  of 
Italy,  Garibaldi,  602  ;  Victor  Emmanuel 
king  of  Italy,  503 :  war  with  Austria, 
Venice  acquired,  510  ;  recognized  as  sixth 
great  power,  511 ;  Rome  the  capital,  520  ; 
dissolution  of  monasteries,  520 ;  electo- 
ral reform  act,  526.  See,  also,  Florence, 
Genoa,  Naples,  Papal  States,  Sardinia, 
Sicily,  Tuscany,  Venice. 

Ithome,  51. 

Iturbide,  emp.  of  Mexico,  488. 

Ivan,  brother  of  Peter  the  Great,  374. 

Ivan  III.,  the  Great,  of  Russia,  277. 

Ivan  IV.  (or  VI.),  411. 

Ivar  Vidfadme,  k.  of  Skaania,  208. 

Ivry,  battle  of,  324. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  pres.  of  U.  S.,  552. 

Jackson,  Stonewall,  558. 

Jacob,  his  sons,  8. 

Jacobins,  451 ;  club  closed,  456. 

Jacobite  rebellions,  I.,  437  :  II.,  438. 

Jacqueline,    of  Holland,  her  inheritance 

goes  to  Burgundy,  259. 
Jacquerie  in  France,  258. 
Jatfa  stormed  by  Bonaparte,  460. 
JageUo,  house  of,  277,  352. 
Jahandar  Shah,  emp.  of  India,  442. 
Jahangir,  emp,  of  India,  354, 


Jail  delivery  at  Paris,  452. 

Jamaica,  discovery  of,  *^^  ;  taken  by  Penn 
and  Venables,  377  ;  insurrection,  544, 

James  Bay  discovered,  300. 

James,  e.  of  Douglas,  268. 

James  I.,  k.  of  England  (VI.  of  Scotland), 
reign  in  England,  339  ;  II.,  reign,  383 ; 
flight,  384  ;  deposition,  385  :  takes  refuge 
with  Louis  XIV.,  370;  death,  391.  See 
duke  of  York. 

James  I.,  k.  of  Scotland,  murdered,  271; 
II.,  272  ;  IV.,  invaded  England,  333  ;  de- 
feat  and  death,  334  ;  VI.,  of  Scotland, 
abdication  of  Mary  in  favor  of,  338.  See 
James  I.  of  England. 

James  Edward,  the  old  pretender,  889, 
435. 

Jamestown,  foundation  of,  291. 

Janizaries,  353  ;   massacre  of,  489. 

Jankau,  battle  of,  315. 

Japan,  Buddhism  in,  23 ;  geography,  relig- 
ion, 32  ;  chronology,  33  ;  early  rulers, 
33  ;  conversion  of  native  names  into  Chi- 
nese, 33,  n.  2  ;  origin,  33  ;  development 
of  dual  gov.,  mikado  superseded  by 
ehogun,  212;  war  of  Gen  and  Hei,  242; 
Hojo  supremacy,  repulse  of  the  Mongols, 
war  of  the  Chrysanthemums,  develop- 
ment of  feudalism,  243 ;  Ashikaga  sho- 
guns,  dynastic  wars,  J.  in  the  time  of 
Columbus,  278;  domination  of  Nobu- 
nagaandHldeyoshi,  355;  Tokugawa  sho- 
guns,  356 ;  extirpation  of  Christianity, 
^'^'^  ■    later    Tokugawas,    445  ;     Perry's 


§57 


treaty,  563  ;  restoration  of  the  mikado, 
abolition  of  feudalism,  ib.;  assimilation 
to  western  civilization,  664. 

Jason,  46. 

Jassy,  peace  of,  413. 

Jay,  John,  in  continental  congress,  426  ; 
chief  justice,  547. 

Jay's  treaty,  535,  548. 

Jeanne  d'Arc.     See  Dare. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  427  ;  drafts  declaration 
of  independence,  427  ;  sec.  of  state,  647  ; 
vice-pres.,  548  ;  pres.,  549. 

Jefferson's  embargo,  550. 

Jeffries,  chief  justice,  382;  "  bloody  as- 
size," 384. 

Jemmapes,  battle  of,  453. 

Jena,  battle  of,  469. 

Jenghiz  Khan,  leader  of  the  Mongols,  240; 
conquered  China,  242. 

Jeremiah,  11. 

Jersey,  east  and  west,  359. 

Jerusalem  conquered  by  Shisak,5;  names, 
7  ;  captured  by  David,  9 ;  taken  by  Is- 
raelites, 10  ;  besieged  in  vain  by  Assyr- 
ians, 10  ;  captured  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  destroyed,  11,  16  ;  destroyed  by  Ti- 
tus, 12,  152  ;  storm  of,  214  ;  kingdom  of, 
214;  finally  lost,  217. 

Jesuits,  order  of,  founded,  304;  banished 
from  Spain  and  Portugal,  415 ;  abol- 
ished, 416 ;  expelled  from  France  in 
1672. 

Jews,  geography,  chronology,  7  ;  settled  in 
Egypt,  exodus,  8;  government,  ib.;  di- 
vision into  Israel  and  Judah,  9  ;  carried 
to  Assyria,  10 ;  to  Babylon,  11 ;  sent 
back  by  Cyrus,  11,  27  ;  subject  to  Per- 
sians, etc.,  11 ;  revolt  under  the  Macca- 


Index. 


627 


bees,  11,  78;  subdued  by  Rome,  11; 
revolt,  fall  of  Jerusalem,  12  ;  dispersal, 
ib. ;  accused  of  firing  Rome,  151 ;  perse- 
cution, 152 ;  revolt,  153 ;  expelled  from 
England,  264;  admitted  to  parliament, 
544. 

Jimmu  Tenno,  mikado  of  Japan,  83. 

Joachim  II.,  elector  of  Brandenburg,  401. 

Joanna,  heiress  of  Castile,  301,  328. 

Joanna,  heiress  of  Navarre,  254. 

Joannes,  the  usurper,  161. 

Joannes  Scotus  Erigena,  201. 

Jobst,  of  Moravia,  251. 

John,  archduke  of  Austria,  administrator 
of  the  German  empire,  471,  493. 

John,  don,  of  Austria,  Lepanto,  326 ;  in 
the  Netherlands,  330,  331 ;  popish  plot 
attributed  to,  381. 

John,  k.  of  Bohemia,  247  ;  death,  257. 

John,  k.  of  England,  Lackland,  reign,  233. 

John  II.,  le  Bon,  k.  of  France,  reign,  258. 

John  of  Brienne, "  king  of  Jerusalem," 
216. 

John  of  Gaunt,  269. 

John  de  Montfort,  257. 

John  of  Procida,  226. 

John  the  Fearless,  d.  of  Burgundy,  259. 

John  XXIII.,  pope,  251. 

John  IV.,  k.  of  Portugal,  332 ;  VI.,  488. 

John  III.,  k.  of  Svireden,  352. 

John  Casimir,  k.  of  Poland,  362,  374. 

John  Frederic,  el.  of  Saxony,  305. 

John  George,  el.  of  Saxony,  312,  401. 

John  Parricida,  245. 

John  Sobieski,  k.  of  Poland,  374. 

John  Zimisces,  Grecian  emp.,  210. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  558,  559. 

Johnson,  Sir  VHlliam.  421,  423. 

Johnston,  Joe,  gen.,  558. 

Joint  committee  of  the  two  kingdoms, 
348. 

Jones,  John  Paul,  430. 

Jonson,  Ben,  339. 

Joseph,  8. 

Joseph  I.,  emp.  of  the  Holy  Roman  Em- 
pire, 390  ;  reign,  392  ;  death,  393,  397  ; 
II.,  co-regent,  406;  reign,  407;  plan  of 
an  exchange  of  territory,  408. 

Joseph,  k.  of  Naples.  See  Bonaparte,  Jo- 
seph. 

Joseph  I.,  k.  of  Portugal,  reign,  415. 

Joseph  I.,  k.  of  Spain.  See  Bonaparte,  Jo- 
seph. 

Joshua,  8. 

Joubert,  461. 

Jourdan,  455,  457,  458,  460,  479. 

Jovianus,  Roman  emp.,  160;  peace  with 
Persia,  188. 

Juan  de  la  Fuca  strait,  290. 

Juarez,  503,  504. 

Juba,  k.  of  Numidia.  141, 142. 

Judaea,  attacked  by  Shisak,  5  ;  geograph- 
ical position,  7;  dependent  kingdom  un- 
der Herod,  11  ;  part  of  Roman  province 
of  Syria,  11 ;  Roman  province,  150. 

Judah,  kingdom  of,  geography,  7  ;  founda- 
tion, 9 ;  idolatry  in,  10 ;  allied  with 
Egyptians,  ib. ;  tributary  to  the  Assyri- 
ans, 10,  14  ;  subject  to  Babylonians,  11 ; 
to  the  Egyptians, ii.,-  ravaged  by  Scvth- 
ians,  ib. 

Judges  among  the  Jews  8. 


Jugurthan  war,  126, 127. 

Julia,  the  elder  and  younger,  148. 

Julian,  count,  183,  n. 

Julian  emperors,  147. 

Julianus,  Roman  emp.,  160  ;  invaded  Pep* 

sia,  188. 
JUlich-Cleves  succession,  quarrel  begun, 

308  ;  ended,  372. 
Julius  II.,  pope,  327. 

July  revolution  at  Paris,  489,  529;  its  re- 
sults, 490. 
Junius,  440. 
Juno,  84. 

Junonia,  colony  of,  established,  125. 
Junot,  duke  of  Abrantes,  470,  471. 
Junto,  435. 
Jupiter,  84  ;  Ammon,  his  temple  in  Africa, 

27,  74  ;  Capitolinus,  temple  of,  82. 
Jury,  grand,  232. 
Jury  trial,  its  Norman  origin,  204. 
Jus  auxilii,  intercessionis,  96  ;  reformandi, 

306,  317. 
Justinian    I.,   Grecian  emp.,  victories  in 

Italy  and  Africa,  174  ;  war  with  Persia, 

190 ;  reign,  210. 
Jutes,  176. 
Juvenum,  foundation  of,  167. 

Kaempfer  in  Japan,  445. 

Kaeoshima,  bombardment  of,  563. 

Kahror,  battle  of,  24. 

Kaiserslautem,  battle  of,  455, 456. 

Kalb,  de,  430. 

Kaled,  expedition  of,  192. 

Kalish,  alliance  of,  475. 

Kamakura,  242,  243. 

Kameel,  sultan,  217.  • 

Kandahar,  442. 

Kanishka,  Scythian  k.  in  India,  24. 

Kansas  admitted  to  the  Union,  556. 

Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  555. 

Kapolna,  battle  of  ,495. 

Kara,  Mustapha,  372. 

Karl  Martel,  183, 184. 

Karlmatin,  brother  of  Charles  the  Great, 

184. 
Karlmann,  k.  of  Aquitaine,  201. 
Karlsefne,  Thorfinn,  281. 
Kars,  storm  of,  489,  501,  523. 
Kashgar,  rebellion  of  Yakub  Beg  in,  562 ; 

capture  of,  ib. 
Katzbach,  battle,  477. 
Kaunitz,  prince,  403. 
Kay,  battle  of,  405. 
Keiki,  the  last  shogun,  563. 
Kellermann,  452. 
Kelso,  battle  of,  348. 
Kenmure,  execution  of,  437. 
Kentucky  admitted  to  the  Union,  548. 
Kentucky    and     Virginia    resolutions    oi 

1798-1799,  549. 
Kepler,  306. 

Kerman,  sultanate  of,  210. 
Kertk,  Louis,  Thomas,  and  David,  299. 
Khafra,  k.  of  Egypt,  4. 
Khanates,  241. 

Khazars,  war  with  Persia,  189,  190. 
Khorsabad,  12. 
Khufu,  k.  of  Egypt,  4. 
Khusru  in  India,  211. 
Kieff,  grand  prince  of,  276. 
Kieft,  gov.  of  New  Netherlands  357. 


628 


Index. 


Kiel,  peace  of,  479. 

Kiew.     See  Kieff. 

Kilij  Arslan,  sultan  of  Iconium,  214. 

Kilkenny,  statute,  269. 

Killiecrankie,  battle  of,  386. 

Kilsvth,  battle  of,  348. 

Kimbolton,  lord,  346. 

Kin  dynasty,  in  China,  fall  of,  242. 

King  George's  war,  419  ;  Philip's  war,  359  ; 
Williams  war,  361. 

King's  Mountain,  battle  of,  431. 

Kinsale  captured,  387. 

Kioto,  in  Japan,  32  ;  capital  of  the  mikado, 
213,  242  ;  false  mikado  at,  278  ;  capital 
transferred  to.Tokio,  563. 

Kirke,  386  ;  appointed  gov.  of  Mass.,  361 ; 
Kirke's  lambs,  383  ;  raises  siege  of  Lon- 
donderry, 386. 

Klapka,  495,  496. 

Kl^ber,  463. 

Klissow,  battle  of,  395. 

Knighthood,  religious  orders  of,  217  ;  Span- 
ish orders,  240,  328. 

Knights  at  Rome,  3  centuries,  88  ;  number 
doubled,  89  ;  in  the  army,  91 ;  farm  the 
taxes,  123 ;  change  in  nature,  125 ;  de- 
prived of  jury  service,  132  ;  which  is  par- 
tially restored,  133. 

Knights  in  Athens,  53. 

Kniprode,  Winrich  von,  277. 

Knowles  in  Boston,  419. 

Knox,  Henry,  U.  S.  sec.  of  war,  547. 

Knox,  John,  304,  338. 

Knut  the  Great,  k.  of  England  and  Den- 
mark, visit  to  Rome,  198  ;  reign  in  Eng- 
land, 205,  206:  in  Denmark,  207. 

Knut,  St.,  k.  of  Denmark,  208  ;  VI.,  235. 

KoTbad  I.,  k.  of  Persia,  first  reign,  189; 
second  reign,  190;  II.,  192. 

Kblhapur,  443. 

Kollin,  battle  of,  404. 

Kong,  prince,  502. 

Koniggratz,  battle  of,  509. 

Konigsberg,  treaty  of,  373,  470. 

Konigsmark,  315,  416. 

Koran,  the,  182. 

Kosciuszko,  413,  414. 

Kossuth,  494,  495,  496. 

Kotzebue,  murder  of,  487. 

Krasnoy,  battle  of,  475. 

Kublai  Khan  in  China,  242. 

Kuldja,  disputed  between  China  and  Rus- 
sia, 562. 

Kulm,  battle  at,  477. 

Kulturkampf  in  Italy,  Switzerland,  and 
Prussia,  520  ;  in  Prussia,  France,  Bel- 
gium, 526  ;  approaching  end,  526. 

Kunersdorf ,  battle  of,  405. 

Kurile  islands  given  to  Japan  by  Russia, 
32,  n.  3. 

Kusunoki-Masashig^,  243. 

Kutab-ud-din,  sultan  of  Delhi,  241. 

Kutschouc  Kainardji,  peace  of,  412. 

Kutusoff,  467,  475. 

Labiau.  treaty  of,  373. 
Labienus,  139, 142,  143. 
Laborers,  statute  of,  268. 
Labrador,  discovery  of  the  coast  of,  284. 
Labyrinth,  in  Egypt,  4,  6 ;  in  Crete,  18. 
Lacedemonians,  in  Sparta,  60.     See.  Greece 
and  Sparta. 


Eaconia,  name  first  given  to  Maine,  295. 

Lade,  battle  of,  28. 

Ladislaus  II.,  k.  of  Hungary  and  Bohe. 

mia, 278. 
Ladislaus  Postumus,  k.  of  Hungary,  278. 
Lady  of  England,  231. 
Lady  of  the  Mercians,  204. 
Laets,  177. 
Lafayette,  in  America,  428  ;  commander  of 

national  guard,  450  ;  proscribed,  462 ;  a 

liberal,    527 ;     commander    of    national 

guard,  529. 
La  Fere-Champenoise,  battle  of,  481. 
Lafitte,  ministry  of,  529. 
La  Fontaine,  371. 
Lagidae.     See  Ptolemies. 
La  Hogue,  battle  of,  370,  387. 
Lahore,  Muhammedan  dynasty  at,  211. 
Lake  Erie,  battle  of,  551 ;  George,  battle  of, 

421. 
Lally,  444. 
Lamachus,  67. 
Lamberg,  count,  494. 
Lamian  war,  79. 
Lamoriciere,  503,  527. 
Lancaster,  house  of,  270. 
Lancaster  Sound,  299. 
Land  act,  545,  546. 
Land  league  in  Ireland,  545. 
Landshut,  battle  of,  405,  471 
Land wehr,-sturm,  established,  476. 
Lanfranc,  archb.  of  Canterbury,  229. 
liangensalza,  510. 
Langobards,  location,  170  ;  found  kingdom 

in  Italy,  175  ;   crushed  by  Charles  the 

Great,  184. 
Langside,  battle  of,  338. 
Langton,  Stephen,  233,  234. 
Lansdowne  Hill,  battle  of,  347. 
Laon,  capital  of  German  kingdom  of  the 

Franks,  202 ;  battle  of,  481. 
Liotsze,  Chinese  philosopher,  31. 
La  Plata,  discovery  of,  286;  a   free  state, 

488. 
La  Rochelle,  granted  to  Huguenots,  221; 

siege  of,  325. 
La  Rothiere,  battle  of,  480. 
La  Salle,  discoveries  of,  364,  365. 
Lascaris,  Theodore,  216. 
Las  Casas,  Bartholom^  de,  285. 
La  Soledad,  treaty  of,  503. 
Laswari,  battle  of,  641. 
Lateran  council,  201. 
Lateranus,  L.  Sextus,  101. 
Latham  house,  siege  of,  348. 
Latimer,  338. 
Latin  empire,  216,  240. 
Latin  league,  Rome's  hegemony  over,  90; 

dissolution  of,  104. 
Latin  war,  great,  104. 
Laud,  William,  844,  345  ;  execution,  348. 
Lauderdale,  380,  381. 
Laudon,  405,  413. 
Laudonni^re,  Ren^,  288. 
Launay,  de,  murder  of,  449. 
Lautrec,  invaded  Naples,  303. 
Laval,  Franf  ois  de,  364. 
Law's  Mississippi  scheme,  445. 
Lawrence,  lord,  viceroy  in  India,  546. 
Law  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  280. 
Laws  of  Ine,  of  Offa   180 ;  of  the  twelvB 

tables,  98. 


Index. 


629 


Laybach,  congress  at,  487. 

Lazica,  ceded  to  Rome,  190;   invaded  by 

Hormisdas,  191 ;  Heraclius  in,  192. 
League  in  France,  322.     See  Holy  league. 
League  of  the  German  princes,  408. 
League  of  the  public  weal,  260. 
Lear  (Leir),  37. 
Leboeuf ,  marshal,  513,  514. 
Le  Bourget,  battle  of,  519. 
Lechfeld,  battle  of,  196. 
Lee,  Charles,  430. 
Lee,  Richard  Henry,  427. 
Lee,  Robert  E.,  in  command  of  Confederate 

army,  557;  Gettysburg,  558;  surrender, 

558. 
Lefort,  in  Switzerland,  374. 
"  Legacy  of  Igeyasu,''  356. 
Leges  Corneliae,  132  ;  duodecim  tabularum, 

98  ;  Liciniae,  101 ;  Publilise,  102  ;  Valeriae 

Horatiaj,  98. 
Legion,    in   the   Servian  constitution,  92 ; 

change    in    the   4th    cent.,   b.   c,  103; 

change  under  Marius,  128. 
Legion  of  honor,  created,  464. 
Legislative  assembly  in  France,  447,  451. 
Legitimitists,  in  France,  530. 
Legnano,  battle  of,  222. 
Leipzig,  battle  of,  312  ;  second  battle,  314  ; 

battle  of  the  nations,  478  ;  supreme  court 

in,  525  ;  university  founded,  251. 
Le  Mans,  battle  of,  519. 
Lenthall,  345,  377. 
Leuzen,  battle  of,  194. 
Leo  the  Great,  pope,  173  ;  X.,  327  ;  XIII., 

524. 
Leo  the  Isaurian,  Grecian  emp.,  210. 
Leoben,  peace  of,  458. 
Leofric,  e.  of  Mercia,  206. 
Leon,  name  changed  from   Asturia,  209  ; 

finally  united  with  Castile,  240. 
Leonidas,  58. 
Leopold,  IV.  (V.)  d.  of  Austria,   receives 

Bavaria,  219 ;  V.  detains  Richard  Coeur 

de  Lion,  216. 
Leopold,  archd.  of  Austria,  defeated  by  the 

Swiss,  247  ;  III.,  Sempach,  250. 
Leopold  I.,  k.  of  the  Belgians,  490. 
Leopold  of  Dessau,  392,  397,  402. 
Leopold  I.,  emp  of  the  H.  R. E. ;  reign  of, 

371,  372  ;  Spanish  claimant,  390  ;  death, 

392  ;  II.,  408,  416,  451. 
Leotychidas,  60. 
Lepanto,  battle  of,  326,  330. 
Lepidus,  M.  .^Imilius,  133,  141. 
Leptis,  17, 19. 
Lerma,  d.  of,  331. 
Lesbos,  41,  66. 
Lesseps,  Ferdinand  de,  512. 
Lestoeq,  in  Russia,  411. 
Leucopetra,  battle  of,  80, 122 
Leuctra,  battle  of,  70. 
Leuthen,  battle  of,  404. 
Leverett,  John,  gov.,  of  Mass.  360. 
Levites,  8. 

Lewes,  battle  of,  234. 
Lex  agraria,  128.     See  agrarian  laws  ;  an- 

nalis,   12U  ;   Aurelia,   133  ;  Canuleia   de 

conubio,   99  ;    de   civitate  sociis  danda, 

128  ;  Clodia,  138  ;  de  falso,  122,  l.'^2  ;  Ga- 

binia,  134  ;  Hortensia,   107  ;   judiciaria, 

125,  128  ;  Julia  de  agro  campano,  137  ; 

Julia,  149 ;  Msenia    107  ;  de  maiestate 
38 


149 ;  Manilla,  135 ;  Papia  Poppsea,  149 ; 
Pedia,  145 ;  Plautia-Papiria,  129  ;  Poetilia, 
103  ;  Pompeia,  129  ;  de  proscribendis, 
132,  provocatio,  91,  93.  94,  98,  125  ;  Pub- 
lilia,  y7  ;  regia,  374 ;  de  sicariis,  122, 132 ; 
Trebonia,  140  ;  Valeria  de  provocatione, 
93  ;  de  vi  et  ambitu,  140. 

Lexington,  battle  of,  426. 

Liberty  of  conscience,  declarations  of, 
384. 

Licensing  act,  expiration  of,  388. 

Licinian  laws  passed,  101  ;  reenacted,  124. 

Licinius  appointed  Augustus,  169» 

Liegnitz,  battle  of,  405. 

Ligny,  battle  of,  484. 

Ligue  du  bien  publique,  260. 

Ligurian  republic,  founded,  459  ;  incorpo- 
rated with  France,  467. 

Libybaeum,  siege  of.  111. 

Lima,  occupation  of,  287. 

Limerick,  siege  of,  387  ;  treaty  of,  387. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  pres.  of  the  United 
States.  556 ;  reelection,  558  ;  assassina- 
tion, 559. 

Lincoln,  gen.  430. 

Lincoln,  battle  of,  231. 

Lindolf ,  d.  of  Swabia,  195. 

Lisbon,  earthquake  of,  415. 

Lissa,  battle  of,  510. 

Lithuanians,  169. 

"  Little  "  parliament.     See  BarebonoB. 

Liudolf,  d.  of  Swabia,  195. 

Liutprand,  175. 

Liverpool  ministrv,  537. 

Livia,  148,  149. 

Livius,  T.,81. 

Livius  Salinator,  117. 

Livonia,  373. 

Lobositz,  battle  of,  404. 

Locke,  John,  358,  389. 

Locomotive  invented,  486. 

Lodbrog,  Ragnar,  208. 

Lode,  battle  at,  28. 

Lodi,  storming  of  the  bridge  at,  458. 

Lollards,  269. 

Lombard  league,  219,  221,  224. 

Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom,  482,  494,502. 

Lombards.     See  Langobards,  175. 

Lombardy.  See  Langobards,  Italy,  Pied- 
mont, Sardinia. 

London,  founded,  176  ;  captured  by  Danes, 
203  ;  great  fire,  plague,  379  ;  first  indus- 
trial exhibition,  498  ;  peace  conference. 
506  ;  second  industrial  exhibition,  544  ; 
financial  panic  in,  ib. 

London  Company,  291  ;  conference,  489, 
511  ;  protocol,  505  ;  treaty  of,  498. 

Londonderry,  siege  of,  386. 

Long  Island,  battle  of,  428. 

Longjumeau,  peace  of,  321. 

Longland,  William.  268. 

Long  parliament,  345-351,  375-378  ■,  reca- 
pitulafcion,  378,  n. 

Longobards.     See  Langobards. 

Loo-Choo  islands,  564. 

Lookout  Mountain,  battle  of,  558. 

''  Loose  coat  field,"'  274. 

Loris-Melikoff,  523,  525. 

Lorraine,  German  part  of  Ludwig's  share 
in  the  treaty  of  Verdun,  187,  193  ;  be- 
comes a  duchy,  194  ;  vacillates  between 
East  and  West  Franks  194 ;  upper  and 


630 


Index. 


*  lower  Lorraine,  199  :  occupied  by  France, 
369 ;  exchanged  to  Stanislaus  Lesczin- 
ski  for  Tuscany,  398 ;  house  of,  399,  416 ; 
ceded  to  the  German  empire,  519. 

Lorraine,  d.  of,  partially  reinstated,  366, 
368  ;  transfer  of  the  duchy,  398. 

Lothar,  d.  of  Saxony,  war  with  Henry  V., 
201. 

Lothar,  emp.  186  ;  treaty  of  Verdun,  187. 

Lothar,  emp.  of  the  IL  K.  E.,  218. 

Lothar,  k.  of  West  Franks.  202. 

Louis  L,  k.  of  Bavaria,  492;  II.,  514. 

Louis  of  Cond^,  321. 

Louis,  emp.     See  Ludwig. 

I^uis  VI.,  k.  of  France,  226.  [For  the  Car- 
olingian  kings  of  this  name,  see  Lud- 
wig k.  of  France,  I.-V.]  VII.,  crusade, 
215  ;  reign,  226  ;  in  England,  232  ;  VIII., 
227  ;  as  prince,  in  England,  233  ;  IX., 
St.  Louis,  reign,  227;  arbitration,  234; 
crusades,  217;  X.,  Le  Htttin,  255;  XL, 
of  France,  260;  XII.,  318;  XIII.,  325  ; 
XIV.,  366-371  ;  Spanish  succession,  390  ; 
XV.,  445  ;  XVI.,  446  ;  flight  and  return, 
451 ;  trial  and  execution,  453  ;  (XVII..) 
of  France  proclaimed,  453  ;  death,  457  ; 
XVIII.,  first  return,  481;  flight,  483; 
return,  484,  526  ;  death,  527. 

Louis  the  Great,  k.  of  Poland  and  Hun- 
gary, 277. 

Louis  Napoleon,  first  attempt  to  be  pro- 
claimed emperor,  529 ;  second,  530  ;  pres- 
ident of  the  republic,  494,  531 ;  coup 
d'  t5tat,  498,  531 ;  as  emperor,  see  Napo- 
leon III. 

Louis  Napoleon,  pr.  of  France,  imperial 
birth,  531 ;  death,  534. 

Louis  Philippe  I.,  accession,  489,  529  ;  ab- 
dication, 530 ;  death.  531. 

Louisa,  q.  of  Prussia,  469. 

Louisburg,  siege,  419,  421. 

Louise  la  Querouaille,  380. 

Louise  of  Savoy,  303. 

Louisiana,  discovered  by  La  Salle  and  set- 
tled by  French,  English  attempt  to  colo- 
nize fails,  362,  365  ;  ceded  to  Spain,  423, 
439  ;  restored  to  France,  463  ;  bought  by 
the  United  States,  463,  549 ;  admitted  to 
the  Union,  551. 

Louvois,  366,  370. 

Lowen,  battle  of,  193. 

Lowenbund.  250. 

Lowestoft,  battle  of,  379. 

Loyal  association,  388. 

Loyola,  Ignatius,  304. 

Lubeck,  free  city,  222  ;  conquered  by  Knut 
VI.,  235  ;  capital  of  the  Hanseatic  league, 
249  ;  peace  of,  310. 

Lubecki,  490. 

Lucanians,  83  :  wars  with  Rome,  106, 107. 

Lucius,  k.  of  Britain,  36,  38. 

Lucka,  battle  of,  245. 

Lucknow,  relief  of,  546. 

Lucretia,  89. 

Lucullus,  L.,131,  134,  135. 

Lud,  k.  of  Britain,  37. 

Luddites,  537. 

Ludwig  I.,  the  Pious,  le  D^bonnaire,  emp., 
186;  II.,  193;  of  Bavaria,  247. 

Ludwig,  the  German,  k.  of  the  East  Franks, 
share  at  the  treaty  of  Verdun,  187  ;  reign, 
193;  the  Child,  194 


Ludwig  II.,  the  Stammerer,  k.  of  the  West 
Franks ;  201  [Ludwig  the  Pious,  emp., 
is  also  Ludwig  I.,  k.  of  the  West  Franks] ; 
III.,  201 ;  IV., d'  Outre  Mer,  202  ;  V.,  the 
Faineant  (for  kings  of  France,  see  Louis), 
202. 

Ludwigslied,  201. 

Liigenfeld,  186. 

Lumley's  Inlet,  290. 

Lundy's  Lane,  battle  of,  551. 

Luneville,  peace  of,  462. 

Luperci,  85. 

Luque,  Hernando  de,  286. 

Lusatia  (Lausitz),  origin,  194  ;  lower  Lu- 
satia  united  with  Bohemia,  248 ;  mort^ 
gaged  to  Saxony,  310 ;  ceded  to  Saxony, 

Lusitanians,  118 ;  war  with  Rome,  123. 

Lustrum,  92. 

Lutetia  Parisiorum,  139. 

Luther,  Martin,  301. 

Luther  am  Barenberge,  battle  of,  310. 

Lutzen,    battle    of  (Gustavus    Adolphus), 

312;  (Napoleon),  476. 
Luxembourg,  marshal,  370. 
Luxemburg,  house  of,  245,  248  ;  Hungary 

under,  277. 
Luxemburg  question,  511,  532. 
Luynes,  d.  of,  325. 
Luzzara,  battle  of,  392. 
Lycia  conquered  by  Harpagus,  26  ;  Roman 

province,  150. 
Lycos,  battle  on  the,  135. 
Lycurgus,  constitution  of,  50. 
Lydia,  geogi-aphy,  20 ;  religion ,  chronology, 

21;  under  Attyadse,  Her.iclidae,  Mermna- 

da;,  21 ;  conquers  Phrygia,  21 ;  war  with 

Cvaxares,  21,  25 ;  conquered  by  Cyrus, 

22;  26. 
Lyous,  council  of,  225  ;  partially  destroyed, 

454. 
Lysander,  68,  69,  70. 
Lysimachus,  76. 
Lytton,  lord,  viceroy  of  India,  547. 

Macao,  Portuguese  at,  354. 

Macartney,  e.,  embassy  of,  445. 

Macaulay,  T.  B.,  sec.  of  war,  540 ;  in  In- 
dia, 542  ;  paymaster  gen.,  543. 

Maccabaeus,  Judas,  11. 

Macchiavelli,  328.  _ 

McClellan,  gen.,  557. 

Macdonald,  460,  461,  474,  477,  480. 

Macedonia,  41  ;  rise  in  power  under  Philip, 
71;  Macedonian  supremacy,  73;  Alexan- 
der, 73-76  ;  under  descendants  of  Deme- 
trius Poliorcetes,  78;  wars  with  Rome, 
116,  118, 120, 121 ;  fall  of  the  monarchy, 
120  ;  Roman  province,  78,  122. 

Macedonian  line,  Greek  emperors,  210. 

Maciejowice,  battle  of,  414. 

Mack,  gen.,  460,  467. 

Mackay,  gen.,  386. 

MacMahon,  in  Italy,  502  ;  in  Franco-Prus. 
sian  war,  514,  516 ;  siege  of  Paris  (conv 
mune),  632  ;  pres.,  533  ;  resigned,  534. 

Macon's  No.  2  act,  550. 

Macrinus,  Roman  emp.,  30, 155. 

Macro,  150. 

Madagascar,  French  claims  upon,  635. 

Madeira,  discovery  of,  276,  279. 

Madison,  James,  549,  550. 


Index. 


cai 


Madoc,  rebellion  of,  264. 

Madras,  in  India,  22  ;  founded,  354  ;  cap- 
tured and  restored,  443. 

Madrid,  Ctiarles  in,  892  ;  Napoleon  at,  471  ; 
taken  by  Wellington,  474 ;  by  the 
French,  627  ;  peace  of,  803. 

Maecenas,  147. 

Melius,  Sp.  99. 

Magadha,  empire  of,  23. 

Magalhses,  F.,  280. 

Magdeburg,  bishopric  of,  196 ;  placed  un- 
der ban,  305 ;  stormed  by  Tilly,  311. 

Magellan.     See  Magelhees. 

Magellan,  straits  of,  280,  286. 

Magenta,  battle  of,  602. 

Magians,  25. 

Magister  equitum,  94. 

Magna  Charta,  233,  266,  418. 

Magnano,  battle  of,  460. 

Magnesia,  battle  of,  78,  119. 

Magnetic  needle,  279. 

Magnus  the  Good,  k.  of  Norway,  reign  In 
Denmark,  207;  in  Norway,  209;  II., 
209;  III.,  Barfod,  209,  238;  IV.,  the 
Blind,  k.  of  Norway,  238  ;  V.,  238 ;  VI., 
Lagaboeter,  238. 

Magnus,  d.  of  Saxony,  199. 

Magnus,  k.  of  Sweden,  237,  238;  Smek,  k. 
of  Sweden,  236.  237. 

Mago,  117. 

Magyars.     See  Hungary. 

Maha-bharata,  Hindu  epic,  23. 

Mahmud,  sultan  of  Ghazni,  211. 

Mahmud  II.,  sultan  of  Turkey,  489. 

Mahratta  wars,  444,  541. 

Mahrattas,  rise  of,  389, 443, 444;  conquered 
by  the  British,  541. 

Maid  of  Norway.     See  Margaret. 

Maid  of  Orleans.     See  Dare. 

"  xMain  "  plot,  340. 

Maine  (in  America),  Pring's  voyage,  290  ; 
topham  colony,  293  ;  granted  to  Gorges 
and  Mason,  295,  297  ;  annexed  to  Mass., 
358 ;  restored  to  heirs  of  Gorges,  ib.  ; 
bought  by  Mass.,  359;  admitted  to  the 
Union,  55'2. 

Maine  (in  France),  231. 

Mainots,  488. 

Maintenon,  Madame  de,369,  371. 

Mainz,  first  archbishop  of.  184 ;  elector, 
248  ;  electoral  archchancellor,  464. 

Majestatsbrief,  308. 

Majorianus,  Roman  emp.,  162. 

Malacca  taken  by  the  Dutch,  353. 

Malaga,  battle  of,  434. 

MalakofE,  storm  of  the   501. 

Malcolm,  k.  of  Scots,  205,  230. 

Maldon,  battle  of,  205. 

Malmo,  truce  of,  496. 

Malmutius  Dun  wall,  k.  of  Britain,  37. 

Malplaquet,  battle  of,  392,  435. 

Malta,  Phoenicians  settle  upon,  17 ;  given 
to  knights  of  St.  John,  217  ;  surrendered 
to  Napoleon,  460;  to  be  restored  to  the 
order,  464 ;  not  surrendered,  465  ;  given 
to  England^  483. 

Malvern  Hill,  battle  of,  557. 

Mamelukes,  overthrow  the  Ayoubites,  217 ; 
defeated  by  Napoleon,  460. 

Slamertines,  109. 

Mamun,  186,  210. 

Manchester  massacre,  538. 


Manchester  and  Liverpool  railway,  539. 

Mandate,  457. 

Manes.     See  Mani. 

Manetho,  hist,  of  Egypt,  3,  4,  n  3. 

Manfred,  226. 

Manhattan  Island,  purchased,  298. 

Mani,  Manicheism,  188. 

Manlius,  Capitolinus,  M.,  100;  Imperiosus, 

1.,  104  ;  Torquatus,  T..  103. 
Mansfield,  count,  309,  310. 
Mansfield,  lord,  440. 
Manteuffel,   gen.,  governor  of  Schleswig, 

507,  508 ;  Franco-Prussian  war,  518,  519. 
Manteuffel,  minister,  494;  at  Olmiitz,  498; 

dismissal,  502. 
Mantinea,  battle  of,  67,  71,  80. 
Mantua,  siege  of,  458. 
Mantuan  war,  311. 
Manu,  23. 

Maori  war  in  New  Zealand,  544. 
Marat,  member  of  Cordeliers  451 ;  assaasi' 

nated,  454. 
Marathon,  battle  of,  57. 
Marbod,  149,  167. 
Marcel,  Etienne,  258. 
Marcellus,  M.  Claudius,  115-117. 
Marchfeld,  battle  of,  244. 
Marcomanni,  154,  167. 
Marcy,  William  L.,  556. 
Mardonius,  56,  60. 
Marengo,  battle  of,  462. 
Margaret  of  Austria,  negotiated  Paix  deg 

Dames,  303;   q.   of    Dmmark,    Norway, 

and  Sweden,  237, 238, 276 ;  wife  of  Henry 

VI.  of  England,  240,  271,  272,  274. 
Margaret,  "  The  Maid  of  Norway,"  238. 
Margaret  Maultasch,  247,  249. 
Margaret  of  Parma,  330 ;  c.  of  Salisbury, 

335. 
Marhatt&s.     See  Mahrattas. 
Maria  Louisa,  wife  of  Napoleon  T.,  481. 
Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  heiress  of  Charles 

VI.,  898  ;  wars  with  Frederic  the  Great, 

400-406. 
Maria  Theresa,  wife  of  Louis  XIV.,  366: 

died,  369. 
Mariana,  295,  296. 

Marie  Antoinette,  unpopularity,  446  ;  exe- 
cution, 455. 
Marienburg,    grandmaster    at,    218,    277; 

treaty  of,  373. 
Marignano,  victory  of,  by  Francis  I.,  319. 
Marion,  Francis,  430. 
Marius,  C,  82;  in  Numidia,  127;  defeats 

Cimbri  and   Teutones,   127,  128;   social 

war,  129  ;  death,  130. 
Marius  the  younger,  131. 
Marlborough,  d.   of,  sketch  of  life,  382 ; 
.   joins  William  III.,  384;  in  Ireland,  387; 

disgraced,  387  ;  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 

succession,  391-393,  434;   made  a  duke, 

433;    dismissed,    393,    435;    reinstated, 

436. 
Marmont,  gov.  of  Illyrian  provinces,  47^ 

Marquette  discovers  the  Mississippi,  364. 

Mars,  84,  85. 

Marshal,  office  of,  195. 

Marshall,  John,  549. 

Marshall  William,  regency  of,  234. 

Marsian,  or  social  war,  129. 

Marstou  Moor  battle  of  348. 


632 


Index, 


Martlgnac  ministry,  527. 

Martin  V.,  pope,  252. 

Martinique,  taken  by  England,  ceded  to 
France,  422,  441. 

Martinitz,  3u9. 

Martinsvogel,  the,  250. 

Mary,  heiress  of  Burgundy,  253. 

Mary,  the  Catholic,  q.  of  England,  reign, 
330,  336,  338  ;  married  Philip  of  Spain, 
336. 

Mary  Stuart,  q.  of  Scotland,  married  Fran- 
cis II.  of  France,  321;  reign,  338;  exe- 
cution, 339. 

Maryland,  granted  to  lord  Baltimore,  293 
rebellion  of  Olayborne  and  Ingle,  357 
English  parliament  assumed  control,  358 
quo  warranto  against,  361. 

Masaniello,  327. 

Maserfeld,  battle  of,  180. 

Masham,  Mrs.,434,  435. 

Mason,  John,  grant  of  Mariana,  295,  296. 

Mason  taken  from  the  Trent,  544,  557. 

Massachusetts  Bay  colony  founded,  295; 
separation  of  general  court  into  two 
houses,  357  i  execution  of  Quakers,  358  ; 
reassumed  government  of  Maine,  358  ; 
forfeiture  of  the  charter,  360  ;  new  char- 
ter, 361  ;  treaty  of  peace  with  the  east- 
ern Indians,  418  ;  adoption  of  a  constitu- 
tion, 431 ;  insurrection  in,  432. 

Massagetae,  27. 

Massalia,  founded,  19, 141. 

Massasoit,  295. 

Massena,  460,  461,  462,  467,  472  ;  masterly 
retreat,  473. 

Massinissa,  116  ;  dethroned,  117  ;  restored, 
118,  121. 

Matchin,  413. 

Matilda,  marchioness  of  Tuscany,  200  ;  her 
estates  accepted  bv  Lothar  from  the  pope, 
218  ;  withheld  by  Henry  VI.,  223  ;  given 
to  the  papacy  by  Otto  IV.,  223 

Matthias,  emp.  of  the  H.  R.  E.,  308. 

Matthias  of  Thum,  309. 

Matthias  Corvinus,  k.  of  Hungary,  278. 

Maupeou,  446. 

Maupertuis.     See  Poitiers. 

Maurepas,  447. 

Mauretania,  Roman  prov.,  150. 

Maurice,  Greek  emp.,  191 ;  of  Nassau,  3.31 ; 
d.  of  Saxony,  305. 

Maxen,  surrender  of,  405. 

Maxentius,  Roman  emp.,  158,  159. 

Maximianus,  158,  159. 

Maximilian,  d.  of  Bavaria,  in  thirty  years' 
war,  308,  309. 

Maximilian,  emp.  of  Mexico,  504. 

Maximilian  I.,  emp.  of  the  H.  R.  E.,  mar- 
ried heiress  of  Burgundy,  253;  secures 
succession  of  Hungary,  278  ;  reign,  300  ; 
II.,  492,  306. 

Maximinus,  158, 159. 

Maximinus  Thrax,  Roman  emp.,  155,  156. 

May  laws  in  Prussia,  521. 

Mayas,  285. 

Mayence.     See  Mainz. 

Mayenne,  d.  of,  324. 

Mayflower,  294. 

Mayo,  lord,  viceroy  of  India,  547. 

Mayors  of  the  palace,  origin  of  their  power, 
182,  183,  184 ;  compared  with  the  sho- 
^uns  in  Japan  213 


Mazarin,  in  thirty  years'  war,  314  ;  agent 
of  the  pope,  325  ;  his  administration  and 
death,  366. 

Mazdak,  189. 


Meade,  gen.,  558. 

Mecklenburg,  226,  316. 

Medea,  46. 

Media,  revolt  under  Phraortes,  15 ;  geog. 
raphy,  24  ;  subject  to  Assyria,  25  ;  re- 
volt  suppressed  by  Sargon,  14 ;  revolt 
under  Phraortes,  15, 25  ;  Median  empire, 
25 ;  supremacy  passed  from  Media  to 
Persia,  26 ;  revolt  suppressed  by  Da- 
rius, 27;  subject  to  Parthia,  30 ;  large 
portion  ceded  to  Armenia,  188. 

Median  wall,  16. 

Medici,  Alexander  de',  327  ;  Catherine  de', 
321 ;  Cosimo  de',  created  g.  d.  of  Tus- 
cany, 327  ;  Mary  de',  regency  of,  325. 

Medici  family  in  Florence,  263 ;  in  Flor- 
ence and  Tuscany,  327  ;  extinction,  398. 

Megacles,  51. 

Megalopolis,  71 ;  battle  of,  73. 

Megara,  Doric  state,  48  ;  ally  of  Athens, 
62  ;  old  constitution  restored,  63  ;  joined 
the  Peloponnesians,  65. 

Megiddo,  battle  of,  6,  11. 

Mehemed  Ali,  revolt  of,  491,  53">. 

Meissen,  origin,  194  ;  given  to  Conrad  of 
Wettin,  218 ;  eastern  part  of  Thuringia 
joined  to,  225 ;  Frederic  of  Meissen  re- 
ceives the  electorate  of  Saxony,  252. 

Melac,  370. 

Melanchthon,  303. 

Melas,  460,  461,  462. 

Melbourne,  lord,  home  sec,  539  ;  premier, 
540. 

Melkart,  Phoenician  divinity,  17. 

Meminius,  C,  126,  128. 

Memnon,  5. 

Memphis,  in  Lower  Egj'pt,  2  ;  worship  of 
Ptah,  2  ;  Cambyses  in,  27. 

Mena,  first  k.  of  Egypt,  3,  4. 

Mendoza,  viceroy,  287 . 

Menkaura,  k.  of  Egypt,  4. 

Menou,  463. 

Menschikoff,  410,  500. 

Mentana,  battle  of,  511. 

Mercia,  founded,  179  ;  supremacy  of,  180 ; 
Danes  in,  203. 

Mercurius,  84. 

Mercy,  314. 

Mergentheim,  218  ;  battle  of,  315. 

Meri  lake,  constructed  by  Amenemhat 
I.,  4. 

Mermnadae,  dynasty  in  Lydia,  21. 

Meroe,  kingdom  in  Ethiopia,  5. 

Merowingians,  35  ;  derivation  of  the  nam^ 
170 ;  defeat  Syagrius,  173 ;  Franks  un- 
der, 181 ;  superseded  by  the  Carolingh 
ans,  184. 

Merseberg,  195,  n. 

Merwan  II.,  last  Ommiad  caliph,  1S2. 

Meschish,  k.  of  Gaul,  36. 

Mesopotamia,  Roman  prov.,  153. 

Messalina,  150. 

Messana,  51,  109. 

Messenian  wars,  I.,  II.,  51 ;  III.,  62. 

Meta  Incognita,  289. 

Metaurus,  battle  of  the,  117. 

Metcalfe,  bir  Charles,  in  India,  542. 


Index. 


633 


Metellus,  L.  Caecilins,  defeats  Hasdrubal 
at  Panormus,  111. 

Metellus  (Macedonicus),  Q.  Csecilius,  in 
the  4th  Macedonian  and  Achsean  war, 
122. 

Metellus  (Numanticus),  Q.  Caecilius,  cap- 
tures Numantia,  123;  defeats  J  ugurtha, 
126  ;  superseded  by  Marius,  127. 

Metellus  (Pius),  Q.  Oaecilius,  war  with  Ser- 
torius,  133  ;  subdues  Crete,  lo4. 

Methuen  treaty,  434. 

Metoeci,52. 

Metternich,  at  the  congress  of  Prague,  476  ; 
of  Vienna,  482 ;  of  Carlsbad,  487 ;  head 
of  the  conservative  party,  491 ;  driven 
from  Vienna,  492. 

Metz,  siege  of,  306,  516,  518. 

Mexican  expedition,  503,  532. 

Mexico  conquered  by  Cortez,  285 ;  freed 
from  Spanish  rule,  488  ;  war  with  the 
United  States,  554. 

Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti,  328. 

Michigan  admitted  to  the  Union,  563. 

Michillimachinac,  Jesuit  mission,  364. 

Micipsa,  126. 

Midas,  k.  of  Phrygia,  22. 

Middle  Kingdom,  32. 

Middlesex,  178. 

Mieczeslav  II.,  leader  of  the  Poles,  198. 

Miguel,  Don,  of  Portugal,  488. 

Mikado.     See  Japan. 

Milan,  captured  by  Scipio,  35  ;  captured  by 
Barbarossa  and  destroyed,  221 ;  rebuilt, 
ib. ;  under  the  Visconti  and  Sforza,  262 ; 
war  between  Charles  V.,  and  Francis  I., 
concerning,  304,  319 ;  Philip  invested 
with,  ib. ;  claims  of  Louis  XII.  to,  318  ; 
appanage  of  Spain,  326  ;  assigned  to  the 
emperor,  393  ;  Victor  Emmanuel  in,  562. 

Milan  decree,  550. 

Milan,  pr.  of  Servia,  521 ;  becomes  k.,  526. 

Milesians  settle  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tigris, 
28  ;  in  Ireland,  39. 

Miletu.«,  in  league  with  Croesus,  21,  28; 
lonians  settle,  49  ;  battle  of,  67. 

Milhaud,  confederation  of,  322. 

Military  roads  in  Persia,  28  ;  constructed 
in  Italy,  82  ;  in  Britain,  176. 

Millenary  petition,  340. 

Millesimo,  battle  of,  458. 

Milo,  S.  Annius,  139. 

Miltiades,  28  ;  at  Marathon,  57. 

Milton,  John,  389. 

Minamoto  family,  212,  21?,  242. 

Minden,  battle  of,  405. 

Mineptah,  k.  of  Egypt,  5. 

Minerra,  84. 

Ming  dynasty  in  China,  242. 

Minnesota  admitted  to  Union,  556. 

Minos,  k.  of  Crete,  18,  46. 

Minotaur,  18. 

Minto,  lord,  gov.  gen.  in  India,  541. 

Minucius,  M.,  114. 

Minuit,  Peter,  298. 

Minyae,  43,  46,  48,  49. 

Mir  Jafar,  443,  444  ;  Kosim,  444. 

Mirabeau,  C.,449,  4.51. 

Miramichi  Bay,  discovery  of,  287. 

Miranda,  550. 

Misenum,  treaty  of,  146. 

Missi  regis,  186. 

Missionary  Ridge  battle  of,  558 


Mississippi  admitted  to  the  Union.  551. 
Mississippi  river,  discov.  287.364;  possession 

taken  for  France,  362,  365  ;  claimed  by 

France,  420  ;  navigation  free  to  England 

and    France,  422  ;    to  England  and   the 

United  States,  432. 
Missolonghi,  488. 

Missouri  admitted  to  the  Union,  552. 
Missouri  compromise,  552. 
Mithra,  25. 
Mithridates,  I.,  founded  Parthian  empire, 

30;  II.,  k.  of  Parthia,  30. 
Mithridates  VI.,  k.  of  Pontus,  his  power, 

129 ;  Sulla  concluded   peace  with,  131 ; 

alliance  of  Sertorius  with,   136 ;  killed 

himself,  136. 
Mithridaticwars,I.,129;  II.,132;  in.,  134. 
Mobile  colony,  365. 
Mocenigo,  adni.,  416. 
Mockem,  battle  of,  478. 
Modena,  416,  458. 
Moesia,  148,  153. 
Mohacs,  battle  of,  303,  372. 
Mohammed,  182. 

Moira,  lord,  gov.  gen.  in  India,  64L 
Molai,  Jacques  de,  255. 
Moldavia,  395,  488. 
Mole,  ministry  of,  530. 
Moliere,  371. 
MoUwitz,  battle  of,  401. 
Moloch,  17,  18. 
Moltke,  508,  509,  517. 
Momemphis,  battle  of,  6. 
Mompeson,  impeachment  of,  342. 
Monasteries  in  Ireland,  39  ;  suppressed  In 

England,  335  ;  in  Austria,  407  ;  in  France, 

534 ;  in  Rome  and  Papal  states,  520. 
Mondovi,  battle  of,  458. 
Mongols,  defeated  by  the  Chinese,  32 ;  in- 

va-siion   of    Germany,   240 ;    conquest   of 

China,  242  ;    repulse    from  Japan,  243  ; 

supremacy  in  Russia,  277  ;  check  the  Os- 

man  power,  278. 
Monk,  376,  377,  378.     See  Albemarle. 
Monmouth,  battle  of,  430. 
Monmouth,  d.  of,  382,  383. 
Monroe  doctrine,  552. 
Monroe,  James,  550,  551. 
Mons  sacer,  96,  98. 

Montague,  proceedings  against,  342,  387. 
Montaigne,  Michael,  324. 
Montcalm,  421,  422. 
Monteagle,  lord,  340. 
Montebello,  battle  of,  502. 
Montecuculi,  368,  372. 
Montenegro,  war  with  the  Porte,  521,  522; 

became  independent,  524. 
Montereau,  259  ;  battle  of,  480. 
Monterey,  battle  of,  554. 
Montesquieu,  448. 

Montezuma,  Mexican  empire  of,  285. 
Montgomery,  general,  427. 
Montiel,  battle  of,  276. 
Montrhery,  battle  of,  260. 
Montmartre,  storm  of,  481. 
Montmirail,  battle  at,  480. 
Montmorency,  320  ;  execution,  326. 
Montpellier,  258. 
Montreal,  settled  by  Maisonneuve,  300 ;  SUT' 

rendered   to  English,  422;   captured  bj 

Montgomery,  427. 
Montrose,  mai'quis  of,  plots  against  Argyle* 


634 


Index. 


346  ;  campaign,  in  Scotland,  348  ;  execu- 
tion, 375. 
Moats,  sieur  de,  290. 
Moors,  origin,  183 ;    conquer  Spain,  183 ; 

caliphate,   209 ;    conquered  by  Almora- 

vides,  209  ;  by  Almohades,  240  ;  conquest 

of  Granada,  276. 
Moqui  Caiion,  287- 
Morabethes,  209,  240. 
More,  Sir  Thomas,  335. 
Morea  (see  Greece),  conquered  by  Turks, 

397 ;  ravaged,  488. 
Moreau,  458,  460,  462,  465,  477. 
Morgan,  431. 
Morgarten,  battle  of,  247. 
Morkere,  206,  229. 

Momington,  lord,  gov.  gen.  in  India,  641. 
Moro,  Ludovico,  318. 
Morosini,  416. 
Morse,  487. 
Mortier,  481. 

Mortimer,  Edmund,  270 ;  Roger,  267,  268. 
Mortimer's  Cross,  battle  of,  272. 
Mortmain,  statute  of,  266. 
Moscow,  national  centre  of  Russia,  277 ; 

burning  of,  475. 
Moses,  8. 

Moshaisk,  battle  of,  475. 
Moslems,  182. 
Mt.  Cenis  tunnel,  520. 
Mount  Desert,  292,  299. 
Mountain,  the,  in  the  legislative  assembly, 

451,  453. 
Mowbray,  conspiracy  of,  270. 
Muawwiyah  I.,  caliph,  182. 
Mucins  Scsevola,  95. 
Mughal  empire,  founded,  353 ;  end  of,  546. 

See,  also,  India. 
Muhammed  II.,  destroyed  eastern  empire, 

278. 
Muhammed  Ghori,  211,  241 ;   Shah,  442 ; 

Tughlak,  241. 
Wuhammedanism,  in  China,  31;  origin  in 

Arabia,  182  :   conquests  in  west,  183  ;   in 

Persia  192,  193. 
Miihlberg,  battle  of,  305. 
Muhldorf,  battle  of,  247. 
Mukhtar  Pasha,  523. 
Mummius,  122. 
Mlinchengrjitz,  491,  509. 
Munda,  battle  of,  143. 
Miinger,  Thomas,  302. 
Munich,  312,  492. 

Municipal  corporations  reform  act,  541. 
Mlinnich,  410,  411. 
Munro,  major,  444. 
Miinster,  anabaptists  in,  304 ;  negotiations 

for  peace  at,  315. 
Murad,  I.,  sultan  of  the   Turks,  278;  V., 

deposed,  521. 
Murat,  460,  467 ;  g.  d.  of  Berg,  468  ;  k.  of 

Naples,  470  ;   driven  from  Naples,  484  ; 

executed,  485. 
Murray.     See  Mansfield,  lord. 
Murray,  earl  of,  regent,  338. 
Murray,  lord  George.  438. 
Murten,  battle  of,  262. 
Musa,  183. 

Muthul,  battle  of,  126. 
Mutina,  founded,  112  ;  battle  of,  36,  144. 
Mutiny  act,  386. 
Mutsu-Hito,  33,  562. 


Mycale,  61. 

Mylae,  battle  of,  110,  146. 
Myonnesus,  battle  of,  119. 
Mysia,  20,  21. 

Nabis,  80, 119. 

Nabonetus,  k.  of  Babylon,  16. 

Nabopolassar,  k.  of  Babylon,  15, 16,  26. 

Nachod,  battle  of,  509. 

Nadir  Shah,  invades  India,  442. 

Nafels,  battle  of,  250. 

Nagpur,  raja  of,  541. 

Najara,  battle  of,  259. 

Nancy,  battle  of,  262. 

Nangis,  battle  of,  480. 

Nankin,  treaty  of,  542,  561. 

Nantes,  edict,  see  edict  of,  369;  rerolo- 
tionary  tribunal  of,  454. 

Nantwich,  battle  of,  348. 

Napata,  kingdom  of,  5. 

Napier,  500. 

Napier,  lord,  561. 

Naples  (see  Sicily),  separated  from  Sicily, 
under  Charles  of  Anjou,  226  :  conquered 
by  Charles  VIII., 262  ;  by  Alphonso  of  Ar- 
agon,  263  ;  by  Louis  XII.  and  Ferdinand, 
318  ;  revolt  of  Masaniello,  327  ;  ceded  by 
Austria  to  Spain,  398,  416  ;  transferred 
into  Parthenopaean  republic,  460 ;  French 
garrison,  463  ;  Bourbons  banished,  468  ; 
restored,  483  ;  revolutionary  movements, 
487,  493  ;  liberated  by  Garibaldi,  503. 

Napoleon  I.,  emp.  of  the  French  (see  Bona- 
parte, Napoleon),  crowned,  465 ;  k.  of 
Italy,  467  ;  protector  of  the  confederacy 
of  the  Rhine,  468  ;  divorced  from  Jose- 
phine, 473  ;  birth  of  the  k.  of  Rome,  474 ; 
campaign  of  Feb.,  1814,  480 ;  abdicated, 
481 ;  removed  to  Elba,  481 ;  return,  483, 
526;  hundred  days,  483 ;  Waterloo,  484; 
transported  to  St.  Helena,  484 ;  death, 
527  ;  entombment  in  Paris,  530. 

Napoleon  III.,  emp.  of  the  French  (see 
Louis  Napoleon),  elected,  499,  531;  at- 
tempted assassination,  531,  544  ;  war 
with  Italy,  502,  582;  Mexican  expedi- 
tion, 503 ;  Luxembourg  question,  511  ; 
Franco-Prussian  war,  513  ;  surrenders  to 
William  III.,  517  ;  death,  520,  533. 

Narragansett  Indians,  359. 

Narses,  175,  188. 

Narva,  battle  of,  395. 

Narvaez,  285,  286. 

Naseby,  battle  of,  349. 

Nassau  incorporated  with  Prussia,  510. 

National  convention,  447, 451,  452;  federa. 
tion,  450  ;  petition,  542. 

Naucraries,  53,  55,  58. 

Navarino,  battle  of,  489,  539. 

Navarre,  origin,  209;  Joanna,  heiress  of, 
marries  Philip  IV.,  254;  Charles  the  Bad, 
k.  of,  258  ;  in  the  Huguenot  wars,  321. 

Navarrete,  battle  of,  276. 

Navigation  act,  376 ;  repealed,  543. 

Nayler,  377. 

Nebraska,  admitted  to  the  Union,  559. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  k.  of  Babylon,  6,  11, 16. 

Necker,  447,  449. 

Neerwinden,  battle  of,  370,  388,  453. 

Nehavend,  battle  of,  182,  193. 

Neku,  k.  of  Egypt,  6,  11,  16. 

Nelson  at  Aboukir,  460;  at  Trafalgar  467 


Index. 


635 


Nemean  festival,  42. 

Nemed,  39. 

Nepalese,  conquered  by  Chinese,  444. 

Neptunus,  84. 

Nero,  C.  Claudius,  consul,  117. 

Nero,  Roman  emp.,  150,  151. 

Nerva,  Roman  emp.,  152. 

Nesselrode,  482. 

Netherlands,  acquisition  by  the  house  of 
Burgundy,  328,  329  ;  war  of  liberation, 
330 ;  independence  recognized,  331  ;  war 
with  Louis  XIV.,  867  ;  with  England, 
379,  380 ;  New  Amsterdam  lost,  358 ; 
Spanish  Netherlands  given  to  Austria, 
strife  with  Joseph  II.,  408  ;  trans- 
formed into  the  Batavian  republic,  456  ; 
into  the  kingdom  of  Holland,  468 ;  in- 
corporated with  France,  473  ;  the  French 
expelled,  479;  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands formed,  483;  Belgium  separated 
from  Holland,  489. 

Neuchatel,  given  to  Prussia,  893;  to  Ber- 
thier,  468 ;  as  principality  restored  to 
Prussia,  482 ;  as  canton  joined  to  the 
Swiss  confederacy,  483;  revolt  from 
Prussia,  492 ;  given  up  by  Prussia,  601. 

Neuhof ,  baron,  k.  of  Cor-^ica,  415. 

Neustria,  decay  of,  35  ;  in  the  2d  division 
of  the  Prankish  kingdom,  181 ;  in  the  3d, 
182, 183 ;  in  treaty  of  Verdun,  187. 

Neutrality  act,  548. 

Nevada  admitted  to  the  Union,  558. 

Nevers,  house  of,  311. 

Neville's  Cross,  battle  of,  268. 

New  Albion,  west,  discovered  bv  Drake, 
289  ;  east,  granted  to  Plowden,  293. 

New  Amst«i-dam,  founded,  298 ;  captured 
by  English,  358,  379. 

Newbury,  battles  of,  348. 

Newcastle,  ministry  of,  438,  439. 

Newcomen,  486. 

New  England,  named,  294;  presidency  of, 
361 ;  Indian  hostilities  in,  417. 

New  Forest,  230. 

Newfoundland,  discovery ,  284, 287  :  Gilbert 
takes  possession  of,  289 ;  grant  of  a  part 
to  sir  Geo.  Calvert,  299. 

New  France,  French  settlements  in,  299 ; 
name  extended  to  the  west,  364,  365 ; 
ceded  to  England,  422. 

New  Granada,  488. 

New  Hampshire,  granted  to  Mason,  296; 
separated  from  Massachusetts,  359 ;  in- 
surrection in,  432. 

New  Haven,  colony  of,  357 ;  union  with 
Connecticut,  358. 

New  Jersey,  granted  to  Berkeley  and  Car- 
teret, 358 ;  under  Andros,  361 ;  divided 
into  east  and  west  Jersey,  359. 

New  Netherlands,  agreement  with  the 
united  colonies,  867 ;  granted  to  dukes  of 
York  and  Albany,  358. 

New  North  Wales,  299. 

New  Orleans,  reserved  to  France,  422; 
British  repulsed  at,  551. 

Newport,  treaty  of,  351. 

New  South  Wales,  299. 

New  Sweden,  298. 

Newton,  Isaac,  388,  389. 

Newtown  Butler,  battle  of,  386. 

New  York,  name  of  New  Amsterdam 
changed  to,  358  ;  captured  by  the  Dutch, 


restored  to  England,  359 ;  gov.  Andros, 
359,  361 ;  gov.  Fletcher,  362  ;  gov.  Bur- 
net, 417  ;  settlement  of  Conn,  boundary, 
418;  treaty  with  the  Iroquois,  418  ;  occu- 
pied by  the  British,  428  ;  evacuated,  432. 

Ney,  467;  "bravest  of  the  brave,""  475, 
477  ;  joined  Napoleon,  483  ;  executed,  485 

Niagara,  expedition  against,  421,  423. 

Nicaea,  council  of,  159  ;  Greek  empire  of, 
216. 

Nice,  truce  of,  304;  annexed  to  France, 
502. 

Nicephorus  Phocas,  Greek  emp.,  210. 

Nicholas  I.,  tsar  of  Russia,  488 ;  Polish 
revolution,  490;  intervention  in  Hun- 
gary, 495;  joins  Austria,  498;  Crimean 
Tvar,  499  ;  death,  500. 

Nicholas  V.,  anti-pope,  247. 

Nicias,  65-67  ;  peace  of,  66. 

Nicomedes,  k.  of  Bithynia,  78;  III.,  129, 
134. 

Niels,  k.  of  Denmark,  208. 

Nightingale,  Florence,  500. 

Nihilists,  525,  526. 

Nikita,  pr.  of  Montenegro,  521. 

Nikolsburg,  truce  of,  5u9. 

Nile,  battle  of  the,  460,  536. 

Nimrod,  k.  of  Assyria,  5,  n.  2 ;  13. 

Nimwegen,  peace  of,  368. 

Nineteen  propositions,  347. 

Nineveh,  on  the  Tigris,  12;  foundation, 
14  ;  captured  by  Cyaxares,  15,  25 :  battle 
of,  192. 

Ninus,  14. 

Nippon,  proper  meaning,  32,  n.  2. 

Nisib,  battle  of,  491. 

Nitta  Yoshisada,  243. 

Nizam  ul  Mulk,  442. 

Noah,  36,  39. 

Noailles,  vicomte  de,  450. 

Nobihty  in  Rome,  101,  102;  abolished  iu 
France,  453  ;  new  nobility,  467. 

Nobunaga,  355,  356. 

Noisseville,  battle  of,  516. 

Nola,  battle  of,  149. 

Nollendorf,  battle  of,  477,  478. 

Nombre  de  Dios,  289. 

Non-jurors,  386. 

No  popery  riots,  440. 

Nordlingen,  battle  of,  313. 

Nore,  mutiny  at  the,  536. 

Noreia,  battle  of,  127. 

Noricum,  148,  167. 

Normandy,  settled,  202;  Vexin  annexed 
to,  203;  duke  William  conquers  Flng- 
land,  206 ;  belongs  to  Henry  II.  of  Eng- 
land, 231;  conquered  by  Philip  Augus- 
tus, 227. 

Normans.     See  Northmen. 

North,  sir  Francis,  382. 

North,  lord,  administration,  400,  425;  re- 
signs, 441. 

Northampton,  battle  of,  272. 

North  Anna,  battle  of,  558. 

Northbrook,  lord,  viceroy  of  India,  547. 

North  Carolina,  separated  from  South  Car- 
olina, 418  ;  colonial  charter  suspended, 
427  ;  insurrection  in,  425  ;  accepted  tb« 
constitution  of  U.  S.,  547. 

Northcote,  sir  Stafford,  545. 

Northern  convention,  462  463. 

Northern  war,  394. 


686 


Index. 


North  German  Confederation.  See  Ger- 
many. 

Northmen,  wars  with  Charles  the  Great, 
185  ;  ravages  in  France  and  Germany, 
193,  201 ;  settled  in  Italy,  198,  199,  200  ; 
siege  of  Paris,  201  ;  settlement,  202 ;  in 
England,  203,  204,  205 ;  conquest  of  Eng- 
land, 206. 

Northumberland,  d,  of,  336  ;  e.  of,  270,  271. 

Northumbria,  kingdom  of,  178,  179,  180. 

Norway,  early  history  to  1103,  208  ;  from 
death  of  Magnus  Barfod  to  union  of  Cal- 
mar,  1103-1397,  238  ;  to  1524,  276,  351 ; 
to  1789,  409  ;  ceded  to  Sweden,  479,  483; 
war  with  Sweden,  484 ;  constitutional 
contest  in,  526. 

Notables,  assembly  of,  447. 

Notium,  battle  of,  69. 

Nottingham,  e.  of,  impeached,  270. 

Nottingham,  e.  of,  sec.  of,  state,  385,  433 ; 
pres.  of  council,  436. 

Novara,  battle  of,  319,  488,  494. 

Nova  Scotia,  granted  to  sir  Wm,  Alexan- 
der, 295,  299  ;  ceded  to  England,  393  ; 
422,  439  ;  fisheries  in,  432. 

Novgorod,  208,  277. 

Novi,  battle  of,  461. 

Nullification  proclamation,  553. 

Numa  Pompilius,  k.  of  Rome,  88. 

Numantia,  destruction  of,  123. 

Numerianus,  Roman  emp.,  158. 

Numidia,  divided  between  Bocchus  and 
Gauda,  121,  127,  142. 

Nuremberg,  peace  of,  303  ;  fortified  camp 
of,  312. 

Nymphenburg,  alliance  of,  401. 

Nystadt,  peace  of,  397. 

Gates,  Titus,  plot,  381 ;  trial,  383  ;  pardon, 
386. 

Oaths  of  allegiance  and  supremacy,  386. 

Obelisks,  3. 

Ocampo  circumnavigates  Cuba,  284. 

Occasional  conformity  act,  brought  in,  433, 
434  ;  passed,  435  ;  repealed,  437. 

Octavia,  145,  150. 

Octavianus,  C.  Julius  Caesar  ;  negotiations 
with  the  senate,  144  ;  appointed  consul, 
145 ;  receives  the  west,  145  ;  war  with 
Sextus  Pompeius  and  Antonius,  146  ;  sole 
ruler,  147.     See  Augustus. 

Odenathus,  157. 

Odin,  164,  165. 

Odo,  b.  of  Bayeux,  229 ;  c.  of  Paris.  See 
Eudes. 

Odovaker,  ruler  of  Italy,  162,  173 ;  over- 
thrown by  Theodoric,  174. 

Odysseus,  47- 

CEdipus,  46. 

CElneus,  k.  of  Athens,  44. 

(Enophyta,  battle  of,  63. 

Offa,  k.  of  Mercia,  180. 

Offices  of  state  opened  to  plebeians,  101. 

Oglethorpe,  James,  settles  Georgia,  418, 
419. 

Ohio  admitted  to  the  Union,  549. 

Ohio  Company,  419,  420. 

Olaf  Hunger,  k.  of  Denmark,  208. 

01af,k.  of  Denmark,  237  ;  of  Norway,  240. 

Olaf,  St.,  k.  of  Norway,  209;  Traetelje, 
first  k.  of  Norwav,  208 ;  Trygvasson,  k. 
of  Norway,  208,  209. 


Olaf,  the  Lap-king,  of  Sweden.  208. 
Oldcastle,  sir  John,  271. 
Old  French  and  Indian  war,  420. 
Oldenburg,  409  ;  house  of,  351  ;  annexed 

to  France,  473. 
Oliva,  peace  of,  373. 
Olivarez,  332. 

OUivier,  ministry  of,  512.  532. 
Olmiitz,  conference  of,  498  ;  siege  of,  404. 
Olybrius,  Roman  emp. ,  162. 
Olympiad,  first,  50. 
Olympian  festival,  42. 
Olympias,  77. 
Olynthiac  orations,  72. 
Olynthus,  battle  of,  65;  70;  alliance  with 

Philip,  71  ;  revolt  and  destruction,  72. 
Omar,  182,  192. 
Omar  Pacha,  499. 
Ommiads  obtained  the  caliphate,  182  :  over 

thrown  by  Abbasides,  183  ;  founded  cal' 

iphate  of  Cordova,  18a,  209. 
O'Neil,  Hugh.     See  Tyrone. 
Onomarchus,  72. 
Opequan,  battle  of,  558. 
Opium  war,  542,  561. 
Oppius,  Spurius,  98. 
Optimates,  101. 

Orange,  William  of  (the  Silent),  830,  331. 
Orban  Frere,  ministry,  525. 
Orchomenus,  battle  of,  131. 
Ordinance  for  the  government  of  the  terri- 
tory northwest  of  the  Ohio,  433. 
Ordinances  instead  of  acts  passed  by  long 

parliament,  347. 
Orebro,  peace  of,  474. 
Oregon  admitted  to  the  Union,  556  ;  boun- 
dary decided,  543,  560  ;  treaty,  554. 
Orellana,  Francisco,  288. 
Orford  (adm.  Russell),  invites  William  III., 

384 ;  victory  of  La  Hogue  387 ;  created 

earl  of  Orford,  impeached,  388. 
Organic  statute,  490. 
Orinoco,  discovery  of,  283. 
Orkneys,  conquest  of,  209. 
Orleanists,  530. 
Orleans  besieged  by  Attila,  173;  maid  of, 

260  ;   cap.  of  Burgundy,  181 ;   battle  of, 

518. 
Orleans,  d.  of,  murdered,  259  ;  death,  530  ; 

Gaston  of,  conspiracies  of,  325,  3^6,  366  ; 

Philip  of,  regent,  445;    Philip  Egalit6, 

450  ;  execution  of,  455. 
Orleans,   house  of,  strife  with  Burgundy, 

259 ;    comes   to  the   throne    in  France, 

317  ;  again  in  1830,  489,  529  ;  expelled, 

530 
Orloff,  411. 

Ormaguas,  empire  of  the,  288. 
Ormond,duke  of,  impeachment,  437. 
Ormuzd.     See  Ahuramazda. 
Orodes  I.,  k.  of  Parthia,  30. 
Orsini,  531. 

Osborne,  sir  Thomas.     See  Danby,  380. 
Osiris,  2,  3. 

Osman  I.,  278  ;  Pasha,  522. 
Osnabriick,  negotiations  for  peace  at,  315. 
Ostend  East  India  Co.,  437. 
Ostmark  (Lusatia),  formation  of,  194  :  Ba 

varian  Ostmark  reestablished,  196 ;   en 

larged,  199.     See  Austria. 
Ostrach,  battle  of,  460. 
Oetracism,  55. 


Index, 


637 


Ostrogoths.     -See  East  Goths. 

Ostrolenka,  battle  of,  490. 

Oswald,  of  Northumbria,  180. 

Oswego,  captured  by  Montcalm,  421. 

Oswieu,  k.  of  Northumbria,  180. 

Othmann,  182. 

Otho.     For  Grerman  rulers,  set  Otto. 

Otho,  Roman  emp.,  151. 

Otis,  James,  422,  423. 

Otterburne.     See  Chevy  Cbase^ 

Otto  the  Finne,  marg.  of  Brandenburg, 
249. 

Otto  I.,  k.  of  Greece,  accession,  489 ;  ex- 
pulsion, 505. 

Otto  I.  the  Great,  emp.  of  the  H.  R.  E., 
195  :  II.,  196, 197  ;  III.,  "  Wonder  of  th« 
World,'-  197  ;  IV.,  of  Brunswick,  223. 

Otto  of  Nordheim,  199. 

Otto  of  Wittelsbach,  222. 

Otto  the  Illustrious,  d.  of  Saxony,  194. 

Ottocar,  k.  of  Bohemia,  244. 

Oudenarde,  battle  of,  392,  435. 

Oudh,  province  in  India,  22;  under  the 
Guptas,  24 :  independence  of,  442 :  an- 
nexation, 546. 

Oudinot,  475,  477,  480. 

Ovando,  283. 

Overbury,  sir  Thomas,  341. 

Ovidius  Naso,  P.,  83,  148. 

Oxenstierna,  Axel,  313,  314,  315. 

Oxford,  parliament  of  Charles  I.  at,  348. 

Oxford,  e.  of  (Harley),  lord  high  trea- 
surer, 435;  dismissed,  435;  impeached, 
437. 

Paches,  66. 

Pacific  Ocean,  discovered,  284. 

Pacte  de  famitie,  446. 

Pais  des  dames,  303  ;  de  monsieur,  322. 

Palaeologi,  Greek  emperors,  278. 

Palaeologus,  Michael,  216. 

Palatinate,  electorate,  248;  in  the  thirty 
years'  war,  310 ;  division  of,  316  ;  war 
over  the  succession  in,  3t)9  :  devastation 
of,  370 ;  in  the  war  of  the  Bavarian  suc- 
cession, 406. 

Palestine,  6,  7. 

Palikao,  battle  of,  502,  562. 

Palladium,  in  Ireland,  39. 

Palm,  execution  of,  468. 

Palnerston,  lord,  in  the  Egyptian  trouble, 
491 ;  alliance  with  Turkey,  499 ;  for. 
sec,  home  sec,  premier,  543;  second 
ministry,  death,  544. 

Palmyra,  157. 

Palo  Alto,  battle  of,  564. 

Pampeluna,  siege  of,  479. 

Panama  congress,  552. 

Pandulf,  234. 

Panipat,  battles  of,  353^  443. 

Pannonia,  Roman  prov.,  149,  167. 

Panormus,  17,  20  \  battle  of.  111. 

Pansa, 144. 

Paoli,  415. 

papacy,  origin,  175 ;  foundation  of  its  sec- 
ular power.  184 ;  German  popes,  196  ; 
Gregory  VII.,  investitures,  199;  Canos- 
sa,  200  ;  concordat  of  Worms,  201 ;  Ur- 
ban II.,  crusades,  213-217  ;  contest  with 
Trederic  I.,  221 ;  Innocent  III.,  223 ;  Greg- 
ory IX.,  strife  with  Frederic  II.,  224,  225 ; 
oouncil  of  Lyons,  225 ;  Adrian  IV.  gives 


Ireland  to  Henry  II.,  232  ;  Innocent  III., 
contest  with  John,  233  ;  council  of  Con- 
stance proclaims  its  superiority,  251; 
Boniface  VIII.,  quarrel  with  Philip 
the  Fair,  254 ;  Babylonish  captivity  in 
Avignon,  255,  263;  great  schism,  263: 
reformation,  301 ;  council  of  Trent,  305  ; 
anti-reformation,  306;  Alexander  VI  ^ 
Gregory  XIII.,  reform  of  calendar,  327; 
dispute  with  Henry  VIII.,  334  ;  bull  ap- 
portioning the  undiscovered  portions  of 
the  world,  353  ;  Pius  VI.  and  Joseph  II., 
408  ;  Pius  VI.,  seized  by  the  French,  459  ; 
concordat  of  1801,  463  ;  Pius  VII.,  seized 
by  Napoleon,  473 ;  receives  the  papal 
states  again,  483:  Pius  IX.,  492:  revolt 
in  Rome  suppressed  by  French,  493 ; 
honorary  president  of  the  Italian  l+^ague, 
502 ;  Vatican  council  papal  infallibility, 
512;  temporal  power  of  the  pope  abol- 
ished, 518  ;  guarantee  for  the  pope,  520  ; 
contest  with  Italy,  Prussia,  Switzerland, 
521 ;  Leo  XIII .,  524. 

Papal  states  founded,  184  ;  estates  of 
Matilda  obtained,  223 ;  independent  of 
the  empire,  263;  declining  prosperity, 
416;  cession  of  Bologna,  Ferrara,  the 
Romagna,  458 ;  transformation  into  the 
Roman  republic,  459  ;  without  Romagna, 
Bologna,  and  Ferrara  restored  to  the 
pope,  464  ;  incorporated  with  France, 
473 ;  restored  to  the  papacy,  483 ;  Bo- 
logna, Ferrara,  Romagna,  incorporated 
with  Italy,  402  ;  patrinmnium  Petri  to  be 
protected  by  Italy,  603 ;  patrimonium 
Petri  also  incorporated,  5l8.         » 

Paper,  improvement  in,  279. 

Paphlagonia,  21,  136. 

Papin,  Denis,  486. 

Papirius  Carbo,  125,  127, 180, 131 ;  Cursor, 
105. 

Papists  disabling  act,  381. 

Pappenheim,  311,  312. 

Paraguay,  discovery  of,  286  ;  rule  of  Fran- 
cia,  488. 

Paris,  Lutetia  Parisiorum,  occupied  by  La- 
bienus,  139 ;  court-camp  of  Childebert 
I.,  181  ;  siege  by  Otto  II.,  196;  siege  by 
the  Northmen,  201 ;  capital  of  the  French, 
monarchy  (see  Laon),  202;  entrance  of 
the  allies,  481 ;  second  capture,  484 ; 
siege,  517 ;  bombardment,  519;  capitu- 
lation, 519 ;  second  siege,  530.  See,  also, 
France. 

Paris,  peace  of  1763,  422,  439  ;  of  1783, 
431,  441 ;  between  Sweden  and  France, 
473  ;  of  1814,  481 ;  of  1815,  485  ;  closing 
the  Crimean  war,  501. 

Paris,  son  of  Priam,  47. 

Paris,  Matthew,  235. 

Parker,  archb.  of  Canterbury,  338. 

Parliament,  in  England,  the  witan,  177; 
p.  of  Simon  of  Montfort,  234  :  taxation 
without  consent  of  p.,  illegal,  266  :  first 
perfect  p.,  267 ;  separation  into  two 
houses,  268  :  the  "  good  p.,"  the  "  won- 
derful p.,'"  269:  English  in  the  house 
of  commons,  271  :  grand  protestation 
342 ;  petition  of  right,  343  ,  scene  in  the 
commons,  343  :  no  p.  for  11  years,  344  ; 
the  "short  p.,"  345;  the  '"'long  p.,'* 
345;  "Rump,"'  376;    *' Barebone's  p.," 


638 


Index. 


376;  long  p.  dissolyed,  378;  resumfe  of 
its  history,  378,  n. ;  "convention  p.," 
378;  "cavalier  p.,"' 378;  convention  p., 
385;  first  triennial  p.,  388;  first  p.  of 
Great  Britain,  434;  first  septennial  p., 
437  ;  Wilkes,  440  ;  speeches  printed,  440  ; 
contractors  and  revenue  officers  excluded, 
441  ;  first  imperial  p.,  520  ;  Catholics  first 
admitted,  339 ;  reform  act,  540 ;  annual 
p.  demanded,  542 ;  property  qualification 
abolished,  Jews  admitted,  2d  reform  act, 
544. 

parliament  of  France,  explained, 254;  mixed 
chambers,  324  ;  mixed  chambers  in  4  par- 
liaments, 324;  resistance  of  the  p.  of 
I'aris,  366  ;  p.  of  Paris  abolished,  but  re- 
stored, 446  ;  again  abolished,  447. 

Parliament  of  Germany,  493-498. 

Parma  ceded  to  Spanish  Bourbons,  403, 416  ; 
ceded  to  France,  463 ;  given  to  Napoleon's 
wife,  481 ;  incorporated  with  Sardinia, 
502. 

Parma,  d.  of,  331,  458. 

Parmenio,  74,  75. 

Parnell,  545. 

Parthenon,  built,  64  ;  blown  up,  416. 

Parthenopaean  republic,  kingdom  of  Naples 
transformed  into,  460  ;  abolished,  461. 

Parthia,  on  the  plateau  of  Iran ,  24  ;  revolt 
subdued  by  Darius,  27  ;  geography  of, 
29 ;  revolt  under  Arsaces,  29 ;  kingdom 
of ,  wars  with  Rome,  etc.,  30;  kingdom 
of,  78 ;  Crassus,  140 ;  war  with  Trajan, 
153 ;    dissolution  of    monarchy,  80, 156. 

Partholao,  k.  oif  Ireland,  38. 

Partition  of  Poland,  I.,  411 ;  II.,  413 ;  III., 
414. 

Partition  of  Prussia  proposed,  404. 

Partition  treaties,  391. 

Paschal  II.,  pope,  201;  III.,  221. 

Paskevitch,  489,  490,  495,  499. 

Passarowitz,  peace  of,  397. 

Passau,  convention  of,  305,  317. 

Patkul,  394,  395. 

Patna,  massacre  of,  444. 

Patricians,  origin,  88,  90  ;  conflicting  views 
concerning,  94  ;  conflict  with  the  plebei- 
ans, 95,  96,  97,  100  ;  create  a  new  office, 
but  soon  lose  exclusive  control  of  all 
offices,  101. 

Paul  I.,  tsar  of  Russia,  459,  462,  463. 

Paul  IV.,  pope,  327. 

PauUus,  L.  iEmilius,  112  ;  consul,  falls  at 
Cannaj,  115  ;  the  younger,  victory  over  the 
Lusitanians,  118  ;  defeated  Perseus,  120. 

Paulus  Diaconus,  186. 

1'ausanias,  60,  61,  69. 

Pavia,  175  ;  siege,  184 ;  battle  of,  303. 

Peasants'  war,  in  Germany,  302. 

Pedro,  I.,  emp.  of  Brazil,  488  ;  II.,  488. 

Peel,  Robert,  home  sec,  539 ;  first  adminis- 
tration,  540  ;  second  administration,  542. 

Peking,  treatv  of,  502,  543,  562. 

Pelagius,  183. 

Pelasgians,  43,  49. 

Pelham,  Henry,  administration,  438. 

Pelissier,  500. 

Pelopidae,  44. 

Pelopidas,  70,  71. 

Peloponnesian  war,  64-69. 

Pelusium,  2 ;  battle  of,  7,  27 ;  taken  by 
Persians,  191. 


Penates,  84. 

Penda,  k.  of  Mercia,  179,  183. 
Peninsula  campaign  of  McClellan,  567. 
Peninsula  War,  471,  537. 
Penn,  William,  360,  377. 
Pennsylvania  granted    to  William    Penn, 
359  ;  government  taken  from  Penn,  362; 
new  charter  obtained  by  Penn,  362. 
Penny  postage  in  England,  642. 
Penobscot,  294,  300 
Penrith,  battle  of,  438. 
Penruddock.  rebellion  of,  376. 
"  Pensioned,"  parliament,  378,  381. 
Pensions,  552. 

Pentarchy  of  the  great  powers,  482. 
Pentland  Hills,  battle  of,  379. 
Pepperell,  William,  419. 
Pequigny,  peace  of,  274. 
Pequot  war,  297. 
Perceval,  587. 

Percv,  Harry  (Hotspur),  270. 
Perdlccas,  74,  76. 
Pere  la  Chaise,  381. 
Pergamon,  kingdom  of,  78, 124. 
Pericles,  rival  of  Cimon,  62 ;    administiv 

tion  of,  64 ;  death,  65. 
P^rier,  486,  527 ;  ministry  of,  529. 
Perioeci,  50. 

Perozes,  k.  of  Persia,  189. 
Perperna,  132,  133. 
Perpetual  peace,  319. 
Perry,  com.,  at  Yedo,  562. 
Perseus,  k.  of  Macedonia,  78,  120. 
Persia,   geography,  24  ;    religion,    24,  25, 
revolt  under  Cyrus,  26 ;  old  Persian  em- 
plife,  rt. ;  conquests  of  Cambyses  and  Da. 
rius,  27 ;   administration  of  the  empire, 
28  ;  war  with  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor, 
ih. ;  of  Europe,  28,  56  ;  decline  and  fall  of 
the  empire,  29 ;  subject  to  Parthia,  30 ; 
new  Persian  empire  founded,   ib.,  155, 
187  ;  wars  with  Rome,  190 ;  restored   to 
the  limits  reached  under   Darius,  191 ; 
conquest  by  Arabs,  192,  193. 
Persian   wars,   I.,  II.,  56;    III.,  58;  IV., 

60. 
Perf,  sir  Thomas,  285. 
Pertinax,  Roman  emp.,  154. 
Peru,  exploration  of,  286 ;  conquest  of  by 

Pizarro,  287  ;  a  free  state,  488. 
Perusia,  civil  war  of,  145. 
Pesfcennius  Niger,  155. 
Peshwi,  443,  541. 
Peter,  k.  of  Aragon,  226;    III.,  276;  IV., 

276. 
Peter  the  Cruel,  k.  of  Castile,  war  with, 

258,  276. 
Peter  I.,  the  Great,  tsar  of  Russia,  374  ;  in 
England,  388  ;  war  with  Charles  XII.,  k. 
of  Sweden,  394,  395,  396,  410;  II.,  410 f 
III.,  406,  411. 
Peter  the  Hermit,  200,  213. 
Peter  de  la  Mare,  269. 
Peter  des  Roches,  234. 
Peter  de  Vinea,  225. 
Peterborough,  lord,  434. 
Peterborough,  sack  of,  204. 
Peterloo.     See  Manchester  Massacre. 
Peterwardein,  battle  of,  397. 
Pf'tion,  451,  454. 
Petition  of  Right,  343. 
Petrarca,  Francesco,  263. 


Index, 


639 


Petre,  father,  384. 

Petreius,  141, 142. 

Petronius  Maximus,  Roman  emp.,  161. 

Pfaffendorf ,  battle  of,  405. 

Pharaoh,  2,  n. 

Pharisees,  11. 

PhJirnabazus,  68,  70. 

Pharnaces,  142,  143. 

Pharsalus,  battle  of,  141. 

Phidias,  64. 

Philadelphia,  foundation  of,  360  ;  occupied 
by  British,  evacuated,  429 ;  centennial 
exhibition  at,  660. 

Philadelphia,  burning  of  the  frigate,  549. 

Philaeni,  altars  of,  19. 

Philip,  d.  of  Anjou.  See  Philip  V.,k.  of 
Spain. 

Philip  the  Fair,  archd.  of  Austria,  253, 
301,  328. 

Philip  the  Bold,  d.  of  Burgundy,  258  ;  the 
Good,  259. 

Philip  I.,  k.  of  France,  203,  226:  II.,  Au- 
gustus,  crusade,  215 ;  Bouvines,  223 ; 
reign,  226  ;  intrigues  against  Richard  of 
£ngiand,  232 ;  trouble  over  Ingebord, 
235  ;  III.,  le  Hardi,  254  :  IV.,  le  Bel,  254 ; 
v.,  le  Long, '255:  VI.,  257. 

Philip,  landgr.  of  Hesse,  304,  305. 

Philip,  k.  of  Macedonia,  71 ;  V.,  k.,  war 
with  Rome,  116,  118;  with  Antiochus, 
119. 

Philip,  d.  of  Orleans.     See  Orleans. 

Philip  II.,  k.  of  Spain,  war  with  Henry 
II.,  of  France,  321;  claim  to  French 
crown,  324:  reign,  330;  III.,  331 ;  IV., 
331;  v.,  claim  urged  by  Louis  XIV.,  391; 
war  of  Spanish  succession  392  :  recog- 
nized in  Spain,  393 ;  claimant  for  Aus- 
trian succession,  400  ;  reign,  414. 

Philip  of  Swabia,  emp.  of  the  H.  R.  E., 
223. 

Philip,  king,  Indian  chief,  359. 

Philiphaugh,  battle  of,  348. 

Philippi,  founded,  71 ;  battle  of,  145. 

Philippics  of  Demosthenes,  72;  of  Cicero, 
144. 

Philippus  Arabs,  Roman  emp.,  156, 188. 

Philistines,  7,  8, 14. 

Philocrates,  peace  of,  72. 

Philomelus,  72. 

Philopoemen,  80. 

Phips,  sir  Wm.,  gov.  of  Mass.,  361. 

Phocajans,  19,  26. 

Phocion,  70,  79. 

Phoebidas,  70. 

Phoenicia,  Phoenicians,  expeditions  of  Ra- 
messu  I.,  5  ;  war  of  Psamethik  I.,  6  ; 
subject  to  Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  14:  geog- 
raphy, 16  :  religion,  16,  17  ;  constitution 
of  the  cities,  17  ;  Sidon's  greatest  power, 
ib. ;  voyages  and  colonies,  ib. ;  rise  of 
Tyre,  18;  foundation  of  Carthage,  ib.; 
decline  of  Phoenician  cities,  19  ;  subject 
to  Assyria,  Egypt,  Babylon,  Persia,  ib. ; 
to  Macedon,  the  Seleucidae,  the  Ptole- 
mies, 20 ;  retains  native  rulers  under 
Persia,  26,  37  ;  P.  refuse  to  assist  Camby- 
ees  against  Carthage,  27 ;  revolt  sup- 
pressed by  Artaxerxes  III.,  29;  never 
visited  Britain,  37. 
Phraates,  name  of  several  Parthian  kings, 
1 ,  29  ;  II.,  30  ;  III.,  first  war  with  Rome, 


30;  IV.,  attacked  by  Antcnius,  30.  war 
with  Augustus,  148. 
Phraortes,  15,  25. 
Phratries,  54. 
Phrixos,  46. 
Phrygia,  21,  22. 
Phylae,  45,  54. 
Piacenza,  416,  467. 
Piasts,  Poland  under  the,  277. 
Piccolomini,  313,  314.     See  .^aeas  Silvias. 
Picenum,  81,  83,  141. 

Pichegru,  455,  456,  459,  465. 

Piedmont,  settled  by  Celts,  conquered  by 
Rome,  35,  118;  under  the  East  Goths, 
174 ;  under  the  Langobards,  175 ,  con- 
quered by  Charles  the  Great,  184  ;  Caro- 
lingians  in,  193;  Otto  I.  conquers  Be- 
rengar  of  Ivrea,  195,  196 ;  Henry  II. 
conquers  Ardoin,  197;  Lombard  league 
and  Frederic  Barbarossa,  219-222 ;  Fred- 
eric I.,  224;  divided  into  small  states, 
262 ;  under  dukes  of  Savoy,  327  ;  who 
became  kings  of  Sardinia,  415  ;  Napoleon 
occupies  P.,  458  ;  Cisalpine  republic,  459; 
abolished  460  ;  restored,  462  ;  Italian  re- 
public, 464;  Napoleon,  k.  of  Italy,  467 ; 
ceded  to  France,  467  ;  Lombardo- Vene- 
tian kingdom  ceded  to  Austria,  483  ;  rev- 
olutionary movements,  487 ;  war  between 
Austria  and  Sardinia,  494;  intervention 
of  France,  Austrians  expelled,  502,  503. 

Pierce,  Franklin,  555. 

Piers  Plowman,  268. 

Pignerol  ceded  to  France,  325. 

Pilgrims,  294. 

Pillnitz,  conference,  451 ;  declax&tion  452. 

Pilpay, fables  of,  191. 

Pindar,  73. 

Pinerolo,  pacification  of,  377. 

Pinto  in  Japan,  355. 

Pinzon  Vincent  YSnez,  284. 

Pipin,  d'Heristal,  183  ;  the  Small,  k.  of  the 
Franks,  175,  184. 

Piraeus,  fortified,  58,  61,  64 ;  blockade  of, 
69,70. 

Pirates,  war  against,  134. 

Pisa,  conquered  by  Genoa,  263;  council 
of,  251. 

Pisistratus,  54. 

Pistoria,  battle  of,  137. 

Pitt,  William,  the  elder.     See  Chatham. 

Pitt,  William;  the  younger,  sketch  of  life, 
441 ;  first  administration,  442,  535  ;  sec- 
ond administration,  536  ;  death,  537. 

Pius  II.,  pope,  253  ;  VI  ,  407  :  Vll.,  con- 
secrated Napoleon  I. ,  465  ;  imprisoned, 
473;  returned  to  Rome,  482;  IX.,  at- 
tempted reforms  of,  492;  death,  524. 

Pizarro,  Francisco,  286,  287. 

Placida,  161. 

Plague  in  Germany,  248  ;  in  London,  379. 

Plains  of  Abraham,  battle  of,  422. 

Plantagenet,  house  of,  231. 

Plassey,  battle  of,  443. 

Platjeae,  battle  of,  60  ;  surrenders,  66. 

Plato,  69. 

Plebeians,  traditional  origin,  89 ;  true  ori- 
gin, 90,  91,  92;  admitted  to  senate,  94; 
contest  with  patricians,  95 ;  tribunes, 
96 ;  comitia  tributa,  96,  97 ;  secession, 
96  ;  one  plebeian  consul,  101 ;  all  opces 
opened  to,  101,  107. 


640 


Index. 


Plevna,  capture  of,  522. 
Plinius,  the  elder,  152. 

Plistoanax,  63. 
"Plon-Ploa,--466,  534. 
Plowden,  sir  Edward,  293. 
Plunkett.  execution  of,  382. 
Plymouth,    council    of,   294 ;    surrenders 
charter,  297  ;  settlement  of,  in  New  Euff- 
land,  294. 

Plymouth  Company,  291,  293. 

Pocahontas,  291. 

Poischwizt,  armistice  of,  476. 

Poitiers,  battle  of  (Charles  Maxtel),  183; 
(Black  Prince),  258. 

Poitou,  acquired  by  England,  226,  231, 
268 ;  lost,  260. 

Poland,  kingdom  formed,  168  ;  war  with 
Henry  II.,  197 ;  with  Conrad  II.;  sub- 
mits to  empire,  198 ;  under  the  Piasts, 
united  vrith  Lithuania,  277 ;  Jagallons  ; 
P.  an  elective  monarchy,  352  ;  elector  of 
Saxony,  k.  of  P.,  372 ;  republic,  374  ; 
Stanislaus,  k.,  395;  truce  of,  397;  war 
of  the  Polish  succession,  398,  414 ;  first 
division,  411 ;  second,  413 ;  third,  414  ; 
kingdom  of,  483  ;  revolution  in  490. 

Pole,  Michael  de  la,  269. 

Pole,  Reginald,  card.,  335,  338. 

Polignae  ministry,  527. 

Polk,  James  K.,  554. 

PoUentia,  battle  at,  171. 

Polo,  Marco,  242,  282. 

Polycrates  of  Samos,  7. 

Polygnotus,  64. 

Polysperchon,  76. 

Pombal,  marquis  tA,  415. 

Pomerania,  extinction  of  the  dueal  bouse, 
314  ;  given  to  Sweden  and  Brandenburg, 
316  ;  lost  by  Sweden,  IlitherP.  given  to 
Prussia,  396 ;  Hither  P.  ceded  to  Den- 
mark, 479  ;  to  Prussia,  482. 

Pompadour,  marquise  de,  403, 446. 

Pompeii,  83,  152. 

Pompeius(iVfag:nj«),  subjected  the  Jews  to 
Rome  11 ;  consul,  129 ;  joined  Sulla, 
131 ;  war  with  Sertorius,  133 ;  defeats 
the  pirates,  134 ;  command  in  Asia,  135 ; 
first  triumvirate,  137  ;  consul,  140  ;  de- 
feat at  Pharsalus,  141 ;  death,  142, 143 ; 
Sextus  escaped  to  Spain,  142 ;  repulsed 
Caesar,  143  ;  treaty  with  triumvirs,  145 ; 
defeated  and  died,  146. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  284. 

Poiidicherri,  443. 

Poniatowski,  413. 

Pontefract,  castle  of,  270. 

Pontiac,  conspiracy  of,  423. 

Pontifices,  college  of,  85. 

Pontius  Gavins,  105, 106. 

Pontus,  kingdom  of,  78  ;  first  Mithridatic 
war,  129  ;  second,  132 ;  third,  134 ;  P. 
Roman  province,  136. 

Poona,  confederacy  of,  443. 

Poor-law  amendment  act,  540. 

Pope,  Alexander,  436. 

Popham,  George,  293. 

Popillius  Laenas,  121. 

Popish  plot,  381. 

Poplicola,  L.  Valerius,  93. 

Poppgea  Sabina,  150. 

Populonia,  battle  of,  107. 

Porrex,  k.  cf  Britain,  37. 


Porsena  of  Clusium,  95. 

Port  Royal,  foundation  of,  290  ;  razed  hj 
Argal,  292  ;  captured  by  Phips,  361 ;  by 
English,  363. 

Porteous  riots  in  Edinburgh,  438. 

Portland,  d.  of,  administration,  537. 

Porto  Bello  captured  by  Vernon,  438. 

Portocarrero,  card.,  391. 

Portugal  granted  to  Henry,  count  of  Bur- 
gundy, 240  ;  his  son  becomes  king  of 
Portugal,  ib. ;  P.  reaches  its  greatest 
power,  discoveries,  and  settlements,  276, 
280  ;  Portuguese  in  India,  354  :  Emman- 
uel the  Great ;  Spanish  province  ;  revolt, 
332,  393 ;  house  of  Braganza ;  earth- 
quake of  Lisbon,  415  ;  refuses  co  join 
continental  system  ;  occupied  by  French, 
470  ;  peninsula  war,  471  j  revolution,  488. 

Poscherun,  treaty  of,  475. 

Potemkin,412,  413. 

Potocki,  Felix  and  Ignaz,  413. 

Potosi,  mines  of,  288. 

Poutrincourt,  290. 

Powhattan,  291. 

Poyning's  law.     See  statute  of  Drc^heda. 

Praemunire,  statute  of,  269,  270. 

Praetorship,  established,  101  ;  first  ple- 
beian, 102 ;  limit  of  age  for,  120 ;  num.- 
ber  of,  122  ;  pro- praetors,  122. 

Pragmatic  sanction  of  St.  Louis,  of  France, 
227  ;  of  Charles  VII.,  revoked,  260  ;  of 
the  emp.  Charles  VI.,  396,  403. 

Prague,  battle  of,  404 ;  compact  of,  252 ; 
congress  at,  476  ;  peace  of,  314, 510 ;  uni- 
versity of,  founded,  248;  secession  of 
Germans,  251 ;  lectures  in  Czechish  lan- 
guage established,  526. 

Presbyterians,  350. 

President,  engagement  with  the  Little  Belt, 
551. 

Pressburg,  an ti- Jewish  riots,  526 ;  peace  of, 
467. 

Preston,  425. 

Preston,  battle  of,  437. 

Preston  Pans,  battle  of,  351, 438. 

Pretender,  old  P.,  437  ;  young  P.,  438. 

Priam,  47. 

Pride's  Purge,  351. 

Prie,  marquise  de,  446. 

Prim,  murdered,  512. 

Prince  Edward's  Island,  287. 

Princes  in  the  Tower,  murder  of,  275. 

Princeton,  battle  of,  428;  foundation  of 
college  at,  419. 

Pring,  Martin,  290. 

Printing,  invention  of,  211, 253,  279. 

Probus,  Roman  emp.,  157. 

Proconsuls,  the  first,  105;  proconsulai 
provinces,  123. 

Proper  tius,S.,  148. 

Property  qualification  abolished,  544. 

Prophets  in  Israel,  9. 

Pro-prastors,  122. 

Proscriptions,  under  Sulla,  132;  undd 
the  second  triumvirate,  145. 

Protectorate  in  England,  376. 

Protestant  union,  308. 

Protestants,  303. 

Providence,  foundation  of,  297. 

Providence  Plantations,  charter  of»  25&.    ^ 

Provisions  of  Oxford,  234. 

Prusias,  78, 120. 


Index. 


641 


Prussia  {see  also  Brandesburg),  inhabited 
by  Wends,  168 ;  conquered  by  the  Teu- 
tonic order,  218, 277  ;  West  Prussia  ceded 
to  Poland,  277 ;  reformation  in,  Albert 
of  Brandenburg  becomes  d.  of  P.  under 
Polish  suzerainty,  302;  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg becomes  k.  of  Prussia,  372,  373 ; 
P.  obtains  Neuchatel,  and  upper  Guel- 
ders,  relinquishes  claims  upon  Orange  to 
France,  393 ;  cessions  from  Sweden,  396  ; 
P.  under  Frederic  the  Great,  405-408; 
claims  upon  Silesia,  400 ;  proposed  parti- 
tion of  P.,  404 ;  Silesia  retained,  406 ; 
shares  in  the  partition  of  Poland,  411, 
413,  414;  joins  first  coalition  against 
France,  452 ;  alliance  with  England, 
455;  peace  of  Basle,  457;  indemnifica- 
tions, 465  ;  treaty  with  Napoleon,  467  ; 
not  in  the  confederacy  of  the  Rhine, 
468  ;  war  with  France,  468 ;  peace  of  Til- 
sit, 470;  reform  of  the  state  and  army, 
471 ;  war  of  liberation,  475 ;  congress  of 
Vienna,  482  ;  receives  Saarbriicken,  485 ; 
Zollverein,  491 ;  united  Landtag,  492 ;  up- 
rising in  Berlin,  492 ;  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein,  496 ;  offer  of  German  crown  to 
king  of  Prussia,  497 ;  revised  constitu- 
tion, 497 ;  conference  of  Olmiitz,  498 ; 
William  I.,  503;  constitutional  conflict, 
Bismarck,  604 ;  war  with  Denmark, 
505;  with  Austria,  507-510 ;  Luxembui^ 
question,  511 ;  war  with  France,  513- 
520;  king  of  Prussia  German  emp.,519; 
number  of  votes  in  the  Bundesrath,  520  ; 
May  laws,  civil  marriage,  521 ;  alliance 
with  Austria,  525 ;  royal  rescript  of  Jan., 
1882,  525. 

Pruth,  peace  of  the,  395. 

Prynne,  William,  344. 

Prytanies,  55. 

Psamethik,  ks.  of  Egypt :  I.  revolted 
against  Assyria,  6,  15 ;  IL,  6;  III.,  de- 
feated by  Oambyses,  7. 

Psammeticus.     See  Psamethik  I. 

Pseudo-Philippus,  122 ;  Smerdis,  27. 

Pteria,  battle  at,  21,  26. 

Ptolemais.     See  Acre. 

Ptolemies,  kings  of  Egypt,  11,  20,  74,  76, 
77, 142. 

Public  peace,  300. 

Publilius  Philo,  102, 105. 

Pugacheff,  412. 

Pul,  Chaldean  king,  13. 

Pulaski,  death  of,  430. 

Pultowa,  battle  of,  395. 

Pultusk,  battle  of,  395. 

Punic  wars,  I.,  109 ;  II.,  36, 113 ;  III.,  121. 

Punitz,  battle  of,  395. 

Punjab,  22;  invaded  by  Alexander,  23; 
conquered  by  Graeco-Bactrians.  ib.;  by 
Scythians,  24,  241 ;  annexed,  546. 

Pupienus  Maximus,  156. 

Purandocht,  reign  of,  192. 

Puritans  in  America,  295  ;  in  England,  346. 

Putnam,  general,  428. 

Puttkamer,  v.,  525. 

Pydna,  battle  of,  120. 

Pygmalion,  of  Tyre,  18. 

Pylos.66. 

Pym,  John,  M.  P.,  341 ;  imprisoned,  342  ; 
impeached,  346;  death,  348. 

Pyramids,  3;  battle  of  the,  460. 


Pyrenees,  battle    of,  479 ;    peace  of   the, 

366. 
Pyrrhus,  k.  of  Britain,  37. 
Pyrrhus,  k    of  Epirus,  aids  the  Syracu- 

sans,  20 ;   war  with  the  Romans,   107- 

109 ;  death,  108. 
Pytheas  of  Massilia,  37,  167. 
Pythian  festival,  42. 

Quadi,  war  with  Rome,  154. 

Quadruple  alliance,  397,  437,  446. 

Quaestiones  perpetuae,  122. 

Quaestors  appointed,  93  ;  two  more  added, 

99 ;    accompany    pro-praetors,   122 ;     20 

quaestors,  132. 
Quaker  Hill,  battle  of,  430. 
Quatre-Bras,  battle  of,  484. 
Quebec,  founded,  299 ;  taken  by  the  Kertks, 

299;   surrendered  to  the   English,  422; 

besieged  in  vain  by  Arnold,  427 ;  battle 

of,  439. 
Queen  Anne's  bounty,  434 ;  war,  363,  365 
Queenstown,  battle  of,  551. 
Quiberon  Bay,  battle  of,  439. 
Quincy,  Josiah,  426. 
Quito,  287. 
Quivira,  287. 

Rabelais,  319. 

Racine,  371. 

Radagais,  171. 

Radetzki,  494,  523. 

Radowitz,  497,  498. 

Radzivil,  490. 

Raedwald,  k.  of  East  Anglia,  179. 

Raetia,  148, 167. 

Rafn,  descripton  of  Vinland,  281. 

Ragaz,  battle  of,  263. 

Raglan,  lord,  600. 

Ragnarok,  166. 

Railroads,  invention,  486:   in  the  United 

States,  486,  552. 
Rain,  battle  of,  312. 
Rajputana,  22  ;  conquered  by  Akbar,  354; 

unsuccessful  wars  of  Aurangzeb  in,  389; 

independent,  442. 
Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  grant  of  Virginia,  289 ; 

expedition  to  Guiana,  290  ;  expedition  to 

the  Orinoco  and  execution  341. 
Ramannarari,  14. 
Ramayana,  Indian  epic,  23. 
Rambouillet  decree,  550. 
Ramessu,  k.  of  Egypt,  II.,  the  Greek  Sesos- 

tris,  5  ;  III..  Rhampsinitus,  5. 
Ramillies,  battle  of,  392,  434. 
Ramses.     See  Ramessu  II. 
Randolph,  Edward,  361 ;  Peyton,  426. 
Raphael,  Santi,  327. 
Rastadt,   peace  of,  394 ;  congress  of,  469 ; 

dissolution,  461. 
Ratisbon.     See  Regensburg. 
Raucoux,  battle  of,  402. 
Ravaillac,  325. 
Ravenna,   imperial    residence,  161  ;    resi 

dence  of  Theodore,  174  ;  battle  of,  318. 
Recimir,  162. 

Reciprocity  treaty,  543,  665. 
Recoinage  act,  388. 
Reconstruction  act,  659. 
Redan,  storm  of  the,  501. 
Reform  act,  first,  540 ;  Scotch,  540 ;  seconcl 

644 


642 


Index. 


Reformation,  beginning  of,  301 ;  ir,  Eng- 
land, 335 ;  in  France,  321 ;  introduced 
into  Geneva  by  Calvin,  304  ;  in  Switzer- 
land, 301. 

Regensburg,  founded,  167,  215 ;  electoral 
assembly  at,  311 ;  permanent  diet  at,  316, 
371 ;  battle  of,  471. 

Regillus,  battle  of,  95. 

Kegulus,  M.  Atilius,  110,  111,  112. 

Reichenbach,  battle  of,  4(36  ;  conference  at, 
408  ;  treaty  of,  476. 

Reichsdeputationshauptschluss ,  464. 

Reichshofen,  battle  of,  516. 

Reichskammergericht,  300. 

Reichstag,  German,  511,  520,  526. 

Reign  of  terror,  454. 

Rekenitz,  battle  of,  196. 

Remigius,  b.  of  Rheims,  174. 

Rense,  electoral  meeting  at,  248. 

Republic  of  the  Seven  Ionian  Islands.  See 
Ionian  Islands. 

Republican  party  in  U.  S. ,  548 ;  in  France, 
530. 

Republics  founded  by  the  French  during 
the  revolution :  Batavian,  456 ;  Cisal- 
pine, 459  ;  Helvetian,  460 :  Ligurian, 
469 ;  Parthenopaean,  460  ;  Roman,  459. 
[Seven  Ionian  Islands,  founded  by  Rus- 
sia, 461.] 

Reservatum  ecclesiasticum,  306,  310. 

Restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  481,  484,  526, 
527 ;  of  the  Stuarts,  378. 

Resumption  of  specie  payments,  560. 

Reutlingen,  battle  of,  250. 

Revolution,  American,  426  ;  Belgian,  408  ; 
of  1830,  489  ;  Central  American,  488  ; 
English,  I.,  Ml,  875;  II.,  384;  French, 
L,  447  ;  II.  (July),  529 ;  III.  (Feb.),  530  ; 
IV.  (Sept.),  517;  German,  492;  Greek, 
488;  Hungarian,  i9i  ;  Italian,  ^90,  ^93, 
602 ;  Japanese,  663  ;  Polish,  490,  505  ; 
Portuguese,  488  ;  South  American,  488  ; 
Spanish,  488,  512. 

Revolutionary  tribunal,  453. 

Rezonville,  battle  of,  616. 

Rhampsinitus.     See  Ramessu  III. 

Rh6,  Isle  of,  343. 

Rhett,  William,  363. 

Rhine  cities,  league  of,  249. 

Rhode  Island,  colony,  founded,  297  ;  pe- 
tition of,  to  be  admitted  to  the  colonial 
union  rejected,  357  ;  charter,  358  ;  gov- 
ernment, 361,  3G2  ;  accepted  the  consti- 
tution of  U.  S.,  547 ;  Dorr  rebellion, 
554. 

Rhodes,  colonized  by  Phoenicians,  17,  41  ; 
independent,  78  ;  Roman  province,  79 ; 
war  with  Antiochus  III.,  119,  120  ;  cap- 
tured by  Persians,  191 ;  given  to  knights 
of  St.  John,  lost  to  Turks,  217. 

Ribault,  Jean,  288. 

Ricci,  Jesuit  general,  416. 

Richard  of  Clare,  e.  of  Leinster,  232. 

Richard  of  Cornwall,  elected  emp.  of  H.  R. 
E.,  225. 

Richard  I.,  Coeur-de-Lion,  k.  of  England, 
crusade,  215  ;  imprisoned,  216;  released, 
223 ;  war  with  Philip  Augustus,  226  ; 
reign  in  England,  232;  II.,  269,  270; 
III.,  275. 

Richard,  d.  of  York,  271. 

Richelieu,  card.,  in  thirty  years'  war,  311, 


314;    administration,  825;    d.  of,  487 
ministry,  527. 

Richmond,  surrender  of,  559. 

Richmond,  e.  of,  275.  See  Henry  VILf 
k.  of  England. 

Ridley,  338. 

Ried,  treaty  of,  478. 

Rienzi,  Cola  di,  263. 

Riga,  siege  of,  474. 

Rimnik,  battle  of,  413. 

Rio  de  la  Plata,  discovery,  285. 

Ripon,  marq.  of,  viceroy  of  India,  547. 

Ripon,  treaty  of,  345. 

Rivers,  e.  of,  execution,  274. 

Rizzio  murdered,  338. 

Roanoke  Island,  colony,  289. 

Roberjot,  murder  of,  461. 

Robert  of  Belesme,  230. 

Robert,  c.  of  Clermont,  324. 

Robert,  d.  of  France,  proclaimed  k.,  20i 

Robert  I.,  k   of  France,  203. 

Robert,  d.  of  Normandy,  214,  230. 

Robert  Guiscard,  200. 

Roberval,  gov.  of  Canada,  287,  288. 

Robespierre,  member  of  the  Jacobins,  451 ; 
in  the  convention,  453 ;  at  the  head  of 
the  reign  of  terror,  454:  crushes  the 
moderates  and  radicals,  465  ;  overthrow 
and  execution,  456. 

Robinson,  John,  294. 

Rochambeau,  430,  452. 

Roche,  marquis  de  la,  290. 

Rochefort,  512. 

Rochester,  e.  of,  382,  383. 

Rockingham,  first  administration,  424, 440 ; 
second,  431,  441. 

Rocroy,  battle  of,  366. 

Rodney,  441. 

Roe,  sir  Thomas,  354. 

Roeskild,  peace  of,  373. 

Roger  II.,  k.  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  218. 

Rogers,  Wood,  capt.,  417. 

Rohan,  card.,  447. 

Roland,  death  of,  186. 

Roland,  madame,  executed,  456. 

Roldan,  revolt  of,  283. 

Rolf,  208 ;  siege  of  Paris  by,  201 ;  first  d. 
of  Normandy,  202. 

Roman  republic,  proclaimed,  459  ;  abol- 
ished, 461. 

Roman ow,  house  of,  353,  374. 

Rome,  geography,  81 ;  religion,  84 ;  eth- 
nography, 85  ;  origin,  mythical  and  real, 
87  ;  the  kings  in  legend,  88  ;  in  history, 
90 ;  constitution,  91 ;  republic,  constitu- 
tion, 93  ;  patricians  and  plebeians,  95  ; 
decemvirs,  98;  conquest  by  the  Gauls, 
35,  99 ;  equalization  of  the  old  orders, 
100  ;  Samnite  and  Latin  wars,  104,  105, 
106  ;  war  with  Tarentum,  conquest  of 
Italy,  107  ;  Punic  war,  I.,  109  ;  II.,  113  ; 
Hannibal  in  Italy,  114-117  ;  Macedonian 
wars,  116,  118,  120,  121 ;  war  with  Antio- 
chus, 119;  Punic  war.  III.,  destruction 
of  Carthage,  121 ;  destruction  of  Corinth, 
122;  provinces  of  Rome,  122;  civil  dis- 
turbances, the  Gracchi,  124  ;  Jugurthian 
war,  126;  Cimbri  and  Teutones,  127^ 
Mithridatic  wars,  129,  132,  134;  Marius 
and  Sulla,  130  :  conservative  reforms  ol 
Sulla,  132  ;  war  with  the  gladiators,  133; 
with  the  pirates,  134 ;    organization  cl 


Index. 


643 


Asia,  136  ;  Catiline,  136  ;  Cicero,  137  ;  1st 
triumvirate,  137 ;  conquest  of  Gaul,  138  ; 
civil  war,  140  ;  constitution  under  Caesar. 
143  ;  assassination  of  Caesar,  144  ;  2d  tri- 
umvirate, 145  ;  war  between  Octavianus 
and  Antonius,  146  ;  Octavianus  ruler  and 
emperor,  147  ;  Julian  emperors,  147-151 ; 
Flavian,  151  •-,  the  good  emperors,  152- 
154  ;  emperors  appointed  by  the  soldiers, 
154 ;  Aurelian,  157  ;  Diocletian,  158 ; 
Constantine,  159  ;  division  of  the  empire 
into  the  easiem,  or  Greek,  and  the  west- 
ern empire,  161 ;  fall  of  the  western  em- 
pire, 162  ;  Persian  wars,  187,  188  ;  Par- 
thian wars,  30.  See  Holy  Roman  Em- 
pire, and  Eastern  Empire. 

Borne  (the  city),  described,  82;  founded, 
87  ;  Cloacae,  Servian  wall,  89  ;  sacked  by 
Gauls,  100;  fire  in,  under  Nero,  151; 
sacked  by  A.laric,  171 ;  by  the  Vandals, 
173  ;  seat  of  the  papacy,  176  ;  Pipin  pa- 
tricius,  184  ;  Charles  the  Great  crowned 
in,  185  ,•  Arnulf,  194  ;  Otto  I.,  195 ;  Fred- 
eric III.  (IV.),  last  emp.,  crowned  in 
Rome,  263 ;  sacked  by  the  army  of  the 
constable  of  Bourbon,  303 ;  occupied  by 
the  French,  459,  473  ;  return  of  pope, 
482;  occupied  by  French,  503;  captured 
by  Italians,  518  ;  capital  of  Italy,  520. 

Romulus  and  Remus,  87. 

Romulus  Augustulus,  Roman  emp.,  162. 

Roncevaux,  185. 

Rooke,  sir  George,  434. 

Rosamunda,  175. 

Roses,  wars  of  the,  272. 

Rosny.     See  Sully. 

Rossbach,  battle  of,  404. 

Rostra,  82,  104. 

Rothari,  175. 

Rouher,  bVi. 

Roum,  sultanate  of,  210. 

Roumania,  independent,  524 ;  kingdom,  524. 

Roumanian  language,  153. 

Roundheads,  350. 

Roundway  Down,  battle  of,  347. 

Rousseau,  448. 

Royalists,  350. 

Rudolf,  archd.  of  Austria,  249. 

Rudolf,  of  Burgundy,  k.  of  France,  202. 

Rudolf  III.,  k.  of  Burgundy  (Aries),  be- 
queaths kingdom  to  Henry  II.,  198. 

Rudolf  I.,  of  Hapsburg,  emp.  of  H.  R.  B., 
reign,  244;  II.,  reign,  308. 

Rudolf,  of  Rheinfeld,  d.  of  Swabia,  199 ; 
anti-king  of  Germany,  200. 

Rudolflan  line,  316. 

Ruel,  treaty  of,  366. 

RulUanus,  102,  106. 

Rump  parliament,  in  England,  351,  376  ; 
in  Germany,  496. 

Rupert,  count  palatine,  250.  251. 

Rupert,  pr.,  at  Edgehill,  347;  at  Marston 
Moor,  348  ;  in  cabinet,  380. 

Rurik,  house  of,  276,  352. 

Russell,  adm.     See  Orford. 

Russell,  lord,  executed,  382. 

Russell,  lord  John,  539;  home  sec,  540; 
first  ministry  of,  543  ;  foreign  sec. ,  543 ; 
earl  Russell,  544  ;  second  ministry,  544. 

Russia,  Swedes  subjugate  the  Slavs  around 
Novgorod,  208;  R.  under  the  Mongols, 
241;  under  the  house  of  Rurik,  rise  of 


Moscow,  276  ;  house  of  Rurik  succeeded 
by  that  of  Romano w,  353  ;  Peter  the 
Great,  374 ;  war  with  Charles  XII.,  394  ; 
peace  of  Nystadt,  397  ;  seven  years'  war, 
403;  Elizabeth  succeeded  by  Peter  III., 
Frederic's  friend,  405;  Catherine  II., 
neutral,  406;  war  with  Sweden,  409; 
house  of  Holstein-Gottorp  in  R. ,  411 ; 
the  partition  of  Poland.  411,  413,  414; 
peace  of  Kutschouc  Kainardji,  412 ;  Paul 
I. ,  459 ;  R.  in  the  second  coalition  against 
France,  460 ;  Suwaroif  in  Italy  and  Swit  • 
Eerland,  461;  Alexander  I.,  463;  third 
coalition,  467 ;  war  with  France  in  alli- 
ance with  Prussia,  468 ;  peace  of  Tilsit, 
470;  war  with  France,  474;  burning  of 
Moscow,  475  ;  alliance  of  Kalisch  with 
Prussia,  475;  receives  AVarsaw  at  the 
congress  of  Vienna,  488;  Nicholas  I., 
488;  war  with  Turkey,  487;  peace  of 
Adrianople,  489 ;  revolt  in  Poland,  490 ; 
alliance  of  1840,  491 ;  intervention  in 
Hungary,  495  ;  Crimean  war,  499 ;  peace 
of  Paris,  501 ;  Turkish  troubles,  521 ; 
war  with  Turkey,  522  ;  peace  of  San  Ste- 
fano,  523 ;  congress  of  Berlin ,  524  ;  Alex- 
ander III.,  525 ;  Nihilists,  626. 

Rustchuck,  battle  at,  473. 

Rut,  John,  286. 

Riitli,  oath  on  the,  246. 

Ruyter,  de,  368,  376,  379. 

Rydesdale,  William  of,  272. 

Ryswick,  peace  of,  362,  371. 

Sa"ad  Tbu  Abi  Wakas,  192. 

Saalfeld,  battle  of,  469. 

Sabcllians,  86. 

Sabines,  Sabine  women,  88;  war  with 
Rome,  89  ;  subjugated,  107. 

Sacheverell,  Dr. ,  435. 

Sadducees,  11. 

Sadowa,  battle  of,  509. 

Saghalen,  ceded  to  Russia,  32,  n.  3» 

Saguntum,  siege  of,  113. 

Sahs,  in  India,  210. 

Saif ,  190. 

St.  Albans,  battles  of,  272. 

St.  Aldegonde,  330. 

St.  Augustine,  castle  of,  289  ;  siege  of,  419l 

St.  Bartholomew,  night  of,  321. 

St.  Clair,  defeat  of,  547. 

St.  Claire  sur  Epte,  treaty  of,  202. 

St.  Denis,  517. 

St.  Esprit,  mission  of,  364. 

St.  Estienne  de  la  Tour,  300. 

St.  Germain,  peace  of,  321 ;  treaty  of,  300. 

St.  Germain-en -Laye,  treaty  of,  368,  374. 

St.  Gotthard,  battle  of,  372 ;  railroad,  626. 

St.  Ignatius,  massacre  at,  357. 

St.  Jacob,  battle  of,  253. 

St.  John,  Henry,  dismissed  from  the  cabi- 
net, 434 ;  sec.  of  state,  435 ;  created  vise, 
Bolingbroke,  q.  v. 

St.  John,  Oliver,  341. 

St.  John,  knights  of,  217. 

St.  John  River,  discovery  of,  290. 

St.  Just,  454,  456. 

St.  Lawrence,  discovery  of,  284,  287. 

St.  Leger,  428. 

St.  Louis,  settlement  of,  365. 

St.  Lucia,  ceded  to  the  English,  422. 

St.  Mary,  mission  of,  364. 


644 


Index. 


St.  Patrick,  39. 

St.  Peterabui^,  foundation  of,  396;  peace 
of,  405,  474. 

St.  Privat,  battle  of,  516. 

St.  Quentin,  battle  of,  321,  338,  519. 

St.  Ruth,  gen.,  387. 

St.  Savior,  colony  of,  292. 

St.  Vincent,  ceded  to  English,  422. 

Saladin,  215. 

Salamanca,  battle  of,  474. 

Salamis,  battle  of,  69,  62. 

Salem,  settled,  295 ;  witchcraft,  362. 

Salic  emperors,  198. 

Salic  Franks,  170, 173. 

Salic  law,  255,  491. 

Salii,  or  dancing  priests,  8& 

Salisbury,  e.  of ,  272. 

Salvius  Juliauus,  153. 

Salzburg,  made  an  electcaute,  464 ;  given 
to  Austria,  468  ;  ceded  to  Bavaria,  472 ; 
ceded  to  Austria,  482. 

Samaria,  7 ;  capital  of  Israel,  9  ;  captured 
by  Sargon,  10  ;  tributary  to  Assyria,  14. 

Sammuramit,  14. 

Samnites,  81,  83;  wars  with  Rome,  I.,  104 ; 
11.,  105;  III.,  105;  join  Pyrrhus,  re- 
conquered, 108 ;  revolt  after  Cannae,  115 ; 
attack  Rome,  but  are  repulsed  by  Sulla, 
131. 

Samo,  k.  of  the  Slavs,  168. 

Samson,  8. 

Samuel,  8. 

Samurai  in  Japan,  212,  663. 

Sancho  IV.,  k.  of  Castile,  276. 

Sancho  I.,  k.  of  Navarre,  209;  III.,  the 
Great,  209. 

Bancroft,  archb.  of  Canterbury,  384. 

San  Domingo,  foundation  of,  283  ;  sack  of, 
290,  339. 

Sandon,  21,  26. 

Sandonidae,  21. 

Sandra-Kottos.     See  Chandragupta,  23» 

San  Jago,  240, 328. 

San  Stefano,  peace  of,  523. 

Santa  F6,  foundation  of,  291. 

Sapor  I.,  k.  of  Persia,  187 ;  II.,  188 ;  III., 
189. 

Saragossa,  jmrrender  of,  471- 

Sarakos.     See  Asshur-ebil-ili. 

Sardanapalns.  See  Asshur-natzir-pal  I.,  As- 
shur-bani-pal,  Grecian  myth  concerning, 
16. 

gardes,  21,  22,  26,  28. 

Sardinia,  Phoenician  colonies  in,  17  ;  sub- 
jugated by  Carthage,  19 ;  ceded  to  Rome, 
112 ;  given  to  Sextus  Pompeius,  146  ; 
Enzio,  k.  of  Sardinia ;  S.  also  claimed 
by  the  pope,  225 ;  reserved  for  the  em- 
peror, 393  ;  seized  by  Spain,  but  aban- 
doned, and  given  to  Savoy  in  exchange 
for  Sicily  ;  dukes  of  Savoy,  kings  of  Sar- 
dinia, 397,  415  ;  compelled  to  cede  Savoy 
and  Nice  to  France,  458  ;  possessions  on 
the  main-land  occupied  and  annexed  by 
France,  460  ;  old  dynasty  restored,  483  ; 
Austrians  put  down  the  liberals,  488 : 
war  with  Austria,  494  ;  shares  in  the 
Crimean  wars,  500 ;  the  French  and  Sar- 
dinians defeat  Austria,  502,  531 ;  Victor 
Emmanuel  k.  of  Italy,  503.     See    Italy. 

Sargon,  k.  of  Assyria.  10, 14. 

Basbach,  battle  of,  368. 


Sarsfield,  387. 

Sassanidae,  in  Persia,  30,  155 ;  fall  ot 
182. 

Satsuma  rebellion,  564. 

Satuminus,  L.  Appuleius,  128. 

Saucourt,  battle  of,  201. 

Saul,  k.  of  the  Jews,  8. 

Saussage  at  St  Savior,  299. 

Savage,  conspiracy  of,  339. 

Savannah,  captured  by  the  British,  430; 
evacuated,  431  ;  taken  by  Sherman,  558w 

Savery,  capt.,  486. 

Savonarola,  327. 

Savoy,  most  powerful  state  in  northern 
Italy,  327  ;  obtains  Sicily  a«  a  kingdom, 
393  ;  exchanges  Sicily  for  Sardinia,  dukes 
become  kings  of  Sardinia,  397  ;  acquires 
part  of  Milan,  415  ;  ceded  to  France,  458  ; 
restored,  485  ;  ceded  again  to  urauce,  oOi 

Savoy  palace,  269 

Saxe,  marshal,  438,  446. 

Saxon  kings  and  emperors,  194. 

Saxons,  pirates,  38 :  location,  170 ;  settle 
in  Britain,  172,  176,  177, 178 ;  gubdued 
by  Charles  the  Great,  184,  185. 

Saxony,  194  ;  revolt  against  Henry  IV., 
199,200;  Lothar,  duke,  becomes  emp., 
218  ;  Saxony  under  Henry  the  Proud  and 
Henry  the  Lion,  218,  219  ;  division  of  the 
old  duchy,  222  ;  electorate  given  to  Fred- 
eric, margrave  of  Meissen,  252  ;  separa- 
tion of  the  Albertine  (Catholic),  and  Er- 
nestine (Lutheran)  line,  3(*5  ;  alliance  of 
Ferdinand  and  the  Lutheran  elector, 
309 ;  receives  Lnsatia,  314 ;  Augustus 
II.,  becomes  k.  of  Poland,  372  ;  deposed, 
3%  ;  Augustus  III.,  claimant  for  Poland, 
398 ,  claimant  for  the  Austrian  succes- 
sion, 400  ;  allied  with  Prussia,  408,  469  ; 
with  Napoleon,  469 ;  elector  becomes 
king  and  joins  confederacy  of  the  Rhine, 
469  ;  capture  of  the  king,  478  ;  half  of  S. 
ceded  to  Prussia,  483  ;  revolutionary  dis- 
turbances, 492,  499;  allied  with  Aus- 
tria against  Prussia,  507  ;  vote  in  the 
Bundesrath,  520. 

Say  and  Seal,  vise,  296. 

Saybrook  united  with  Connecticut,  357. 

Scandinavia,  geography,  163;  ethnography, 
164 ;  religion ,  165.  See  DenmariL,  Nor- 
way, Sweden. 

Scharnhorst  ,  471,  476. 

Schenectady,  destruction  of,  361. 

Schill,  472. 

Schism  act,  repeal  of,  437. 

Schism  in  the  church,  221 ;  the  great  S., 
263. 

Schlegler,  the.  250. 

Schleswig,  foundation  of,  194 ;  yielded  to 
the  Danes,  198 ;  war  in  Denmark  over, 
236  ;  conquered  by  Wallenstein,  310  ; 
taken  from  the  duke  of  Holstein-Got- 
torp  by  the  Danes,  396  ;  annexed  to 
Denmark,  496 ;  three  wars  with  Den- 
mark, 496  ;  delivered  to  th<-  "Panes,  498; 
incorporated  with  Denmark,  505 ;  re- 
signed by  Denmark,  606 ;  provisionally 
governed  by  Prussia,  507  ;  incorporated 
with  Prussia,  510. 

Schmalkaldic  league,  303  ;  war,  305. 

Schoffer,  Peter,  253. 

Schomberg,  384,  385,  386,  387. 


Index, 


645 


Schonbrunn,  treaty  of,  467. 

Schulenburg,  395. 

Schuyler,  gen.,  429. 

Schwarzenberg,  474,  477,  478,  480. 

Schweinschadel,  battle  of,  509. 

Schweppermann,  247. 

Scipio,  Cn.,  112;  killed,  116. 

Scipio  (Asiaticus),  L.  Cornelius,  119. 

Scipio  (Barbatus),  L.  Cornelius,  106. 

Scipio,  P.  Cornelius,  113,  115  ;  killed,  116. 

Scipio,  P.  Cornelius  (Africanus  major), 
elected  consul,  117;  defeated  Antiochus, 
119 ;  death,  120. 

Scipio,  P.  Cornelius,  ^milianus  (Africanus 
minor),  captures  Carthage,  121  ;  takes 
Numantia,  123. 

Scipio,  P.  Nasica,  124. 

Scotland,  geography,  36  ;  Scots  ravage 
Britain,  38,  176  ;  war  with  Edward  I., 
264 ;  contested  succession,  264, 266  ;  Scot- 
land independent  after  Bannockbum, 
268;  capture  of  James,  prince  of  Scot- 
land, 270 ;  James  IV.  invades  England, 
333 ;  Flodden  field,  334 ;  Mary  queen  of 
Scots,  338,  339  ;  James  VI.  succeeds  in 
England  as  James  I.,  339  ;  episcopacy  in 
Scotland,  340  ;  riot  in  Edinburgh,  solemn 
league  and  covenant,  344  ;  bishops"  war, 
345 ;  Scotch  invade  England,  348 ;  Mon- 
trose in  Scotland,  348 ;  Charles  surren- 
ders to  Scotch ,  349 ;  secret  treaty  with, 
350  ;  Cromwell  in  Scotland,  375  :  perse- 
cution of  covenanters,  382 ;  William  and 
Mary  receive  the  crown,  386  ;  union  with 
England,  434. 

Scroop,  archb.  of  York,  270. 

Scurcola,  battle  of,  226. 

Scutage,  introduction  of,  231. 

Scythians,  invade  Media,  15,  26  ;  India,  24  ; 
attacked  by  Darius  without  success,  28. 

Sebastian,  k.  of  Portugal,  332. 

Sebastopol,  siege  of,  500. 

Secessio  plebis,  96,  98,  107. 

Secession  of  the  Southern  States  in  North 
America,  558. 

Sedan,  battle  of ,  517. 

Sedgemoor,  battle  of,  383. 

Seisachtheia,  52. 

Sejanus,  149. 

Sekigahara,  battle  of,  356. 

Seleucidae,  conquer  the  Jews,  11 ;  over  the 
Phoenicians,  20  ;  kings  of  Syria,  77;  con- 
quered by  Rome,  120,  153. 

Seleucus,  76. 

Self-denying  ordinance,  349. 

Selim  II.,  sultan  of  Turkey,  306  ;  III.,  473. 

Seminole  war,  552. 

Semiramis,  14,  16.     See  Sammuramit. 

Semitic  peoples,  religion  of,  12. 

Sempach,  battle  of,  250. 

Sempronius  Longus,  T.,  114. 

Sena  gallica,  battle  of,  117. 

Senate,  French,  under  the  4th  constitu- 
tion, 461 ;  receives  greater  power,  464  ; 
under  Louis  Napoleon,  531 ;  constitution 
of  1875,  533. 

Senate,  Roman,  origin,  87  ;  enlargement, 
89  :  in  the  monarchical  constitution,  91 ; 
under  the  republican  constitution,  94; 
growing  importance,  102 ;  conflict  with 
the  Gracchi,  124  ;  loses  the  jury  duty, 
125 ;  the  reforms  of  Sulla  give  the  S.  a 


temporary  representative  character,  132 ; 
power  of  revision  restored  to  censors, 
133 ;  reduced  to  a  council  under  Caesar, 
143  ;  receives  the  power  of  appointing  offi- 
cials, 149. 

Senate  in  the  United  States,  433. 

Seneca,  150. 

Senlac.     See  Hastings. 

Sennacherib,  10,  15. 

Senones,  34,  35, 107. 

Sentinum,  battle  of,  106. 

Sepoy  mutiny,  546. 

September  laws  in  France,  529. 

Septennial  parliament,  437. 

Septimania,  174,  201. 

Septimius  Severus,  Roman  emp.,  154. 

Serfdom,  166 ;  abolished  by  Joseph  II., 
407  ;  by  Alexander  II.,  500. 

Sertorius,  Q.,  130, 133. 

Servia,  521,  523 ;  independent,  524 ;  king- 
dom, 526. 

Servian  constitution,  91. 

Servile  wars,  I.,  128  ;  II.,  128 ;  III.,  133. 

Servilius,  P.,  consul,  134,  14L 

Servilius  Ahala,  C,  99. 

Servius  Tullius,  89. 

Sesonchis.     See  Shashang  I. 

Sesostris,  5. 

Setil.,  k.  of  Egypt,  5. 

Seven  years*  war,  403  ;  in  America,  420  ;  in 
India,  443  ;  participation  of  Spain,  414. 

Severus  Alexander,  Roman  emp.,  154. 

Seville,  treaty  of,  437. 

Seward,  William  H.,  556. 

Sextius  Lateranus,  L.,  100,  101. 

Seydlitz,  404, 405. 

Seymour,  lord,  execution  of,  336. 

Sforza,  Francesco,  becomes  d.  of  Milan 
262,  302,  303,  304. 

Shabak,  6. 

Shaftesbury,  lord  chan.,  380,  381,  382. 

Shah  Alam  II.,  emp.  of  India,  442,  444  ; 
Jahan,  emp.  of  India,  reign  of,  354. 

Shahnameh,  Persian  epic,  refers  to  old  Bao- 
trian  empire,  25,  191. 

Shahr-Barz,  Persian  general,  191,  192. 

Shakespeare,  339. 

Shalmaneser,  ks.  of  Assyria,  II.,  14 ;  IV. 
10, 14. 

Shang,  mythical  dynasty  in  China,  31. 

Shanghai,  31, 501 ;  opened  to  British  trade, 
561. 

Sharpe,  archb.,  murdered,  381. 

Shashang  I.,  k.  of  Egypt,  5,  10. 

Shays  "s  rebellion,  433. 

Sheeah,  182. 

Shelbume,  lord,  administration,  431,  441  j 
sec.  of  state.  440. 

Shenandoah  valley,  558. 

Shepherd  kings  in  Egypt,  5 

Sher  Ali,  death  of,  547. 

Sheridan,  general.  Opequan,  558 ;  Fiya 
Forks,  559. 

Sheridan,  Richard  Brinsley,  441. 

Sheriffmuir,  battle  of,  437. 

Sherman,  gen.,  campaign  against  John- 
ston, 558  ;  march  through  Georgia,  .558  ; 
received  the  surrender  of  the  last  confed- 
erate army,  559. 

Shiloh,  battle  of,  557. 

Shimonoseki  batteries  destroyed,  563. 
1  Shinto  religion,  32,  33;  reestablished,  564 


646 


Index, 


Shipka  pass,  522. 

Ship-money,  writs  for,  344. 

Shisak.     See  Shashang  I. 

Shoguns,  Japanese  mayors  of  the  palace, 
rise  of,  213 ;  Yoritomo,  243 ;  Ashikaga 
shoguns,  278,  355 ;  Tokugawa  shoguns, 
356,  445  ;  overtlwow  of  the  shogun,  563. 

Shore,  sir  John,  gov.-gen.  in  India,  541. 

"  Short  "  parliament,  345. 

Shovel,  Sir  Cloudesley,  434. 

Shrewsbury,  battle  of,  270. 

Shrewsbury,  e.  of.     .See  Talbot. 

Shrewsbury,  e.  of,  384  ;  secretary  of  state, 
385 ;  resignation,  387  ;  last  lord  high 
treas.,  435,  436. 

Sicilian  vespers,  226. 

Sicily,  Phoenician  colonies  in,  17  ;  wars  of 
Carthaginians  and  Greeks  in,  20  ;  Messe- 
nians  settle  in,  51 ;  Syracusan  expedition 
of  the  Athenians,  67 ;  geographical  de- 
scription, 83  ;  collision  between  Rome 
and  Carthage,  110 ;  ceded  to  Rome,  west- 
em  S.  the  first  Roman  province,  111 ; 
war  in  Sicily,  116  ;  subjugated,  117  ;  re- 
volt of  slaves  in,  123, 128  ;  war  with  Sex- 
tus  Pompeius  in,  146. 

Bicily,  kingdom  of,  Roger  II.  assumes 
title  of  k.  of  the  Two  S.,  218  ;  Constance, 
heiress  of  the  kingdom,  wife  of  the 
emp.  Henry  VI.,  222  ;  war  with  Tancred, 
223 ;  Frederic  II.,  223  ;  Manfred,  225  ; 
Charles  of  Anjou  receives  kingdom 
from  the  pope,  226  ;  Sicilian  vespers, 
French  driven  from  S.,  which  falls  to 
Peter  of  Aragon,  226  {see  Naples) ;  S. 
united  with  Aragon,  263  ;  given  as 
kingdom  to  Savoy,  393  ;  seized  by  Spain, 
but  abandoned,  and,  by  Savoy,  exchanged 
with  Austria  for  Sardinia,  397  ;  after  the 
war  of  the  Polish  succession  ceded  by 
Austria  to  Spain,  with  Naples,  398  ;  S. 
and  Naples  (as  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sici- 
lies) given  to  Ferdinand,  3d  son  of  Charles 
III.  of  Spain,  416 ;  deprived  of  Naples 
by  Napoleon,  the  court  retires  to  S.,  468  ; 
dynasty  restored,  483  ;  revolt,  493  ;  Gari- 
baldi liberates  S.,  502. 

Sickingen,  Franz  von,  302. 

Sicyon,  40,  48  ;    joins  Achaean  league,  72. 

Sidney,  execution  of,  382 ;  pir  Philip,  death 
of,  339. 

Sidon,  chief  town  of  the  Sidonians,  16  ; 
greatest  power,  17  ;  superseded  by  Tyre, 

18  ;  first  city  of  Phoenicia  under  Persia, 

19  ;  abandoned  by  crusaders,  217. 
Sievershausen,  battle  of,  306. 
Sieyes,  449,  461. 

Sigibert  I.,  k.  of  the  Franks,  181. 

Sigismund,  emp.  of  the  H.  R.  E.,  251. 

Sigismund,  k.  of  Hungary,  277. 

Sigismund  III.,  k.  of  Poland,  352. 

Sigurd,  k.  of  Norway,  238. 

Sigurd  Ring,  k.  of  Sweden,  207,  208. 

Sikhs,  revolt,  442  ;  two  wars  with  the  Brit- 
ish, 546. 

Silarus,  battle  of,  133. 

Silesia  united  with  Bohemia,  248 ;  claims 
of  Prussia,  400 ;  retained  by  Prussia, 
406. 

Silesian  wars,  T.,  400  ;  II.,  402  ;  III.,  404. 

Simon,  J  ,  517  ;  ministry,  534. 

Simon  of  Montlort,  the  elder,  227. 


Simon  of  Montfort,  e.  of  Leicester,  his  par. 
liament,  234. 

Simony,  200. 

Sindhia,  443,  541. 

Sinope,  battle  of,  499. 

Sipylus,  battle  of,  119. 

Siraj-ud-Daula,  443. 

Sistova,  peace  of,  413. 

Sivaji,  389,  443. 

Siward,  e.  of  Northumberland,  206. 

Six  articles,  335. 

Sixtus  v.,  pope,  327. 

Skaania,  236,  237,  238. 

Skobeleff,  523,  526. 

Skrzynecki,  490. 

Slavery  abolished  throughout  the  British 
empire,  540  ;  partially  abolished  in 
Conn.,  432  ;  abolished  in  Massachusetts, 
431 ;  in  Pennsylvania,  431 ;  in  the  United 
States,  433. 

Slave  trade  abolished  in  British  dominion, 
537;  in  the  United  States,  550. 

Slaves  in  Athens,  52;  in  Germany,  166, 
177. 

Slavonic  congress  in  Prague,  493. 

Slavs,  great  monarchy  of,  168  ;  religion, 
169  ;  regain  their  liberty,  173. 

Slawata,  309. 

Slidell,  544,  557. 

Sluys,  battle  of,  257. 

Smerdes.     See  Hirhor. 

Smith,  John,  in  Virginia,  291,  292  ;  explo- 
ration of  coast  of  New  England  by,  294. 

Smolensk,  474,  475. 

Sobieski,  John,  k.  of  Poland,  relieves  Vi- 
enna, 372  ;  in  Poland,  374. 

Social  democrats  in  Germany,  524. 

Socialistic  commune,  in  France,  532. 

Socrates,  64,  69. 

Sogdianus,  k.  of  Persia,  29. 

Soissons,  battle  of,  173,  181. 

Solemn  league  and  covenant,  in  Scotland, 
344  ;  in  England,  348. 

Solferino,  battle  of,  502. 

Soliman  II.,  sultan  of  Turkey,  besieged 
Vienna,  303;  alliance  with  Francis  I., 
304,  305 ;  death,  806  ;  reign,  353. 

Soliman  Pasha,  522. 

Solis,  Juan  Diaz  de,  284,  285. 

Solomon,  k.  of  the  Jews,  9. 

Solon,  of  Athens,  visited  Croesus  of  Lydia, 
21 :  constitution  of,  52. 

Solway  Moss,  battle  of,  335. 

Somers,  lord  keeper,  387  ;  lord  chan.,  388  j 
whig  leader,  435. 

Somerset,  execution  of,  336. 

Sommering,  486. 

Soonees,  182. 

Soor,  battle  of,  402,  509. 

Sophia,  princess  of  Hanover,  435. 

Sophia  of  Russia,  374. 

Sophocles,  64. 

Sophonisbe,  117. 

Soto,  Ferdinando  de,  287. 

Soult,  marshal,  on  the  Rhine.  467  ;  in 
Spain,  471,  473,  479  ;  in  France,  481. 

Soult,  ministry  of,  530. 

South  Sea  bubble,  435,  437,  445. 

Southwold  Bay,  battle  of,  380. 

Spain,  Phoenician  settlements  in,  17  ;  Car- 
thaginian colonies  in,  19  ;  war  with  Carv 
thagiuians  in,  115  ;  regarded  as  a  Romav 


Index. 


647 


province,  118 ;  invaded  by  Vandals,  Suevi 
Alani,  171  ;  West  Gothic  kingdom  in, 
172, 174 ;  Suevi  and  West  Goths  unite  and 
are  converted,  175;  conquered  by  Moors, 
183  ;  fall  of  Cordova,  rise  of  Christian 
kingdoms,  756-1035,  209  ;  revolt  of  Por- 
tugal, union  of  Castile  and  Leon,  240  ; 
conquest  of  Granada,  wars  between  Castile 
and  Aragon,  276  ;  union  of  Aragon  and 
Castile,  328  ;  discoveries  in  America, 
282 ;  war  with  France,  peace  of  the  Pyre- 
nees, 366 ;  war  with  England,  377 ;  war 
of  the  Spanish  succession,  3^  ;  partition 
treaties,  391 ;  peace  of  Utrecht,  393 ; 
house  of  Bourbon,  414 ;  Jesuits  expelled, 
415  ;  war  with  England  in  America,  419, 
437,  438  ;  Florida  ceded  to  England,  423, 
439;  war  with  England,  440  ;  Florida  re- 
stored to  Spain,  432,441 ;  France  declares 
war  against,  453  ;  Bourbons  displaced  in 
favor  of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  470;  peniu: 
8ula  war,  471,473  ;  constitution  of  1812, 
ib.  ;  French  driven  -from  Spain,  479  ; 
Bourbons  restored,  483;  liberal  rising, 
const,  of  1812  restored,  4s7  ;  French  in- 
tervention, 488  ;  revolt  of  the  American 
colonies,  488 ;  revolution  of  1868,  512  ;  S. 
a  republic,  520  ;  monarchy  restored,  521 ; 
treaties  with  the  United  States,  548,  652. 

Spanish  succession,  388  ;  war  of,  390. 

Sparta,  founded,  48  ;  constitution  of  Ly- 
curgus,  50  ;  first  hegemony,  56  ;  Ther- 
mopylae, 68 ;  Plataese,  60  ;  hegemony 
transferred  to  Athens,  61  ;  war  with 
Athens,  62  ;  Peloponnesian  war,  64  ;  sec- 
ond hegemony,  69 ;  loss  of  hegemony  to 
Thebes,  70  :  war  with  the  Achaean 
league,  79,  l22 ;  Nabis  defeated  by  Ro- 
mans, 80. 

Spartacus,  133. 

Spectator,  436. 

Speier,  diet  at,  224  ;  imperial  chamber  at, 
300;  diet  of,  302,  308. 

Spenser,  Edmund,  339. 

Speyer.     See  Speier. 

Sphacteria,  66. 

Sphinx,  3,  46. 

Spicheren,  battle  of,  516. 

Spinola,  309,  310. 

Spitamas,  26. 

Spithead,  mutiny  at,  535. 

Spoils  system,  in  U.  S.,  552. 

Spottsyivania,  battle  of,  558. 

Spurfus  Cassius,  97. 

Stadtlohn,  battle  of,  310. 

Stahremberg,  372. 

Stamford,  battle  of,  274. 

Stamfordbridge,  battle  of,  206. 

Stamp  act,  passage  of,  423,  440  ;  repeal  of, 
424,  440. 

Standard,  battle  of  the,  230. 

Standish,  Miles,  295. 

Stanislaus  Lesczinski,  k.  of  Poland,  395 ; 
abdicates,  398,  445. 

Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  k.  of  Poland,  411. 

Stanton,  Edwin  M.,  556. 

Star  chamber,  333  ;  abolition  of,  346. 

Stargard,  truce  of,  405. 

Stark,  gen.,  429. 

States  General.     See  Etats  Gf^n^raux. 

Statthaltership,  in  the  Netherlands,  331. 

Steam,  first  attempt  to  utilize,  485 ;  first 


steam-engine,  486  ;  applied  to  navigation, 
486. 

Steele,  sir  Richard,  436. 

Steenkirke,  battle  of,  370,  387. 

Stein,  baron  of,  reorganizes  Prussia,  471 . 
central  administration,  478,  479;  at  con- 
gress of  Vienna,  482. 

Steinmetz,  514. 

Stenbock,  Swedish  general,  396. 

Stenkil.  k.  of  Sweden,  208,  237. 

Stephen,  archd.  palatine,  494. 

Stephen  of  Blois,  k.  of  England,  230. 

Stephen,  St.,*k.  of  Hungary,  2/7. 

Stephen  Bathory,  elected  k.  of  Poland, 
352. 

Stevenson,  George,  486. 

Steward,  office  of,  195. 

Steyer,  truce  of,  462. 

Stilicho,  161,  171. 

Stillwater,  battles  of,  429. 

Stockach,  battles  of,  460,  462. 

Stockholm,  massacre  of,  352 ;  treaty  of, 
396,  437. 

Stony  Point,  storm  of,  430. 

Strafford,  earl  of,  sketch  of  life,  344 ;  im- 
peachment, 345 ;  execution,  346. 

Stralsund,  peace  of,  237, 249  ;  siege  of,  310 } 
lost  by  Sweden,  396. 

Strassburg,  remains  to  the  empire,  316 . 
seized  by  Louis  XIV.,  369;  siege,  516  J 
capitulation,  618  ;  ceded  to  the  German 
empire,  519 ;  bi-lingual  oath  of,  186. 

Strategi,  55. 

Strathclyde  subjected  to  Northumbria,  180 ; 
submits  to  England,  2((4. 

Stratton  Hill,  battle  of,  347. 

Strelitzes,  374. 

Struensee,  409. 

Stuart,  house  of,  succeeds  in  England, 
339 ;  expelled,  375 ;  restored,  378 ;  ex- 
pelled, 385. 

Stuart,  Arabella,  340;  imprisonment  and 
death,  341. 

Stuyvesant,  Peter,  357,  358. 

Suessula,  battle  of,  104. 

Suevi,  location,  164,  170;  invade  Spain, 
171 ;  unite  with  West  Goths,  l75. 

Suez  Canal,  512,  545. 

Suffolk,  d.  of  (Wm.  de  la  Pole),  impeach- 
ment,  271. 

Sugar  act,  passage  of.  423. 

Suger,  abbot  of  St.  Denis,  226. 

Suleiman.     See  Soliman. 

Sulla,  L.  Cornelius,  takes  Jugurtha,  127  ; 
in  the  social  war,  129  :  war  with  Marius, 
130  ;  war  against  Mithridates,  130  ;  ap- 
pointed dictator  in  Rome,  132  ;  abdicated, 
133 ;  death,  ih. 

Sully,  d.  of,  325,  a40. 

Sulpicius  Galba,  P.,  118  ;  Rufus,  1-30. 

Sumir,  13. 

Sumter,  Thomas,  430. 

Sunderland,  (2d)  e.  of  (Spencer),  in  cabinet, 
381 ;  sec.  of  state,  382  :  becomes  Catho- 
lic, 383;  dismissed,  384;  returned  to 
parliament,  387  ,  lord  chamberlain,  388', 
(3d)  e.  of,  whig  leader,  435 ;  lord  lieut.  o£ 
Ireland,  436. 

Sung,  kingdom  of,  242. 

Surajah  Dowlah.     See  Siraj-ud  Daula- 

Surat,  English  factory  at,  353. 

Surinan^,  discovery  of,  283. 


648 


Index, 


Surrey,  earl  of,  executed,  336. 

Susiana  in  Persia,  24,  3u  ;  invaded  by 
Arabs,  192. 

Sutras,  Hindu  scriptures,  23. 

Suttee,  abolition  of,  541. 

Suvaroff ,  Turkish  war,  413  ;  storms  Prague, 
414 ;  in  Italy  and  Switzerland,  460,  461. 

Suy  dynasty  in  China,  32. 

Syatopluk  II.,  k.  of  Moravia,  194. 

Svea,  208,  237. 

Svend,  Forked  Beard,  k.  of  Denmark,  207  ; 
in  England  (Swegen),  206  ;  Estridsen,  k. 
of  Denmark,  207.  ' 

Sverre,  k.  of  Norway,  238. 

Svold,  battle  of,  209. 

Swabia,  duchy  of,  194 ;  revolt  of  duke 
Ernst,  198  ;  Rudolf  of,  anti-king,  200  ; 
rise  of  Wiirtemberg  and  Baden,  244  , 
league  of  cities,  conflict  with  counts  of 
Wiirtemberg,  250. 

Swabian  city  league,  249. 

Swally,  battle  of,  354, 

Sweden,  Svea  and  Gota,  mythical  history, 
208  ;  Christianity  introduced  ;  union  of 
Caluiar,  238 ;  settlements  in  America,  298  ; 
in  the  thirty  years'  war  (Gustavus  Adol- 
phus),  311-314;  at  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia acquires  Pomerania,  Rvigen, 
Wismar,  Bremen,  Werden,  316  ;  house 
of  Vasa,  352;  house  of  Zweibrlicken, 
373  ;  war  with  Brandenburg,  374 ;  Charles 
XII. 's  war  with  Peter  the  Great,  394, 
376 ;  loss  of  Bremen,  Werden  to  Han- 
over; Stettin,  WoUen,  Usedom,  Hither 
Pomerania  to  Prussia,  396  ;  "  Hats  " 
and  "  Caps,"  409 ;  house  of  Holstein-Got- 
torp;  war  with  Russia,  4'i9;  joins  third 
coalition  against  France,  467  ;  forced  ab- 
dication of  Gustavus  IV.,  472;  loss  of 
Finland,  473  ;  Bemadotte  crown  prince, 
473 ;  alliance  with  Russia,  promise  of 
Norway,  474  ;  alliance  with  England, 
476  ;  peace  with  Denmark,  loss  of  Pom- 
erania and  Riigen,  479 ;  at  congress  of 
"Vienna  receives  Norway,  483 ;  which  has 
to  be  subdued,  484. 

Swegen.     See  Svend. 

Swift,  Jonathan,  436. 

Switzerland,  162  ;  origin  of  the  confeder- 
acy, 245  ;  story  of  Tell,  246  ;  war  with 
Austria,  247;  Berne  joins  the  confed- 
eracy, 248  ;  Sempach,  250 ;  Armagnacs 
attack  Basle,  253 ;  practically  indepen- 
dent, 300  ;  reformation,  Zwingli,  301  ;  in- 
dependence acknowledged,  316  ;  Berne 
takes  the  Waadtland  from  Savoy,  327  ; 
transformed  into  the  Helvetian  republic, 
460  ;  restoration  of  thp  independent  can- 
tons, 464;  addition  of  Geneva,  Wallis, 
and  Neuchfitol,  483  ;  civil  war,  new  con- 
stitution, 492 ;  Neuchatel  resigned  by 
the  king  of  Prussia,  501 ;  rupture  with 
the  papacy, 520. 

Syagrinus,  173. 

Sybota,  battle  of,  65. 

Sylvester  II.,  pope,  197 ;  III.,  199. 

Symington,  486.  | 

Byphax,  116, 118. 

Syracuse  besieged  by  Carthaginians,  20 ; 
foundation  of,  51 ;  expedition  of  Athe- 
nians against,  67 ;  war  under  Hiero  ;  war 
with  Rome,  111 ;  sack  of,  116. 


Syria,  Egyptian  supremacy  over,  4 ;  lost 
by  Ramessu  II. ,  5 ;  wars  of  Psamethik 
in,  6  ;  subject  to  Assyria,  14  ;  conquered 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  16  ;  under  the  Seleu- 
cidae,  77  ;  taken  possession  of  by  Th- 
granes,  134  ;  a  Roman  province,  136 ; 
subdued  by  Aurelian,  167. 

Szczekoziny,  414. 

Tabernacle,  8. 

Taborites,  252. 

Tacitus,  Roman  emp.,  157. 

Tadmor,  foundation  of,  9. 

Tadoussac,  290. 

Taginac,  battle  of,  175. 

Tagliacozzo,  battle  of,  226. 

Taharak,  k.  of  Egypt,  6. 

Tai-ping  rebellion ,  561. 

Taira  family  in  Japan,  212,  213, 242. 

Talavera,  battle  of,  471. 

Talbot,  e.  of  Shrewsbury,  272. 

Talikot,  battle  of,  354. 

Tallagio,  de  non  concedendo,  267. 

Talleyrand,  481,  482. 

Tamerlane,  defeats  Bajazet,  278,  353. 

Tanagra,  battle  of,  63. 

Tancred  of  Hauteville,  199,  214 ;  of  Lecca 
223. 

Tang  dynasty  in  China,  211. 

Tanneguy    Duchatel,  259. 

Tannenberg,  battle  of,  277 

Taoism,  in  China,  31. 

Tarentum,  51  ;  war  with  the  SamniteSi 
104  ;  war  with  Rome,  107. 

Targowitz,  confedei-acy  of,  413. 

Tariff  of  abominations,  552. 

Tarik.  183. 

'Jarleton,  431. 

Tarpeian  rock,  82. 

Tarquinius  Priscus,  35,  89  ;  Superbus,  89. 

Tarquins,  expulsion  of,  93 ;  war  with,  103, 

Tassilo,  d.  of  Bavaria,  revolt  of,  185. 

Tasso,  Torquato,  328. 

Tatars,  Mongols,  240 ;  Khitans  in  China, 
241 ;  Mongols  in  China,  242  ;  Mnnchoot 
invade  China,  365 ;  become  independent, 
412. 

Tatler,  436. 

Ta-tsing  dynasty  in  China,  355. 

Tauroggen,  treaty  of,  475. 

Taylor,  Zachary,  555. 

Tegethoff,  606, 510. 

Teja,  k.  of  East  Goths,  175. 

Telamon,  battle  of,  112. 

Telegraph  invented,  486  ;  first  submarine, 
487  ;  communication  between  Franc* 
and  England,  543 ;  experimental  line 
built  by  S.  F.  B.  Morse,  554 ;  communi- 
cation  between  U.  S.  and  Great  Britain, 
559. 

Tel-el-Kebir,  capture  of,  646. 

Tell,  William,  246. 

Temesvar,  372,  397,  495. 

Templars,  217. 

Temple,  in  Jerusalem,  erection  of,  9;  d» 
struction,  reerection,  11. 

Temple,  sir  William,  382. 

Temushin,  240. 

Tennessee,  admitted  to  the  Union,  548. 

Tenure  of  office  bill,  659. 

Teplitz,  alliance  of,  477;  conference  at 
491. 


Index, 


649 


Terentilins  Arsa,  97. 

Terreur  blanche,  627. 

Territory  N.  W.  of  Ohio,  433. 

Terry,  general,  659. 

Teschea,  peace  of,  407. 

Test  act,  380 ;  repealed,  539. 

Testri,  battle  of,  183. 

Tetricus,  157. 

Tetzel,  Dominican  monk,  801. 

Teuta,  queen  of  the  lUyrians,  112. 

Teutobod,  king  of  Teutones,  127. 

Teutoburg  forest.  Roman  legions  annihi- 
lated in,  149,  167. 

Teutones,  invade  Italy,  127,  167. 

Teutonic  knights,  217,  464. 

Teutons,  36 ;  geography,  162 ;  ethnology, 
163;  religion,  164;  civiUzation,  166; 
history,  167 ;  migration  of  Teutonic 
tribes,  170 ;  Teutonic  monarchies  in  the 
Roman  empire,  171 ;  in  Britain,  176. 

Tewksbury,  battle  of,  274. 

Texa^  annexed  to  United  States,  and  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union,  654. 

Thales,  21. 

Thankmar,  195. 

Thapsus,  battle  of,  142. 

Thebes,  in  Egypt,  2,  4. 

Thebes,  in  lioeotia,  founded,  45 ;  war  of 
the  Seven  against,  46 ;  subdued,  48 ; 
Thebans  at  Thermopylae,  69  ;  allied  with 
Sparta  against  Athens,  62,  65  ;  war  with 
Sparta,  hegemony  of,  70 ;  destruction,  73. 

Themistocles,  67  ;  rebuilds  walls  of  Ath- 
ens, 61;  death,  61. 

Theodelinde,  176. 

Theodora,  210. 

Theodore,  archb.  of  Canterbury,  180. 

Theodore  I.,  k.  of  Corsica,  415. 

Theodoric  the  Great,  k.  of  East  Goths,  174. 

Theodoric  I.,  k.  of  the  Franks,  181. 

Theodoric  I.,  k.  of  West  Goths,  173. 

Theodosius,  Roman  emp. ,  161 ,  171. 

Theophano,  wife  of  Otto  II.,  196,  197. 

Theramenes,  69. 

Thermidorians,  456. 

Thermopylae,  battle  of,  58, 119. 

Theron  of  Agrigentum,  20. 

Theseus,  45,  61. 

Thesprotians,  41. 

Thessalian  migration,  47. 

Thessalonica,  kingdom  of,  216. 

Thessaly,  40,  79,  141,  523. 

Thevet,  Andre,  288. 

Thibet,  Buddhism  in,  23;  conquered  by 
Kang-he,  390. 

Thierry,  k.  of  the  Franks.    See  Theodoric. 

Thiers,  fall  of  the  ministry  of,  491 ;  in  op- 
position, 612 ;  head  of  the  executiye 
619;  ministry,  6i9 ;  fall,  630;  president, 
533;  resigns,  i6.;  death,  634. 

Thirty-nine  articles,  338. 

Thirty  tyrants,  69,  157. 

Thirty  years'  war,  308. 

Thistlewood,  executed,  538. 

Thomas,  gen.,  668. 

Thor,  164, 165. 

Thorn,  peace  of,  first  and  second,  277. 

Thracia,  23,  150. 

Thrasybulus,  68,  69,  70. 

Three  bishoprics  (Tonl,  Metz,  Verdun), 
taken  by  France,  306,  321;  ceded  to 
France,  316  ;  taken  by  Germany,  518. 


Three  kingdoms  in  China,  32. 

Throgmorton,  Spanish  plot  of,  339. 

Thucydides  (son  of  Melasiasj,  64. 

Thucydides  (the  historian),  64;  banish- 
ment, 66. 

Thugs,  suppression  of  the,  641. 

Thuringia,  kingdom  of,  conquered  by  The- 
odoric I. ,  181 ;  landgraves  become  ex- 
tinct, territory  divided,  225. 

Thusnelda,  149. 

Thutmes  III.,  k.  of  Egypt,  4. 

Thyrea,  battle  of,  56. 

Tiberias,  battle  of,  215. 

Tiberius,  Roman  emp.,  149  ;  adopted  by  Au- 
gustus,  148;  subjugated  Pannouia,  149. 

TibuUus,  Albius,  148. 

Ticinus,  battle  of,  114. 

Ticonderoga,  fortification  of,  421 ;  captured 
by  Ethan  Allen,  427  ;  by  Burgoyne,  428. 

Tien-Tsin,  treaty  of,  601,  502,  543,  661, 
562. 

Tifata,  battle  of,  131. 

Tiglath-Adar,  k.  of  Assyria,  14. 

Tiglath-Pileser,  ks.  of  Assyria,  I.,  II.,  14. 

Tigranes,  k.  of  Armenia,  30, 134, 135. 

Tigranocerta,  battle  of,  135. 

Tillotson,  archb.  of  Canterbury,  387. 

Tilly,  White  Uill,  3i9;  in  Holstein,  310; 
Magdeburg,  311 ;  death,  312. 

Tilsit,  peace  of,  469,  637. 

Timoleon,  20. 

Tin  not  brought  from  England  by  Phoeni- 
cians, 17,  n. 

Tinchebrai,  battle  of,  230. 

Tingitana,  160. 

Tippamuir,  battle  of,  348. 

Tipu  sultan,  442,  444,  64L 

Tirhakah.     See  Taharak. 

Tiridates,  k.  of  Armenia,  150,  188. 

Tiridates,  k.  of  Parthia,  29. 

Tissaphernes,  67,  70. 

Titian,  328. 

Titus,  Roman  emp.,  151,  152 ;  destroys  Jo< 
rusalem,  12. 

Togrul  Beg,  210. 

Tokio.     See  Yedo. 

Tokoly,  count,  372. 

Tokugawa  lyeyasu,  355. 

Tokugawa  shoguns,  356. 

Tolbiacum,  173. 

Tolentino,  battle  of,  484 ;  peace  of,  458. 

Toleration  act,  386. 

Tolly,  Barclay  de,  472,  474. 

Tolosa,  kingdom  of,  172 :  battle  of,  240. 

Tdnningen,  surrender  of,  396. 

Tonquin,  annexed  to  China,  278;  dispute 
with  the  French  over,  562. 

Tooran-shah,  217. 

Torbay,  384. 

Torgau,  alliance  of,  302 ;  battle  of,  406. 

Tories,  origin  of  the  name,  382. 

Torres  Vedras,  lines  of,  473,  537. 

Torstenson,  314,  315. 

Tostig,  206. 

Totila,  k.  of  East  Goths,  174, 175. 

Totleben,  405,  500. 

Toul.     See  Three  bishoprics. 

Toulouse,  battle  of.  481. 

Tours,  battle  of,  183. 

Tourrille,  370,  387. 

Tower  of  Babel,  12. 

Townshend,  436,  449. 


650 


Index. 


Towton,  battle  of,  274. 

Trafalgar,  battle  of,  467. 

Traitorous  correspondence  bill,  535. 

Trajan,  Roman  emp.  ;  Parthian  exp.  30  ; 
reign,  152,  153. 

Transubstantiation ,  269. 

Transylvania,  3u9,  315,  416,  511. 

Trasimenus,  battle  of  lake,  114. 

Trautenau,  battle  of,  509. 

Travendal,  peace  of,  394. 

Trejison,  statute  of,  269. 

Trebia,  battle  of  the,  114,  461. 

Trebizond,  Greek  empire  of,  216. 

Trelawney,  b.,  384. 

Trent,  affair  of  the,  557. 

Trent,  council  of,  305. 

Trenton,  battle  of,  428. 

Trevelyan,  Q-.   0.,  sec.  for  Ireland,  546. 

Treves.     See  Trier. 

Trevithick,  486. 

Trevor,  sir  John,  388. 

Trial  of  the  bishops  under  James  II.,  384. 

Tribes  of  Israel,  8. 

Tribunes,  appointment,  96,  97  ;  military 
tribunes  created,  99  ;  abolished,  101  ; 
lose  their  revolutionary  character,  102 ; 
their  power  limited  by  Sulla,  132  ;  re- 
stored, 133  ;  conferred  upon  Cassar,  143. 

Tribur,  imperial  diet  at,  199,  200. 

Tribus,  92. 

Triennial  act,  345,  388. 

Trier,  archb.  of,  248. 

Trierarchy,  58. 

Trifanum,  battle  at,  104. 

Trifels,  216. 

Triple  alliance  between  England,  Holland, 
and  Sweden,  367,  380  ;  between  England, 
France,  and  Holland,  437. 

Tripolitan  war,  549. 

Triumvirate,  first,  137  ;  second,  145. 

Trochu,  517,  518,  519. 

Trojan  war,  47. 

Troppau,  congress  at,  487. 

Troyes,  peace  of,  259,  271,  338. 

Truce  of  God,  199,  203. 

Tschesme,  battle  of,  412. 

Tseng,  marquis,  662. 

Tshernajeff,  521. 

Tsin  dynasty  in  China,  32;  later  Tsin,211. 

Tuathal,  39. 

Tudor,  house  of,  333. 

Tughlak,  sultan  of  Delhi,  241. 

Tuileries,  storm  of  the,  452 ;  burnt,  533. 

Tullus  Hostilius,  89. 

Tunes,  battle  of.  111. 

Tunis,  Louis  IX.  at,  217 ;  expedition  of 
Charles  V.  against,  304;  French  expe- 
dition to,  534. 

Turco-Russian  war  in  Europe,  522 ;  in 
Asia,  523. 

Turenne,  marshal,  315,  366  ;  death,  368. 

Turgot,  447. 

Turin,  peace  of,  371  ;  battle  of,  392,  434. 

Turks,  Turkey,  empire  of  the  Seljuk  T., 
210 ;  supremacy  of  the  Osman  or  Otto- 
man T.,  278  ;  war  with  Charles  V.,  303  ; 
alliance  with  Francis  I.,  305;  war  with 
Max.  II.,  306  ;  with  Venice  (Lepanto), 
326 ;  highest  development  of  the  em- 
pire, decline,  353  ;  wars  with  Leopold  I. 
(siege  of  Vienna),  372;  peace  of  Carlo- 
witz,  T.  receives  Temesvar,  loses  Morea 


to  Venice,  Hungary  and  TransylTania  tc 
Austria,  372,  416  ,  Azoff  lost  to  Russia, 
375 ;  Charles  XII.  in  T.,  395 ;  Azotf  re- 
gained, 396  ;  conquest  of  Morea,  war 
with  Austria,  peace  of  Passarowitz,  Aus- 
tria receives  Temesvar,  Little  Wallachia, 
Belgrade,  part  of  Servia,  397  ;  war  with 
Poland  and  Russia,  regains  Belgrade, 
Servia,  Little  Wallachia,  398  ;  war  with 
Russia  and  Austria,  408, 410  ;  Azofif  finally 
lost,  410 ;  with  Catharine  II.  (1),  peace  of 
Kutschouc  Kainardji,  Bug  the  boun- 
dary, 412  ;  (2)  peace  of  J  assy,  Dniestei 
the  boundary,  413;  war  with  Russia, 
peace  of  Bucharest,  Pruth  the  boun- 
dary, 473 ;  revolt  of  Greece,  488 ;  mas- 
sacre of  Janizaries,  Navarino,  489  ;  war 
with  Russia,  peace  of  Adriauople,  489 ; 
Crimean  war,  499  ;  peace  of  Paris,  501 ; 
revolt  of  Herzegovina,  etc.,  ''Bulgarian 
atrocities,"  521;  war  with  Russia,  522; 
peace  of  San  Stefano,  523  ;  congrtsss  of 
Berlin,  524  ;  loss  of  much  territory,  524  ; 
conference  of  Berlin,  surrender  of  Lul- 
cigno,  525. 

Tuscany,  Cosimo  de  Medici  of  Florence 
becomes  grand  duke  of  T.,  327  ;  Francis 
Stephen,  of  Lorraine,  receives  T.,  398, 
416  ;  becomes  an  appanage  of  Austria, 
416  ;  grand  duke  expelled,  461  ;  ceded  to 
Parma,  as  kingdom  of  Etruria,  463  ;  old 
dynasty  restored,  483  ;  united  with  Sar- 
dinia, 502. 

Tuscaroras,  363,  417. 

Two  Sicilies.     See  Naples,  Sicily. 

Tycoon.     See  Shogun. 

Tyler,  John,  554. 

Tyler,  Wat,  269. 

Tyndale's  translation  of  the  Bible,  335. 

Tyndaris,  battle  off,  110. 

Tyrant,  49. 

Tyrconnel,  383,  387. 

Tyre,  16;  subdued  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  16; 
surpasses  Sidon,  18;  height  of  its  pros- 
perity under  Hiram,  18  ;  decline,  19  \  be- 
sieged by  Nebuchadnezzar,  19  ;  captured 
by  Alexander,  20. 

Tyrol,  acquired  Carinthia,  244  ;  given  to 
Austria  by  Margaret  Maultasch,  249  ; 
falls  to  archduke  Maximilian,  253 ;  in- 
vaded by  Bavarians,  392;  ceded  to  Ba- 
varia, 468  ;  revolt  of  Tyrol  under  Hofer, 
471 ;  revolt  subdued,  souihern  Tyrol  an- 
nexed to  Italy,  472  ;  T.  restored  to  Aus- 
tria, 482. 

Tyrone,  e.  of,  rebellion,  339,  341. 

Ulf-Jarl,  207. 

Ulm,  250  ;    truce  of,  315 ;  surrender  of, 

467. 
Ulrica  Eleanora,  q.  of  Sweden,  396. 
Ulrich,  d.  of  Wiirtemberg,  victory  of  Swa* 

bian  league  over,  250. 
Ulrich,  d.  of  Wiirtemberg,  restored,  304. 
Umbria,  81,  83,  141. 
Umbro-Sabellian  tribe,  86. 
"  Unam  Sanctam,"  254. 
Union  of  Calmar,  237,  238,  240,  361, 
Union  G^n^rale,  failure  of,  534. 
Union,  German,  498. 
Union.  Prot^s^int,  308,  309. 
Union  Jack,  434 


Index. 


651 


United  colonies  of  New  England,  298. 

United  Irishmen,  536. 

United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, 536. 

United  Netherlands,  republic  of,  316.  See 
Netherlands. 

Jnited  New  Netherland  company,  298. 

United  Provinces.     See  Netherlands. 

United  States  of  America,  independence 
proclaimed,  428;  articlei  of  confedera- 
tion, 429  ;  independence  recognized  and 
boundaries  established,  432 ;  first  con- 
gress at  New  York,  547  ;  first  meets  at 
vVashington,  549  :  Jay  "s  treaties,  548 ; 
Louisiana  purchase,  549 ;  war  of  1812, 
551 ;  Missouri  compromise,  552 ;  war  with 
Mexico,  554  :  fugitive  slave  law,  548,  555  ; 
civil  war,  557,  prohibition  of  slavery, 
658 ;  resumption,  civil  service  reform, 
560. 

United  States  bank,  547 ;  second,  551. 

Unstrut,  battle  of,  195,  199. 

Urana,  Pedro  de,  288. 

Urban  II.,  pope,  213. 

Urchan,  278. 

Uruguay,  discovery  of,  286 ;  independent, 
488. 

Usurtasen,  ks.  of  Egypt,  I.,  II.,  III.,  4. 

Utica,  Phoenician  colony,  17  ;  battle,  141. 

Utraquists,  252. 

Utrecht,  peace  of,  393,  435 ;  treaty  of,  363; 
union  of,  331. 

Uxbridge,  treaty  of,  349. 

Uzeda,  d.  of,  331. 

Vafa,  Cabega  de,  286. 

Vadimonium  lake,  battle*  of,  105,  107. 

Valdivia,  287. 

"Valens,  Roman  emp.,  160. 

Valentinianus,   I.,  Roman  emp.,  160;  II., 

160;  III.,  161,  173. 
Vaierianus,  Roman  emp.,  156,  188. 
Valerius,  laws  of,  98. 
Valerius  Corvus,  M.,  103,   104;  Maximus, 

110 ;  Poplicola,  93. 
Valley  Forge,  429. 
Valmy,  battle  at,  452. 
Valois,  house  of,  257. 
Van  Buren,  Martin,  552,  553. 
Vandals,  location,  170  ;  invaded  Spain,  171 ; 

kingdom  in  Africa,  172  ;  power  in  Africa 

destroyed,  174. 
Vane,  sir  Henry,  execution  of,  379. 
Van  Tromp,  376. 
Varahran  I.,  k.  of  Persia,  II..  IH.,  188; 

IV.,  v.,  189;  VI.,5eeBahram. 
Varna,  battle  of,  278. 
Varro,  C  Terentius,  115. 
Varus,  Quintilius,  143,  149, 167. 
Vasa,  house  of,  352. 
Vassals,  166. 
Vatican  council,  512. 
Vaucelles,  truce  of,  306. 
Vauchamps,  battle  of,  480. 
Vedas,  22, 23. 
Veil,  war  of  Romulus  with,  88;  siege  of, 

99. 
VelaRquez,  Diego,  284,  285. 
Venaissin,  annexed  to  France,  452. 
Vendue,  royalistic  revolt  in  the,  453,  454  ; 

conclusion  of  the  war,  457  ;  new  revolt 

repressed,  ib. 


Vendome,  392,  435. 

Vendome,  column,  532. 

Venezuela,  discovery  of,  283 ;  republic  of, 
488. 

Venice  founded  by  Italian  fugitives,  173 ; 
shares  in  4th  crusade,  216 ;  constiti^y 
tion,  697-1454,  262  ;  acquisition  of  Corfu 
and  Cyprus,  height  of  its  power,  ib.; 
league  of  Cambray,  300,  318 ;  holy  league, 
318  ;  decline  in  power,  loses  Cyprus  to 
the  Turks,  326 ;  at  the  peace  of  Carlo- 
witz  receives  Morea,  372  ;  which  it  loses 
at  the  peace  of  Passarowitz,  397  ;  these 
wars  described,  415  ;  V.  seized  by  France, 
gov.  overthrown,  459  ;  ceded  to  Austria, 
except  Ionian  Islands,  459  ;  at  the  con- 
gress of  Vienna,  Austria  retains  V. ,  which 
forms  with  Milan  the  Lombardo- Venetian 
kingdom,  482  ;  revolt  and  subjugation, 
494  ;  ceded  to  Napoleon  III.,  509  ;  ceded 
to  Italy,  510,  and  united  with  that  king- 
dom, 511. 

Venus,  84. 

Vera  Cruz,  285 ;  surrender  of,  to  gen. 
Scott,  554. 

VercellaB,  battle  of,  128. 

Vercingetorix,  139. 

Verden,  ceded  to  Sweden,  316;  conquered 
by  Denmark  and  sold  to  Hanover,  396. 

Verdun,  see  the  Three  bishoprics  ;  treaty 
of,  187. 

Vere,  Robert  de,  impeachment,  269. 

Vergennes,  c.  de,  447. 

Vergilius  Maro,  P.,  81,  147. 

Vergniaud,  451,  452,  454. 

Vermont,  organized,  429 ;  admitted  to 
Union,  547. 

Verona,  congress  of,  488. 

Veronese,  Paul,  328. 

Verrazzano,  Giovanni  di,  286. 

Versailles,  convention  of,  619 ;  prelimina- 
ries of  peace  at,  519  ;  treaty  of,  408 : 
peace  of,  432,  441. 

Verus,  Lucius,  154. 

Vervins,  treaty  of,  324. 

Vesontio,  battle  of,  138. 

Vespasianus,  Roman  emp.,  37, 150, 151. 

Vespucci,  Amerigo,  283,  284. 

Vestal  Tirgins,  85. 

Vesuvius,  eruption  of,  152 ,  battle  of,  104, 
175. 

Vexin,  203. 

Via  Emilia,  118 ;  Appia,  construction  of, 
105  ;  Flaminia,  construction  of,  106,  113 ; 
Valeria,  106. 

Vicksburg,  558. 

Victor  Amadeus,  k.  of  Sardinia,  458. 

Victor  Emmanuel,  k.  of  Sardinia,  returns  to 
Turin,  482. 

Victor  Emmanuel,  k.  of  Sardinia,  succeeds 
to  the  throne,  494 ;  in  Crimean  war,  500  ; 
k.  of  Italy,  503  ;  death,  524. 

Victoria,  q.  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
491 ;  marriage,  542 ;  empress  of  India, 
545,  547. 

Vienna,  grand  alliance  of,  370.  See  Grand 
alliance. 

Vienna,  alliance  of,  against  Napoleon  (1815), 
483  ;  concordat  of,  253 ;  conference  in, 
491 ;  congress  of,  482, 537  ;  final  act,  487  ; 
peace  of  (ending  war  of  Polish  succession), 
398  ;  peace  of  between  France  and  Aus- 


652 


Index. 


tria  (1809^  472 ;  peace  of,  ending  the  war 
of  Austria  and  Prussia  with  Denmark 
(1864),  506 ;  peace  of,  between  Austria 
and  Italy  (1866),  511;  treaty  of  (1731), 
437  ;  siege  by  the  Turks,  303,  372  ;  foun- 

•  dation  of,  167  ;  outbreak  in,  492  ;  second, 
499 ;  third,  493. 

Vienne.     See  Dauphin(5. 

Vijayanagar,  Hindu  kingdom  of,  241,  353; 
destruction,  354. 

Vilagos,  capitulation  of,  495. 

Villafafila,  treaty  of,  328. 

Villafranca,  meeting  at,  602. 

Villars,  366,  392,  393. 

Yillegagnon,  288. 

Villehardouin,  216. 

Villele,  ministry  of,  527. 

Villeroi,  370,  392. 

Vinci,  Leonardo  da,  327. 

Vindelicia,  34,  148,  167. 

Vindex,  C.  Julius,  151. 

Vinegar  Hill,  battle  of,  536. 

Vinland  (America),  209,  281. 

Viaoy,  general,  532. 

Vio,  cardinal  de,  301. 

"Vionville,  battle  of,  516. 

Virginia,  98. 

Virginia,  named,  289 ;  division  of,  291 ; 
first  general  assembly  in,  292  ;  massacre 
of  colonists  in,  357 ;  Bacon's  rebellion, 
359 ;  resolutions  of  the  house  of  bur- 
gesses, 424 :  secedes,  556. 

Viriathus,  123. 

Visconti,  John  Galeazzo  becomes  duke  of 
Milan,  251 ;  extinction  of  the  line,  262, 
318. 

Visigoths.     See  West  Goths. 

Vitellius,  Roman  emp.,  151. 

Vitiges,  k.  of  East  Goths,  174. 

Vittoria,  battle  of,  479,  537. 

Vladimir  the  Great,  of  Russia,  276. 

•Vladislas  111.,  of  Poland,  elected  k.,  of 
Hungary,  278;  IV.,  362. 

Volabhis  in  India,  210. 

Volero,  Publiiius.  di. 

Vologeses,  ks.  of  Parthia,  TIT.,  war  with 
M.  Aurelius,  30  ;  IV.,  loses  northern 
Assyria,  30. 

Volscii,  wars  with  Romans,  97,  98,  100, 
103 :  receive  citizenship  without  suf- 
frage, 104. 

Voltaire,  400, 448. 

Voltri.  battle  of,  462. 

Vortigern,  37,  38. 

Vossem,  peace  of,  367. 

Vote  by  ballot  in  England,  545. 

Vouill6,  battle  of,  174. 

Vul-lush  III.,  setf  Ramannarari. 

Wachau,  battle  at,  478. 

Waddington,  ministry  of,  in  France,  534. 

Wadsvvorth,  362. 

Wagram,  battle  of,  472. 

Wahlstatt,  battle  of,  240,  477. 

Waiblingen.     See  Welfs. 

Wakefield,  battle  of,  272. 

Walcheren  expedition,  471. 

Waldemar  I.,  k.  of  Denmark,  the   Great, 

236;  IL,  the  Conqueror,  2^4,  235  ;  111., 

237. 
Waldemar  the  False,  248. 
Waldenses,  227. 


Wales,  migration  of  Britons  to,  172  ;    con- 
quest by   Edward  I.,  364;  annexed  to 
Eng.,  364. 
Wales,  pr.  of,  visits  United  States  and  Can- 
ada, 544 :  India,  545. 
Walja,  k.  of  the  West  Goths,  172. 
Wall  of  China,  32. 
Wallace,  sir  Wm.,  266. 
Wallenstein,  Albert  of,  310,  313. 
Waller,  347. 
Walpole,   434;    administration  437;    falL 

438. 
Walsingham,  339. 
Walter  the  Penniless,  200,  213. 
Walter,  Hubert,  archb.  of  Canterbury,  233. 
Waltzemiiller,  Martin,  283. 
Wandewash,  battle  of,  444. 
Warbeck,  Perkin,  333. 
Warsaw,  battle  of,  373 ;  besieged  by  Prus- 
sians, 414  ;  captured  by  Russians,  490. 
Warsaw,   duchy   of,  created  for  the  k.  of 
Saxony,  470  ;    West    Galicia    ceded    to. 
472  ;  a   portion   ceded    to  Prussia,  482  ; 
the  rest,  as  kingdom  of  Poland,  to  Rus- 
sia, 483. 
Wartburg,  Luther  at  the,  302;  festival  of 

the,  487. 
Wartenburg,  battle  of,  478. 
Warwick,  e.  of,  impeachment,  270. 
Wai-wick,  e.  of  (the  King-maker),  takes  up 

arms,  272, 274. 
Warwick,  e.  of,  grant  in  America,  296. 
Warwick,  e.  of,  executed,  333. 
Washington  city  laid  out,  547. 
Washington,  treaty  of,  545,  560. 
Washington,  George,  expedition  to  the  forts 
on  the   Alleghany,  420  ;    at  Braddock's 
defeat,  421 ;  in  continental  congress,  426: 
commander-in-chief,  427  ;    war  of  inde- 
pendence, 427^31 ;  resigned  his  commis- 
ission,  432 ;   first  pres.  of  U.  S.,  547  ;  re- 
elected, 548  ;  death,  549. 
Waterloo,  battle  of,  484,  538. 
Watt,  James,  486. 
^^ayne,  430,  547. 
Webster,  Daniel,  speech  in  reply  to  Hayne, 

553  :  U.  S.  sec.  of  state,  554,  655. 
Wedmore,  treaty  of,  204. 
Wehlau,  treaty  of,  373. 
Weinsberg,  battle  of,  219. 
Weissenburg,  engagement  at,  516. 
Welf,  186,    199;    V.,  marries    xAIatilda  of 

Tuscany,  200. 
Welfs,     contest    with   the    Hohenstaufen 
(Waiblingen),    219,    224;   genealogy  of, 

Welfesholze,  battle  of,  201. 

Wellesley,  sir  Arthur,  in  India  541.  See 
Wellington. 

Wellington,  d.  of,  537;  sketch  of  life,  pen- 
insula war,  471 ;  in  Portugal,  473 ;  Vit- 
toria, 479 ;  in  France,  481  ;  congress  of 
Vienna,  482  ;  Waterloo,  484  ;  administra- 
tion, 539  ;  for.  sec,  540;  death,  543. 

Welser,  286. 

Wenceslaus.     See  Wenzel. 

Wends,  168 ;  wars  with  Henry  I.,  194  ; 
Otto  I.,  195;  Otto  II.,  197;  Teutonic 
knights,  218  ;  subjugated  by  Waldemai; 
235,  249. 

Wentworth,  Thomas.     See  Strafford. 

Wenzel,  emp.  of  H.  R.  E.,  250. 


Index. 


65.? 


Werder,  gen.  von,  516,  519. 
Werelae,  peace  of,  409. 
Werth,  313,  314,  315. 

Wessex,   founded,    178 ;    growth   of,   180 ; 
kings  of,  become  kings  of  England,  203 ; 
Danes  in,  204. 
West,  Francis,  295. 

West  Franks,   separation    from    the  East 
Franks,  187  ;    Carolingian    rulers,    20l  ; 
develop  into  the  French  nation,  202. 
Western  empire  separated  from  the  eastern 
empire,  16  ;  fall  of,  162,  173  ;  revival  by 
Charles  the  Great,  185  ;  by  Otto  1.,  196. 
West  Goths,  location,  170 ;  enter  the  Roman 
empire,  171 ;  found  kingdom  in   Spain, 
172;   under  Theodoric,   k.    of  the   East 
Goths,  174  ;  conquered  by  the  Arabs,  183. 
Westminster  assembly,  347. 
Westminster,  treaty  of,  380,  403. 
Weston,  lord  treasurer,  344. 
Westphalia,  184  ;  kingdom  of,  formed,  470  ; 
fall  of,  478  ;  peace  of,  315  ;  conditions  of 
the  peace,  316,  317. 
West  Point,  430. 

West  Virginia  admitted  to  the  Union.  558. 
Wettin,  house  of,  in  Meissen,  218  ;  receives 
electoral   Saxony,  252  ;  division  of  the 
line,  305 
Wetzlar,  imperial  chamber  at,  300. 
Wexford,  massacre  of,  375. 
Weymouth,  George,  290. 
Wharton,  Thomas,  sec.  of  state,  387  ;  in  the 

whig  junto,  435. 
Wheatstone,  487. 
Whigs,  origin  of  the  name,  382. 
Whi^ey  insurrection  548. 
White,  John,  gov.,  289. 
White  Hill,  battle  on,  309. 
White  Plains,  battle  of,  428. 
Whitney,  Eli,  invented  cotton  gin,  548. 
Whittington,  sir  Richard,  271. 
Wiclif,   doctrine  as  taught  by   Huss  con- 
demned, 252  ;  in  England,  269. 
Widukind,  185. 
Wiesloch,  battle  of,  310. 
Wilderness,  battle  of  the,  558. 
Wilkes,  John,  439,  440. 
William  I.,  the  Conqueror,  k.  of  England, 
Hastings,  206 ;  reign,  229.     See  William 
duke  of  Normandy ;  II.,  the  Red,  reign 
of,  2.30. 
William  and  Mary   sovereigns  of  England, 
370,  371 ;  reign,   385  ;  of  Scotland,  386  ; 
wars  with  France,  370,   371 ;   death  of 
.     Mary,  388.     See  William,  prince  of  Or- 
ange. 
William  III.,k.  of  England,  reign  alone, 
388,  389  ;  war  of  Spanish  succession,  390- 
394;  death,  389,  392  ;  IV.,  489  ;  reign, 
539  ;  death,  491,  541. 
William  I., 'emperor  of  Germany,  election, 

519  ;  attempted  assassination,  524. 
William  I.,  k.  of  Holland,  489. 
William  Longsword,  d.  of  Normandy,  202. 
William,  d.   of  Normandy's  claim  to  the 
English  succession,  200,  206  ;  conquest 
of  England,  206.     See  William  I.,  k.  of 
England. 
William  I.,  of  Orange,  the  Silent,  331. 
William    of    Orange,   367;  marriage  with 
Mary,    368,    381 ;  becomes    stadtholder, 
380  ;  declaration  to  the  people  of  Eng- 


land, 884.     See  William  III.,  k.  of  Eng- 
land. 

William  I. ,  k.  of  Prussia,  503  ;  coronation 
of,  504  ;  commander  of  the  army,  508, 
509,514.  See  William  I.,emp.  of  Ger- 
many. 

William  the  Lion,  k.  of  Scotland,  232. 

William  II.,  k.  of  Sicily,  222. 

William  and  Mary  college,  362. 

William  and  Mary,  war  of,  365. 

Williams,  Roger,  297,  357. 

Wilmington,  e.  of,  438. 

Wilmot  proviso,  555. 

Wimbledon,  expedition  against  Cadiz,  342. 

Wimpfen,  battle  of,  310. 

Wimpffen,  general,  617. 

Winchester,  statute  of,  267. 

Windischgratz,  pr.,  495. 

Winfrith.     See  Boniface. 

Winkelried,  Arnold  of,  250. 

Winthrop,  John,  296. 

Winthrop,  John,  son  of  gov.  W.,  founda* 
tion  of  Conn,  colony  by,  297. 

Winwaed,  battle  of,  180. 

Wisconsin,  exploration  of,  364 ;  admitted 
to  the  Union,  555. 

Witt,  de,  367,  383  ;  commander,  379. 

Wittelsbach,  house  of,  in  Bavaria,  222; 
count  palatine,  223 ;  head  of  the  union 
and  the  league  both  of  this  house,  308 ; 
Wilhelmian  and  Rudolfian  line,  316; 
Bavarian  succession,  406. 

Wittstock,  battle  of,  314. 

Wladimir.     See  Vladimir. 

Wocokon,  island  of,  289. 

Woden.     See  Odin. 

Wolfe,  gen.,  421,  422. 

Wollaston,  295. 

Wolseley,  sir  Garnet,  545,  546. 

Wolsey,  Thomas,  card.,  334. 

Wolstenholme's  Sound,  299. 

"  Wonderful  "  parliament,  269. 

Worcester,  battle  of,  375. 

Worcester,  e.  of,  conspiracy  against  Henrr 
IV.,  270. 

Worcester,  marquis  of,  486. 

Worms,  capital  of  the  old  kingdom  of  Bur- 
gundy, 170 ;  concordat  of,  201 ;  diet  of. 
302. 

Worth,  battle  of,  516. 

Wrangel,  German  commander,  494,  496 
505. 

Wrangel,  Swedish  commander,  315. 

Wrede,  480. 

Wren,  sir  Christopher,  379. 

Writs  of  assistance  in  Massachusetts,  422. 

Wurschen,  battle  of,  476. 

Wiirtemberg,  rise  of   the  Swabian  counts 
of,  244  ;  contests  with  the  league  of  Swa- 
bian cities,  249,  250;  duke  Ulrich  forced 
to  abdicate,  304 ;  becomes  an  electoratef 
464 ;   enriched  by   the  mediatization  of 
many  imperial  cities,  465;   troops    join 
Napoleon,  467  ;  becomes  a  kingdom  and 
acquires  lands  from   Austria,  468 ;    be- 
longs to  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine; 
468 ;    joins  the  allies,    479 ;    joins    tha 
North  German  confederation,  514 
Wiirzburg,  diet  at,  223 ;  battle  of,  458, 
Wusterhausen,  treaty  of,  398. 
Wyandots,  423. 
Wyat,  sir  Francis,  gov.  of  S.  Virginia.  292. 


654 


Index. 


Wyclif.     See  Wiclif. 
Wykeham,  William  of,  269. 

X.  Y.  Z.  affair,  549. 

Xanthippus  accuses  Miltiades,  57;    leads 

Athenian  fleet,   60 ;   father  of  Pericles, 

62. 
Xanthippus,  the  Spartan,  ill. 
Xenophon,   leads  the    Greek    mercenaries 

under  Cyrus  the  younger,  29,  69. 
Xeres  de  la  Frontera,  battle  of,  183. 
Xerxes,  ks.  of  Persia:  I.,  war  with  Greece, 

28,  58-60  ;  II.,  29. 

Yakub  Beg,  562. 

Yakub  Khan,  abdication  of,  547. 

Yale  college,  founded,  363. 

Yamassees,  Indian  war,  417,  418. 

Yeardley,  sir  George,  gov.  gen.  of  S.  Vir- 
ginia, 292. 

Yedo,  in  Japan,  32;  capital  of  the  shogun, 
356;  name  changed  to  Tokio,  becomes 
capital  of  the  mikado,  563. 

Ynglingar  dynasty  in  Sweden,  208. 

Yokohama,  32 ;  opened  to  trade,  563. 

York,  James,  duke  of,  grant  of  New 
Netherlands,  358 ;  lord  high  admiral, 
378  ;  professes  Catholicism,  380 ;  thrown 
out  by  the  test  act,  380 ;  exclusion  bill, 
381 ;  succeeds  as  James  II.,  k.  of  Eng- 
land, 383. 

York,  gen.,  474,  476,  478,  480. 

York,  house  of,  in  the  wars  of  the  roses, 
272. 

forktown,  siege  of,  431. 


Yoritomo,  242,  243. 

Ypsilauti,  488. 

Yucatan,  discovery  of,  284,  285. 

Yussuf,  209. 

Zama,  battle  of,  118. 

Zamasp,  k.  of  Persia,  189. 

Zapolya,  John,  pr.  of  Transylvania,  SOS 

Zcerneboh,  169. 

Zela,  battle  of,  135, 142. 

Zendavesta,  24,  n. 

Zenger,  arrest  of,  for  libel,  419. 

Zeno,  64,  162. 

Zenobia,  157. 

Zenta,  battle  of,  372. 

Ziela.     See  Zela. 

Zipangu,32,n,  282. 

Ziska,  252. 

Znaim,  truce  of,  472. 

Zollverein,  founded,  491 ;  first  parliament, 

Zopyrus,  27. 

Zomdorf ,  battle  of,  405. 

Zoroaster,  reforms  the  Iranic  religion,  24 ; 

his  religion  restored,  187. 
Zriny,  306. 
Zul-fikar  Kh&n,  442. 
Zulpich,  battle  of,  173. 
Zulus,  war  of  England  with,  545. 
Zurich,  battle  of,  461 ;  peace  of,  502. 
Zutphen,  battle  of,  339. 
Zweibriicken,  house  of,  in  Sweden,  2^ 

373. 
Zwingli,  SOL 


INDEX  TO  APPENDIX. 


Abbas  II.,  khedive  of  Egypt,  567. 

Abdvdlahi,  mahdi,  569. 

Abdurrahman,  ameer  of  Afghanistan, 
death,  598. 

Abu  Klea,  battle,  565. 

Abyssmia,  and  Italy,  567, 574,  580  ;  British 
treaty,  572. 

Addi's  Abeda,  peace,  580. 

Adua,  battle,  580. 

Afghanistan,  frontier  deliminated,  566 ; 
Chitral,  568  ;  HabibuUah,  598. 

Agrarian  agitation,  Germany,  580;  Russia, 
584. 

Aguinaldo,  Emilio,  insurrection,  592. 

Alaska  botmdary,  592,  594. 

Alexander,  p.  of  Bulgaria,  and  East  Ru- 
melia,  575  ;  kidnapi)ed,  resigns,  575. 

Alexander  III. ,  tzar  of  Russia,  consecrated, 
573 ;  death,  579. 

Alexander,  k.  of  Servia,  577  ;  coup  d'etat, 
578 ;  liberal  constitution,  584 ;  assassi- 
nated, 5S5. 

Alfonso  XII.,  k.  of  Spain,  Paris  mob,  573  ; 
death,  575  ;  XIII.,  575  ;  accession,  585. 

Alsace-Lorraine,  dictator  paragraph  abol- 
ished, 585. 

American  Railroad  Union  strike,  589. 

Anam,  French  war,  573,  574. 

Anarchistic  activity,  .577,  578,  583,  593. 

Andr«5  in  ministry,  582,  585. 

Angra  Pequena,  German  protectorate, 
574. 

Arbitration,  Anglo-French  treaty,  573 ; 
Hague  conference,  583 ;  French-Italian 
treaty,  585  ;  Bering  sea,  588  ;  Venezuela 
boundary,  590  ;  Anglo-American  treaty, 
590. 

Armenian  massacres,  579. 

Armies,  increase  in  Continental,  575,  578  ; 
Swedish  conscription,  584 ;  increase  in 
U.  S.,  592  ;  general  staff,  594. 

Ashantee  expedition,  569. 

Assab,  Italy  occupies,  574. 

Associations  law,  French,  584,  585. 

Assuan  dam,  572. 

Atbara,  battle,  569. 

Ausgleich  renewed,  582. 

Australia,  constitution,  571. 

Australian  ballot,  587. 

Austria,  triple  alliance,  573,  585 ;  electoral 
reform,  580  ;  language  controversy,  582  ; 
Augleich  renewed,  582  ;  empress  assassi- 
nated, 583. 

Baden-Powell,  col.,  Maf eking,  571. 
Baker  Pasha,  505. 

Balfour,  A.  J.,  sec.  for  Ireland,  566  ;  of  trea- 
sury, 568  ;  premier,  572  ;  and  tariff,  572. 
Bank  scandal  in  Italy,  578. 
Bankruptcy,  uniform  law,  591. 


Baring,  Evelyn,  in  Egypt,  565. 

Barton,  Edmimd,  571. 

Bayard,  T.  F.,  sec.  of  state,  586. 

Beach,  M.  H.,  sec.  for  Ireland,  566  ;  ex- 
chequer, 568. 

Bechuanaland,  British,  566. 

Belgium,  suffrage,  574,  578,  583,  584 ;  so- 
cialistic demonstrations,  583,  584. 

Berber,  569. 

Bering  sea,  sealing  controversy,  586,  588. 

Berthelot  in  ministry,  580. 

Bimetallism,  international  conference, 
578.    See  Silver. 

Bismarck,  pr.  von.,  and  catholics,  574 ; 
colonial  policy,  574 ;  resigns,  577 ; 
death,  583. 

Blaine,  J.  G.,  republican  nominee,  586 ; 
sec.  of  state,  587. 

Bodrikoff  assassinated,  585. 

Bogolepofif  assassinated,  584. 

Bonaparte,  prince  Napoleon,  manifesto, 
573 ;  death,  577. 

Botha,  gen.,  S.  African  war,  571. 

Boulanger,  in  ministry,  575;  agitation, 
575,  570  ;  flight,  570  ;  suicide,  577. 

Bourbon,  house  of,  extinct,  573. 

Bourgeois  ministry,  580. 

Boxer  rising,  597. 

Bradlaugh  in  parliament,  566. 

Brisson  ministry,  574,  582. 

British  South  Africa  company,  567,  569. 

Brunei,  protectorate,  567. 

Bryan,  W.  J.,  democratic  nominee,  590, 
592. 

Bryce,  James,  in  cabinet,  568. 

Bulgaria,  Servian  war,  575  ;  Alexander  re- 
signs, 575 ;  Ferdinand,  576 ;  Russian 
ascendency,  580. 

BuUer,  Redvers,  S.  African  war,  570. 

Billow,  c.  von,  German  chancellor,  584. 

Burma,  upper,  annexed,  566  ;  Anglo-Chi- 
nese agreements,  594,  595. 

Campbell    Bannerman,   H.,   sec.   of  war, 

568. 

Campos,  premier  of  Spain,  575. 

Canada,  Pacific  railway,  560  ;  Riel's  rebel- 
lion, 566  ;  tariff  preferential,  569  ;  fish- 
eries, 586  ;  joint  high  commission,  591. 

Canals,  Manchester,  568;  Suez  convention, 
576  ;  Panama,  578,  594  ;  Kiel,  579. 

Caprivi,  v.,  German  chancellor,  577,  579. 

Carlos,  k.  of  Portugal,  577. 

Carnovas,  premier  of  Spain,  575. 

Caroline  Islands,  Germany  secures,  575, 
583. 

Casimir-Pt^rier,  pres.  of  France,  578 ;  re- 
signs, 580. 

Caucasia,  railway,  576. 

Cavaignac,  in  ministry,  580. 


656 


Index  to  Appendix. 


Cervera,  admiral,  591. 

Chad,  lake,  control,  567,  578. 

Chamberlain,  Joseph,  in  cabinet,  resigns, 
liberal  unionist,  56G;  colonial  sec,  568  ; 
and  Transvaal,  569 ;  and  colonial  pre- 
miers, 569 ;  in  S.  Africa,  572 ;  tarilf 
campaign,  572. 

Chambord,  c.  of,  death,  573. 

Charleston  earthquake,  586. 

Chile  and  U.  S.,  588. 

China,  French  war,  574,  575 ;  and  Japan 
in  Corea,  594;  floods  and  famine,  594 ; 
missionaries,  595 ;  empress  dowager, 
595,  597  ;  Japanese  war,  595 ;  conces- 
sions, 596  ;  territorial  leases,  596,  597  ; 
reforms,  597;  open-door  policy,  597, 
598 ;  Boxer  rising,  597  ;  commercial 
treaties,  598. 

Chinese  exclusion  act,  587,  589. 

Ching,  pr..  Boxer  rising,  598. 

Chitral,  568. 

Cholera  in  Europe,  577. 

Chungking,  treaty  port,  595. 

Churchill,  Randolph,  in  cabinet,  566. 

Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  abrogated,  593. 

Cleveland,  Grover,  democratic  nominee, 
586,588;  pres.  of  U.  S.,586,  589;  tarilf, 
586  ;  and  Hawaii,  589  ;  silver  purchase 
law,  589 ;  bond  issues,  589,  590 ;  Vene- 
zuela, 590. 

Colenso,  battle,  570. 

Colombia,  canal  treaty,  593. 

Colonies,  German  African,  574. 

Combes,  in  ministry,  580;  premier,  585. 

Concordat,  agitation  against,  585. 

Congo,  conference,  574 ;  boundary,  579. 

Constans  in  ministry,  576. 

Constitution,  French,  revised,  574;  Aus- 
tralian, 571  ;  Japanese,  594. 

Contract  laborers,  U.  S.  law,  586. 

Coolie  labor  in  S.  Africa,  572. 

Copyright,  international,  588. 

Corea,  opened  to  trade,  594;  China  and 
Japan  (1883),  594;  (1894),  595;  Russian 
intrigue,  594,  596 ;  Japanese  prestige, 
596  ;  Russia  and  Japan,  596,  597,  599. 

Cretan  revolt,  581. 

Crimes  act,  566. 

Crispi,  premier  of  Italy,  576;  bank  scan- 
dal, 578. 

Cronje,  gen.,  S.  African  war,  570,  571. 

Cuba,  rebellion,  590 ;  Spanish- American 
war,  590 ;  U.  S.  disclaims  desire  for, 
591 ;  Spain  relinquishes,  591 ;  conditions 
of  U.  S.  withdrawal,  592  ;  independent 
government,  593  ;  reciprocity  with  U.  S., 
593. 

Curzon,  lord,  viceroy  of  India,  569. 

Dahomey,  French  protectorate,  578 ;  bound- 
ary, 582. 

Danish  West  Indies,  failure  of  purchase, 
593. 

Danube,  navigation,  573,  581. 

Delarey,  gen.,  S.  African  war,  571. 

Delcass6  in  ministry,  578,  582,  585. 

Department,  of  labor,  587,  594;  of  agricul- 
ture, 587  ;  of  commerce,  594. 

Deutsche  Colonial verein,  574. 

De  Wet,  gen.,  S.  African  war,  571. 

Dewey,  George,  Manila  bay,  591. 


Dongola,  569. 

Dreyfus  affair,  679,  582. 

Dupuy,  in  ministry,  578;  premier,  578, 582. 

East  Rumelia,  revolution,  575. 

Education,  English  acts,  567,  572  ;  central 
board,  570  ;  French  laws,  575,  584. 

Edward  VII.,  k.  of  Great  Britain,  572.  A 

Egypt,  foreign  control,  565 ;  Soudan,  565,  j 

569  ;  Abbas  H.,  567  ;  crisis,  568. 

Eiffel  tower,  577. 

El  Caney,  battle,  591. 

Electoral  vote,  regulation,  586. 

Election  laws,  French,  575-577.  See  Suf- 
frage. 

Elections,  U.  S.  (1884),  586;  (1888),  586; 
(1892),  588  ;  (1896),  590  ;  (1900),  592. 

Emma,  q.  regent  of  Netherlands,  577. 

England,  Egypt,  565,  568,  569 ;  South 
African  republic,  565,  568 ;  Afghanistan, 
566,  568 ;  Fashoda,  569 ;  imperial  post, 
570;  Persian  gulf,  570,  572;  South 
African  war,  570;  Edward  VII.,  572; 
tariff  agitation,  572  ;  Thibet,  573,  598  ; 
Pamirs,  580  ;  Venezuela-Guinea  bound- 
ary, 590 ;  Corea,  594,  596 ;  China,  597, 
598  ;  Japanese  alliance,  598. 

Eritrea,  beginning,  574;  Abyssinian  war, 
580. 

Esterhazy,  Dreyfus  affair,  582. 

Evicted  tenants  bill,  568. 

Exterritoriality,  cessation  in  Japan,  596. 

Fallieres,  premier,  573  ;  in  ministry,  576. 

Fashoda  incident,  569. 

Faure,  Felix,  in  ministry,  578;  pres.  of 
France,  580  ;  death,  583. 

Ferdinand,  cr.  p.  of  Austria,  576. 

Ferdinand,  p.  of  Bulgaria,  576  ;  and  Russia, 
580. 

Ferron  in  ministry,  575. 

Ferry,  Jules,  ministry,  573. 

Finland,  Russification,  583-585 ;  famine, 
584. 

Fisheries,  controversy,  586;  Bering  sea, 
586,  588.  J 

Floquet,  premier,  576.  ^ 

Flourens  in  ministry,  576.  * 

Force  bill,  587. 

Formosa,  French  attack,  574 ;  ceded  to 
Japan,  596. 

France,  Egypt,  565  ;  Africa,  567,  578-580, 
582,  583;  Fashoda,  569;  Oman,  570; 
princes,   573,    575 ;    Anam  and    China,  j 

573-575  ;  constitution  revised,  574  ;  elec-  ! 

tion  laws,  575-577  ;  Gr«5vy,   575  ;    Bou-  j 

langer    affair,   575,    576 ;     Sadi-Carnot,  1 

576  ;  republicanism  strengthened,   577,  I 

585;    Russian  friendship  and  alliance,  ^ 

577,  581,  582;   and  Papacy,   578,   585;  "I 

Panama  scandal,  578 ;  Casirair-P6rier, 
578  ;  Dreyfus  affair,  579,  582  ;  Faure,  580; 
Loubet,  583  ;  associations  law,  584,  585  ; 
and  catholics  in  east,  584 ;  and  Turkey, 
584  ;  Siam,  595,  596,  599  ;  interference 
in  Chinese- Japanese  treaty,  596;  conces- 
sions in  China,  596  ;  Kwangchau,  597  ;  C 
and  Anglo-Japanese  alliance,  598.  j 

Frederick  III.,  emp.  of  Germany,  acces-  ' 

sion,  death,  576. 

French  Congo,  boundary,  578. 


Index  to  Appendix. 


657 


Freycinet,  in  ministry,  574,  576,  578,  582 ; 

premier,  575. 
Fuchau,  French  attack,  574. 

Gallifet  in  ministry,  582. 

Galveston  tornado,  592. 

Gatacie,  gen.,  Stormberg,  570. 

George,  p.  of  Greece,  gov.-gen.  of  Crete, 
581. 

German  East  Africa  company,  574. 

German  East  Africa  and  West  Africa, 
boundaries,  567. 

Germany,  Africa,  567,  574,  578,  579,  582  ; 
and  Canadian  tariff,  569  ;  triple  alliance, 
573,  585  ;  catholics,  573;  Caroline  islands, 
575,  583 ;  army  increased,  575,  578 ; 
Frederick  III.,  576;  WUliam  II.,  576  ; 
forced  development,  577  ;  naval  increase, 
580  ;  agrarian  agitation,  580  ;  socialism, 
580,  583  ;  depression,  584  ;  and  Chinese- 
Japanese  treaty,  590;  Kiaochau,  596,597; 
upholds  integrity  of  China,  598. 

Giolitti,  premier  of  Italy,  576  ;  bank  scan- 
dal, 578. 

Gladstone,  W.  E.,  3d  administration,  556  ; 
home  rule,  566,  568  ;  4th  administration, 
568;  resigns,  568 ;  death,  569. 

Gold  reserve  of  U.  S.,  589,  590. 

Gold  standard,  Russia,  582 ;  U.  S.,  592  ; 
Japan,  596. 

Gordon,  Charles,  at  Khartum,  killed,  565. 

Goschen,  G.  J.,  in  cabinet,  566,  568. 

Goschen  act,  567. 

Greece,  coerced  by  powers,  575;  and 
Crete,  581 ;  Turkish  war,  581. 

Gresham,  W.  Q.,  sec.  of  state,  589. 

Gr^vy,  Jules,  re-elected  pres.  of  France, 
575 ;  resigns,  576. 

Guerin  in  ministry,  578. 

HabibuUah,  ameer  of  Afghanistan,  598. 

Hague  peace  conference,  583. 

Hanotaux  in  ministry,  578,  580. 

Harcourt,  W.  V,,  in  cabinet,  566,  568. 

Harrison,  Benjamui,  republican  nominee, 
586,  588  ;  pres.  of  U.  S.,  587. 

Hawaii,  attempted  annexation,  588  ;  an- 
nexed, territory,  591. 

Hay,  John,  sec.  of  state,  590 ;  open-door 
policy,  597. 

Hajrmarket  riot,  586. 

Heligoland  ceded  to  Germany,  567. 

Hendricks,  T.  A.,  v.-pres.  of  U.  S.,  586. 

Henry,  p.  of  Prussia,  in  China,  596. 

Henry,  major,  Dreyfus  affair,  579,  582. 

Hicks  Pasha,  565. 

Hobart,  G.  A.,  v.-pres.  of  U.  S.,  590. 

Hohenlohe,  p.  von,  German  chancellor, 
579. 

Home-rule  bills,  566,  568. 

Homestead  strike,  588. 

Hopetoun,  lord,  gov.-gen.  of  Australia, 
571. 

House  of  Representatives,  quorum  count- 
mg,  587. 

Humbert,  k.  of  Italy,  assassinated,  .583. 

Hungary,  anti-Semitism,  573 ;  civil  mar- 
riage, 578 ;  recognizes  Jewish  faith, 
580 ;  Ausgleich  renewed,  582  ;  language 
question,  585. 


Idaho  admitted,  588. 

Iddesleigh,  lord,  foreign  sec,  566. 

Income  tax  in  U.  S.,  589,  590. 

India,  Chitral,  568;  plague,  569;  Tliibet 
mission,  573. 

Injunction,  goveiimient  by,  589. 

Insular  cases,  593. 

Insurance,  workmen's  accident,  569,  574 ; 
illness,  573;  old  age,  577,  583;  miners', 
578. 

Interstate  commerce  act,  586. 

Ireland,  nationalists,  566,  567;  home-rule 
bills,  566,  568 ;  plan  of  campaign,  566 ; 
crimes  act,  566 ;  Parnell  commission, 
567 ;  land  purchase  acts,  567,  573 ;  local 
government,  569;  rent  disturbances,  572. 

Ischia,  earthquake,  574. 

Ismail  Pasha,  khedive  of  Egypt,  565. 

Isthmian  canal,  French  scandal,  578;  Clay- 
ton-Bulwer  treaty  abrogated,  593 ;  act, 
593  ;  abortive  treaty  with  Colombia,  593 ; 
treaty  with  Panama,  594. 

Italy,  Eritrea,  567,  574;  triple  alliance, 
573,  585 ;  increase  in  army,  575 ;  pre- 
miers, 576 ;  bank  scandal,  578 ;  Abys- 
sinian war,  580 ;  socialistic  riots,  582, 
583 ;  Victor  Emmanuel  III.,  583  ;  and 
New  Orleans  lynching,  588 ;  Sammun 
Bay,  597. 

Ito,  admiral,  in  Chinese  war,  595. 

Jameson  raid,  568. 

Japan,  and  China  in  Corea,  594,  595 ;  con- 
stitution, 594  ;  Chinese  war,  595;  tidal 
wave,  596  ;  end  of  exterritoriality,  596  ; 
military  expansion,  59(! ;  and  Russia  iu 
Corea,  596,  597  ;  English  alliance,  598; 
Russian  crisis,  599. 

Jews,  anti-Semitism,  573,  577  ;  Russian 
May  laws,  577 ;  recognized  in  Hungary, 
580  ;  Kishinef  riot,  585. 

John,  k.  of  Abyssinia,  574. 

Johnstown  flood,  587. 

Kamerim,  German  protectorate,  574 ; 
boundary,  578,  579. 

Ketteler,  b.  von,  killed,  598. 

Khartum,  captured  by  mahdi,  565 ;  re- 
taken, 569 ;  railway,  571. 

Kiaochau,  Germany  seizes,  596;  leased, 
597. 

Kiel  canal,  579. 

Kimberley,  siege,  570,  571. 

Kishinef,  anti-Semitic  riot,  585. 

Kitchener,  lord,  Soudan,  569 ;  Fashoda, 
570;  South  African  war,  570,  571. 

Klondike,  gold  discovered,  509. 

Knights  of  Labor,  586. 

Krakatua,  mount,  eruption,  594. 

Kruger,  S.  J.  P.,  pres.  of  S.  African  repub- 
lic, and  Uitlanders,  568 ;  and  England, 
569,  571. 

Kwangchau-wan,  French  lease,  597. 

Kwangsu,  emp.  of  China,  accession ,  595 ; 
reforms,  597;  virtual  deposition,  597. 

Labor,  unions  as  corporations,  572  ;  inter- 
national conference,  577;  strikes  in  Eu- 
rope, 577,  582,  584;  strikes  in  U.  S.,  586, 
588,  589;  U.  S.  department,  587,  594; 
growth  of  unions,  587.    See  Insurance. 


658 


Index  to  Appendix. 


Ladysmith,  siege,  570. 

Land  purchase  acts,  Ireland,  567,  573. 

Lausdowne,  lord,  viceroy  of  India,  507 ;  in 

cabinet,  568  ;  and  Persian  gulf,  572. 
Larissa,  Greeks  evacuate,  581. 
Leo  XIII.,  pope,  jubilees,  576,  578,  585 ; 

death,  585. 
Lesseps,   Ferdinand  de,  Panama  scandal, 

578. 
Li  Hungchang,  Japanese  war,  595;  Boxer 

rising,  598. 
Liberal  unionists,  566. 
Liliuokalaui,  q.  of  Hawaii,  588. 
Lobengula,  568. 
Local  government,  England,  567,  568,  570 ; 

Ireland,  569. 
London,  convention  of  1884,  565  ;  govern- 
ment, 567,  570. 
Loubet,    Emile,    premier,    578 ;    pres.   of 

France,  583. 
Luis,  k.  of  Portugal,  death,  577. 
Lynching,  587,  588. 

Maagersfontein,  battle,  570. 

McCarthy,  Justin,  567. 

Macedonian  revolt,  584. 

McKinley,  William,  republican  nominee, 
590,592;  pres.  of  U.  S.,  590;  war  mes- 
sage, 591,  593  ;  Philippine  commission, 
592 ;  assassinated,  593. 

Madagascar,  French  in,  567,  573,  575,  580. 

Maf eking,  siege,  570,  571. 

Maine,  U.  S.  S.,  blown  up,  591. 

Manchester  ship  canal,  568. 

Manchuria,  Japan  invades,  595 ;  railways, 
596,  597;  Russia  occupies,  598;  Russian- 
Japanese  crisis,  599.    See  Port  Arthur. 

Manila,  captured,  591;  insurgents  attack, 
592. 

Manila  bay,  battle,  591. 

Manning,  gen.,  Somaliland,  572. 

Marchand,  major,  Fashoda,  570. 

Maria  Christina,  regent  of  Spain,  575. 

Massawa,  Italy  occupies,  574. 

Matabele  war,  568. 

May  laws,  in  Prussia  relaxed,  574  ;  in  Rus- 
sia, 577. 

M^line  ministry,  580. 

Menelek,  k.  of  Abyssinia,  Italian  war,  580. 

Mercier,  in  ministry,  678  ;  Dreyfus  affair, 
579. 

Merritt,  gen.,  in  Philippines,  591. 

Merv,  Russia  annexes,  574. 

Methuen,  lord,  Maagersfontein,  570. 

Milan,  k.  of  Servia,  abdicates,  577. 

Miles,  gen.,  in  Porto  Rico,  591. 

Milouna  pass,  battle,  581. 

Minto,  lord,  gov.-gen.  of  Canada,  569. 

Missionaries  in  China,  595-597. 

Moltke,  von,  resigns,  576;  and  establish- 
ment of  empire,  576. 

Montana  admitted,  587. 

Morley,  John,  sec.  for  Ireland,  566,  568. 

Morton,  L.  P.,  v.-pres.  of  U.  S.,  587. 

Muhammad  Ahmad,  mahdi,  565. 

Muscat,  French  attempt,  570. 

Muzaffar-ed-din,  shah  of  Persia,  596. 

Nansen,  farthest  north,  580. 
Nasr-ed-din,  shah  of  Persia,  killed,  596. 
Natalie,  q.  of  Servia,  banished,  577. 


Navy,  increase  in  Germany,  580  ;  in  U.  S., 
586  ;  in  Japan,  596. 

Negroes,  condition,  587;  force  bill,  587. 

Netherlands,  Wilhelmina,  577 ;  electoral 
reform,  580. 

New  Guinea,  protectorate,  565. 

New  Orleans,  Mafia  lynching,  588. 

New  York  city.  Greater,  590. 

New  Zealand,  old  age  pensions,  570. 

Nicholas  II.,  tzar  of  Russia,  579,  580. 

Niger  river,  spheres  of  influence,  583. 

Nile  valley,  French-English  conventions, 
570,  583  ;  Assuau  dam,  572. 

Nodzu,  gen.,  in  Chinese  war,  595. 

Nogi,  gen.,  in  Chinese  war,  595. 

North  Borneo,  protectorate,  567. 

North  Dakota  admitted,  587. 

Northcote,  lord,  gov.-gen.  of  Australia, 
573. 

Northcote,  Stafford.    See  Iddesleigh. 

North  pole  exploration,  580. 

Norway,  responsible  ministry,  574  ;  sep- 
arate consuls,  577  ;  suffrage,  583. 

Oklahoma  opened,  587. 

Olney,  Richard,  sec.  of  state,  589;  doc- 
trine, 590. 

Omdurman,  battle,  569. 

Open-door  policy,  597. 

Orange  Free  State,  war  with  England,  570 ; 
annexed,  571  ;  colony,  571. 

Osman  Digna,  569. 

Oyama,  gen.,  in  Chinese  war,  595. 

Paardesburg,  battle,  571. 

Pamirs  deliminated,  580. 

Pan-American  congress,  587. 

Panama  revolt,  594. 

Panama  canal.    See  Isthmian. 

Panic  iuU.  S.,  589. 

Papacy,  and  Germany,  573;  Vatican  li- 
brary opened,  574  ;  and  France,  578,586; 
Pius  X.,  585. 

Paris,  c.  of,  death,  578. 

Paris  expositions,  577,  583. 

Parish  council  act,  568. 

Parliament,  English,  reform  act,  565  ;  seats 
redistributed,  565 ;  23d  imperial,  566 ; 
home-rule  bills,  566,  568  ;  24th,  566  ;  25th, 
567;26th,  568;  27th,  571. 

Parnell,  C.  S.,  commission,  567  ;  death, 
567. 

Peking,  Boxer  rising,  597,  598. 

Pel^e,  mount,  eruption,  585. 

Penjdeh,  Russia  occupies,  566. 

Pensions,  old  age,  570  ;  U.  S.  military,  588. 
See  Insurance. 

Persia,  Muzaffar-ed-din,  596  ;  Russian  trade 
treaty,  598. 

Persian  gulf,  British  control,  570,  572. 

Pescadores  Islands,  ceded  to  Japan,  596. 

Peter  Karageorgevitch,  k.  of  Servia,  585. 

Philippine  Islands,  ceded  to  U.  S.,  591 ; 
commission,  591 ;  insurrection,  592  ;  gov- 
ernment, 592,  593;  purchase  of  friars' 
lands,  594. 

Picquart,  col.,  Dreyfus  affair,  582. 

Piengyang,  battle,  595. 

Pigott,  R.,  567. 

Pius  X.,  pope,  585. 

Plague  in  India,  569. 


Index  to  Appendix. 


659 


PlehTe  assassinated,  584. 

Poincar6  in  ministry,  578,  580. 

Pondoland,  sovereignty  over,  568. 

Population,  India,  567,  572  ;  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  567,  572  ;  France,  575,  577, 
580,  584 ;  Germany,  575,  577,  580,  584 ; 
Austria-Hungary,  577  ;  Russia,  582 ; 
Italy,  584  ;  U.  S.,  587,  592. 

Port  Arthur,  Japanese  capture,  595  ;  pro- 
test against  cession,  596  ;  leased  to  Rus- 
sia, 597- 

Port  Hamilton,  English  occupation,  594. 

Porto  Rico,  campaign,  591 ;  ceded  to  U.  S., 
591  ;  government,  592. 

Portugal,  Africa,  567  ;  house  of  peers,  574 ; 
Carlos,  577. 

Post,  imperial  penny,  570  ;  U.  S.  rural  free 
delivery,  590. 

Prempeh,  king,  569. 

Presbyterian  church,  dispute  in  Scotland, 
571. 

Presidential  succession  law,  586. 

Proportional  representation,  Belgium,  583. 

Prussia,  Poland,  584.  See  Germany. 

Railroads,  Canadian  Pacific,  566  ;  Cairo- 
Khartum,  571 ;  Cape  to  Cairo,  572 ; 
French  convention,  573  ;  Transcaucasian, 
Calais-Constantinople,  Hungarian  zone 
tariff,  576  ;  Swiss  state  ownership,  582; 
Transsiberian,  584, 596, 598  ;  Asia  Minor, 
584 ;  Bagdad  convention,  585 ;  U.  S. 
strikes,  586,  589;  interstate  commerce 
act,  586;  first  Chinese,  594;  Chinese 
concessions,  596 ;  Transmanchurian, 
596,  597  ;  first  Corean,  597. 

Recidivist  law,  French,  574. 

Reciprocity,  U.  S.  provisions,  588-590  ; 
with  Cuba,  593.  See  Tariff. 

Reform  act,  third,  665. 

Reichstag,  German,  elections,  574,  578, 
583  ;  period,  576. 

Rhodes,  Cecil,  Jameson  raid,  569;  conti- 
nental telegraph,  570 ;  at  Kimberley, 
571  ;  death,  572  ;  scholarships,  572. 

Ribot,  in  ministry,  578  ;  premier,  578,  580. 

Riel,  Lotiis,  rebellion,  566. 

Roberts,  lord,  S.  African  war,  570,  571. 

Rochefort  and  Boulanger,  576. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  v.-pres.  of  U.  S., 
593  ;  pres.,  593. 

Rosebery,  lord,  foreign  sec,  566,  568 ; 
premier,  568. 

Rouvier,  premier,  575 ;  in  ministry,  576, 
585. 

Rudini,  premier  of  Italy,  576,  580  ;  bank 
scandal,  578. 

Rudolf,  cr.  p.  of  Austria,  suicide,  576. 

Rural  communication,  development,  587  ; 
postal  delivery,  590. 

Russia,  Penjdeh,  566  ;  Merv,  574  ;  and  Bul- 
garia, 575,  580;  anti-Semitism,  577, 
585 ;  forced  development,  577  ;  French 
friendship  and  alliance,  577,  581,  582  ; 
Nicholas  II.,  579;  Pamirs,  580;  gold 
standard,  582  ;  Finland,  583-585 ;  agita- 
tion, 584  ;  Corea,  594,  596  ;  interference 
in  Chinese-Japanese  treaty,  596 ;  Port 
Arthur,  597  ;  Manchuria,  598  ;  Persia, 
598»;  Thibet,  598  ;  and  Anglo- Japanese 
alliance,  598  ;  Japanese  crisis,  599. 


Sadi-Carnot,  in  ministry,  574, 575  ;  pres.  of 
France,  576  ;  assassinated,  578. 

Sagasta,  premier  of  Spain,  575  ;  and  Cuba, 
591. 

Sahara,  boundary,  583. 

Salisbury,  lord,  1st  administration,  566; 
2d,  566  ;  3d,  568  ;  resigns,  572  ;  death,  573. 

Sammun  Bay,  Italy  demands,  597. 

Samoa,  treaties,  587,  592. 

Sampson,  admiral,  Spanish  war,  591. 

San  Juan  Hill,  battle,  591. 

Santiago,  Cuba,  campaign,   naval  battle, 

Sarafof,  Boris,  584. 

Sarakhs,  Russia  annexes,  574. 

Sarawak,  protectorate,  567. 

Schnabele  affair,  575. 

Scotland,  church  controversy,  571. 

Servia,  Bulgarian  war,  575  ;  Alexander, 
577;  coup  d'etat,  578;  liberal  constitu- 
tion, 584  ;  regicide,  Peter,  585. 

Se3rmour,  admiral.  Boxer  rising,  598. 

Shafter,  gen.,  Santiago  campaign,  591. 

Shimonoseki,  treaty,  596. 

Siam,  and  France,  595,  599 ;  Anglo-French 
agreement,  596. 

Siberia,  railway,  584,  596. 

Sierra  Leone  hinterland,  568. 

Silver,  purchase  law,  588 ;  repeal,  589 ; 
agitation  for  free,  589. 

Sipiagin  assassinated,  584. 

Slivnitza,  battle,  575. 

Socialism,  activity  in  Europe,  577  ;  gains 
in  Germany,  578,  583;  German  bill 
against,  580  ;  Italian  riots,  582,  583  ;  Bel- 
gium demonstration,  583. 

Somaliland  expeditions,  572. 

Soudan  expeditions,  565,  569. 

South  African  republic,  convention  of 
London,  565 ;  Jameson  raid,  568 ;  Eng- 
lish suzerainty,  569 ;  English  war,  570  ; 
annexed,  571 ;  colony,  571  ;  Chamber- 
lain in,  572 ;  coolie  labor,  572. 

South  African  war,  570. 

South  Dakota  admitted,  587. 

Spain,  earthquakes,  574;  premiers,  Al- 
fonso XIII.,  575  ;  Cuban  insurrection, 
590  ;  American  war,  590. 

Spanish- American  war,  590. 

Spion  Kop,  battle,  570. 

Starabouloff,  Bulgarian  leader,  575  ;  mur- 
dered, 580. 

Stanley,  lord,  gov. -gen.  of  Canada,  567. 

Stevenson,  A.  E.,  v.-pres.  of  U.  S.,  589. 

Stormberg,  battle,  570. 

Strikes.    See  Labor. 

Students'  revolt,  Russia,  584. 

Suez  canal  convention,  576. 

Suffrage,  extension  in  Belgium,  574,  578, 
584;  Netherlands  reform,  580;  Aus- 
trian, 580 ;  Norwegian,  583. 

Sugar  bomity,  573,  584. 

Sverdrup,  Norway  minister,  574. 

Sweden,  conscription,  584  ;  famine,  584. 

Switzerland,  asylum  for  political  offend- 
ers, 576  ;  state  railways,  582. 

Taff  Vale  case,  572. 

Taft,  W.  H.,  Philippine  commission,  592. 

Talien-wan,  597. 

Tariff,  Canadian  preferential,  669  ;  Cham- 


660 


Index  to  Appendix. 


berlain's  campaign,  570 ;  German,  574, 

578,  585;  French,  577 ;   Russo-German 

war,  578  ;  U.  S.,  586,  588-590. 
Telegraph,  Pacific  cableB,  572,  594 ;  wire- 
less, 572  ;  first  Chinese,  594. 
Tennyson,    lord,    gov.-gen.   of    Australia, 

572. 
Tewflk,    khedive  of  Egypt,  565;   death, 

567. 
Theebaw,  k.  of  Burma,  566. 
Thevenet  in  ministry,  576. 
Thibet,  boundary,   567 ;   British  mission, 

573  ;  andTlussia,  598. 
Tientsin,  treaty,  574 ;  reduced,  598. 
Ting,  admiral,  in  Japanese  war,  595. 
Tirard,  in  ministry,  573  ;  premier,  576. 
Togoland,     German     protectorate,     574; 

boundary,  582. 
Transvaal,  colony,  571.    See  South  African 

republic. 
Triple  alliance,  573;  renewed,  585. 
Trusts,  development,  587  ;  anti-trust  law, 

588. 
Turkey,  Armenian  massacre,  579  ;  Cretan 

revolt  and  Greek  war,  581 ;  Macedonian 

revolt,  584  ;  and  France,  584. 

Uganda  protectorate,  568. 

United  States,  and  coercion  of  Venezuela, 
585 ;  fishery  controversy,  586 ;  Bering 
sea,  586,  588  ;  world  power,  587  ;  Chile, 
588 ;  panic  and  depression,  589  ;  Vene- 
zuela-Guiana boundary,  590 ;  Spanish 
war,  590 ;  joint  high  commission,  591  ; 
insular  cases,  593.   See  Elections. 

Utah  admitted,  590. 


Vaal  Krantz,  battle,  570, 

Venezuela,  coerced,  585 ;  boundary  dis- 
pute, 590. 

Victor  Emmanuel  III,,  k.  of  Italy,  583. 

Victoria,  q.  of  England,  jubilees,  566,  569 ; 
death,  572. 

Volos,  Turks  occupy,  581. 

Waldeck-Rousseau,  in  ministry,  573 ;  pre- 
mier, 582, 

Washington  admitted,  587, 

Weaver,  J,  B.,  populist  nominee,  588. 

Weihaiwei,  Japanese  capture,  595  ;  leased     :' 
to  England,  597. 

Weyler,  capt.-gen.  of  Cuba,  590. 

White,  George,  Ladysniith,  570. 

Wilhelmina,  q.  of  Netherlands,  577 ;  ac- 
cession, 583. 

William,  emp.  of  Germany,  I.,  death,  576; 
II,,  576;  in  Holy  Land,  583;  mailed 
fist,  597. 

William  III.,  k,  of  Netherlands,  death, 
577. 

Wolseley,  lord,  in  Soudan,  565. 

Workmen.     See  Insurance,  Labor. 

World's  Colimibian  exposition,  589. 

Wyndham,  George,  sec.  for  Ireland,  572, 

Wyoming  admitted,  588. 

Yalu  river,  battle,  595. 
Yamagata,  gen.,  in  Chinese  war,  595. 
Yi  Hi,  k.  of  Corea,  and  Russia,  596. 
Younghusband,   F.    E.,   Thibet    mission, 
573. 

Zanzibar,  protectorate,  567. 


D 

21  • 
Ploetz,  K.J,  .P75; 

Epitome  of  ancient,  medieval,  and 
modern  history. 


/